Lesson 1: Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) Reference

Model
Ing. José Leonardo Simancas García, Mg.
Network Communications
Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can be broken into discrete,
sequential tasks. The sending computer must:

1.Recognize the data.

2.Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3.Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location of the data and to identify the receiver.
4.Add timing and error-checking information.
5.Put the data on the network and send it on its way.

Network client software operates at many different levels within the sending and receiving computers. Each of these levels, or
tasks, is governed by one or more protocols.

These protocols, or rules of behavior, are standard specifications for formatting and moving the data. When the sending and
receiving computers follow the same protocols, communication is assured. Because of this layered structure, this is often
referred to as the protocol stack.

With the rapid growth of networking hardware and software, a need arose for standard protocols that could allow hardware
and software from different vendors to communicate. In response, two primary sets of standards were developed: the OSI
reference model and a modification of that standard called Project 802 (covered in the next lesson).

Acquiring a clear understanding of these models is an important first step in understanding the technical aspects of how a
network functions. Throughout this lesson we refer to various protocols.
The OSI Reference Model

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of

specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The
original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all
use the same protocols and standards to exchange information.

In 1984, the ISO released a revision of this model and called it the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The 1984 revision has become an international
standard and serves as a guide for networking.

The OSI reference model is the best-known and most widely used guide for visualizing
networking environments. Manufacturers adhere to the OSI reference model when they
design network products. It provides a description of how network hardware and software
work together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. The model also helps to
troubleshoot problems by providing a frame of reference that describes how components are
supposed to function.
A Layered Architecture
The OSI reference model architecture divides
network communication into seven layers. Each
layer covers different network activities,
equipment, or protocols. Figure 5.1 represents
the layered architecture of the OSI reference
model. (Layering specifies different functions and
services as data moves from one computer
through the network cabling to another
computer.) The OSI reference model defines how
each layer communicates and works with the
layers immediately above and below it. For
example, the session layer communicates and
works with the presentation and transport layers.

Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to another computer. The
lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's physical media and related tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network
interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest layers define how applications access communication services. The higher the
layer, the more complex its task.
The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called interfaces. All requests are passed from one layer, through the
interface, to the next layer. Each layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer below it.
 Relationships Among OSI
Reference Model Layers
Each layer provides services to the next-
higher layer and shields the upper layer
from the details of how the services below it
are actually implemented. At the same time,
each layer appears to be in direct
communication with its associated layer on
the other computer. This provides a logical,
or virtual, communication between peer
layers, as shown in Figure 5.2. In reality,
actual communication between adjacent
layers takes place on one computer only. At
each layer, software implements network
functions according to a set of protocols.
Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into packets, or units of information, which are transmitted as
a whole from one device to another on a network. The network passes a packet from one software layer to another in the same
order as that of the layers. At each layer, the software adds additional formatting or addressing to the packet, which is needed for
the packet to be successfully transmitted across the network.
At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse order. A software utility at each layer reads the information
on the packet, strips it away, and passes the packet up to the next layer. When the packet is finally passed up to the application
layer, the addressing information has been stripped away and the packet is in its original form, which is readable by the receiver.
With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can pass information directly to its
counterpart on another computer. Instead, information on the sending computer must be passed down through
each successive layer until it reaches the physical layer. The information then moves across the networking cable
to the receiving computer and up that computer's networking layers until it arrives at the corresponding layer.

For example, when the network layer sends information from computer A, the information moves down through
the data-link and physical layers on the sending side, over the cable, and up the physical and data-link layers on
the receiving side to its final destination at the network layer on computer B.

In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information sent from the network layer on computer A
to the network layer on computer B would be a network address, with perhaps some error-checking information
added to the packet.

Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The interface defines the services offered by the
lower networking layer to the upper one and further defines how those services will be accessed. In addition,
each layer on one computer appears to be communicating directly with the same layer on another computer.

The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model, and identify
the services that each provides to adjacent layers. Beginning at the top of the stack (layer 7, the application layer),
we work down to the bottom (layer 1, the physical layer).
Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer relates to the services that directly
support user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a
window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the
OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference model's application layer on the receiving computer. Application-
layer protocols can be programs in themselves, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), or they can be used by other programs,
such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), used by most e-mail programs, to redirect data to the network. The lower layers
support the tasks that are performed at the application layer. These tasks include general network access, flow control, and
error recovery.

Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the
network's translator. When computers from dissimilar systems—such as IBM, Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a
certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer
translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the
receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computer's
application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data,
changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data
compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted.
Session Layer
Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session.
(A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It
performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate
over the network.
The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data stream. The checkpoints break the data into smaller
groups for error detection. This way, if the network fails, only the data after the last checkpoint has to be retransmitted. This
layer also implements dialog control between communicating processes, such as regulating which side transmits, when, and for
how long.

Transport Layer
Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that
packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages
messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process
ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the
packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a
duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.
The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates in solving problems concerned with the
transmission and reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) are examples
of transport-layer protocols.
Network Layer
Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical
addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the
data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the
network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data.

If the network adapter on the router cannot transmit a data chunk as large as the source computer sends, the network layer
on the router compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the destination end, the network layer reassembles the
data. Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of network-layer protocols.

Data-Link Layer
Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses
that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into
data frames. (A data frame is an organized, logical structure in which data can be placed. The electrical representation of the
data (bit patterns, encoding methods, and tokens) is known to this layer only.

Figure 5.3 shows a simple data frame. In this example, the sender ID represents the address of the computer that is sending
the information; the destination ID represents the address of the computer to which the information is being sent. The
control information is used for frame type, routing, and segmentation information. The data is the information itself. The
cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error correction and verification information to ensure that the data frame is
received correctly.
 Frame field Description
Start delimiter Indicates start of the frame
Access control Indicates the frame's priority and whether it is a token or a
data frame
Frame control Contains either Media Access Control information for all
computers or "end station" information for only one
computer
Destination address Indicates the address of the computer to receive the frame

Source address Indicates the computer that sent the frame

Information, or data Contains the data being sent
Frame check sequence Contains CRC error-checking information
End delimiter Indicates the end of the frame
Frame status Tells whether the frame was recognized, copied, or whether
the destination address was available

The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of these frames
from one computer to another through the physical layer. This allows the network
layer to anticipate virtually error-free transmission over the network connection.

Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment
from the recipient. The recipient data-link layer detects any problems with the
frame that might have occurred during transmission. Frames that were damaged
during transmission or were not acknowledged are then re-sent.
Physical Layer
Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured,
raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented
and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The
physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers.

This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines how many pins the connector has
and the function of each. It also defines which transmission technique will be used to send data over the network
cable.
This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization. The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits
(zeros and ones) from one computer to another, ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is received
as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit. Because different types of media physically transmit bits (light or electrical signals)
differently, the physical layer also defines the duration of each impulse and how each bit is translated into the
appropriate electrical or optical impulse for the network cable.

This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the rest of the layers can be implemented as
firmware (chip-level functions on the NIC), rather than actual software, the other layers are software in relation to
this first layer.
Memorizing the OSI Reference Model
Memorizing the layers of the OSI reference model and their order is very important, especially when preparing
to take a computer networking exam. Table 5.1 provides two ways to help you recall the seven layers of the OSI
reference model.
Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model
These data packets are assembled and disassembled according to the
OSI reference model. The packet-creation process begins at the
application layer of the OSI reference model, where the data is
generated. Information to be sent across the network starts at the
application layer and descends through all seven layers.

At each layer, information relevant to that layer is added to the data.

This information is for the use of the corresponding layer in the receiving
computer. The data-link layer in the receiving computer, for instance, will
read information added at the data-link layer in the sending computer.
Figure 5.4 shows the assembly of a packet in the sending workstation
and the disassembly of the packet in the receiving workstation.

At the transport layer, the original block of data is broken into the actual
packets. The protocol defines the structure of the packets used by the
two computers. When the packet reaches the transport layer, sequence
information is added that guides the receiving computer in reassembling
the data from packets.
When the packets finally pass through the physical layer on their way to
the cable, they contain information from each of the other six layers.
Addressing Packets
Most packets on the network are addressed to a specific computer and, as a result, get the attention of only one
computer. Each NIC sees all packets sent on its cable segment, but it interrupts the computer only if the packet's
address matches the card's individual address. Alternatively, a broadcast-type address can also be used. Packets
sent with a broadcast-type address can receive the simultaneous attention of many computers on the network.
In situations involving large networks that cover large regions (or even countries) and offer several possible
communication routes, the network's connectivity and switching components use the packet's addressing
information to determine the best route for addressing packets.

Directing Packets
Network components use the addressing information in packets to direct the packets to their destinations or to
keep them away from network locations where they do not belong. The following two functions play a key role
in properly directing packets:

•Packet forwarding Computers send a packet on to the next appropriate network component based on the
address in the packet's header.

•Packet filtering Computers use criteria, such as an address, to select specific packets.
Windows NT and the OSI Reference Model

Network manufacturers use the OSI reference model when

designing their products. When each follows the model,
there is a greater likelihood that different systems can
communicate. One shortcoming of the model stems from
the fact that many manufacturers created their products
before the model was accepted; these early products
might not follow the model exactly. To demonstrate how
the OSI reference model is adapted to a specific network
operating system, we next examine Windows NT and how
it fits the model.

OSI Layers and Windows NT

To simplify the model, Windows NT compresses the seven
layers into only three layers: file system drivers, transport
protocols, and NIC drivers. Figure 5.5 shows how the
groups relate to OSI.
Windows NT uses drivers to provide for communication between the operating system and the network. A driver is a device-
specific control program that enables a computer to work with a particular device, such as a printer or a disk drive. Every time
you install a new piece of hardware, such as a printer, sound card, or network card, you need to install the software drivers that
operate the card.
File System Drivers
File system drivers work in the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI reference model. When these drivers
detect that an application is requesting resources on a remote system, they redirect the request to the appropriate system.
Examples of these drivers include the Windows NT file system (NTFS) and file allocation table (FAT) drivers, and the services
applications installed on Windows NT Server and Windows NT Workstation.
Transport Protocols
Transport protocols operate in the transport and network layers of the OSI model. They are responsible for adding software
address information to the data and for ensuring the reliability of the transmission. The transport protocols are bound to or
combined with the NIC to provide communication. During installation and configuration of Windows NT, you must always bind
these protocols to a specific network card.
Network Interface Card (NIC) Drivers
NIC drivers operate in the data-link and
physical layers of the OSI reference
model. They are responsible for adding
the hardware address information to the
data packet and for formatting the data
for transmission through the NIC and
cable. NIC drivers are protocol-
independent, allowing systems based on
Windows NT to transport data to a variety
of network systems.
Figure 5.6 shows how software and
protocols relate to the OSI reference
model and the Windows NT model.
Windows NT Interfaces
Windows NT supports many different network redirectors, transport protocols, and NICs. With so many possible combinations,
it was necessary to develop a method of handling the interactions between them. To resolve this problem, Microsoft
developed common interfaces—boundary layers—to act as translators between each layer. Thus, as long as any network
component was written to communicate with the boundary interfaces, it could be used with the model. Figure 5.7 shows the
three boundary interfaces.
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)
The application programming interfaces (APIs) are system
routines that give programmers access to the services provided
by the operating system. Windows NT networking APIs lie
between user applications and the file system drivers and
redirectors. These APIs allow an application to control or be
controlled by other applications. They are responsible for setting
up a session between the sender and the receiver on the
network. Windows NT supports a variety of APIs for networking.
Transport Driver Interfaces (TDIs)
The transport driver interfaces (TDIs) work between the file
system drives and the transport protocols. These will allow any
protocol written to TDI to communicate with the file system
drivers.
Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs)
The Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs) work between the transport protocols and the NIC drivers. As long as a NIC
driver is written to NDIS standards, it will communicate with the transport protocols.
Lesson Summary

The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

•The OSI reference model architecture divides network protocols into seven layers: the
application, presentation, session, transport, network, data-link, and physical layers.

•Windows NT groups the OSI reference model into three layers: file system drivers, transport
protocols, and NIC drivers.

•The Windows NT network model requires three interfaces to provide communication

between groups: APIs, TDIs, and NDISs.