[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 1

ELECTROSTATICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
 Understand and describe Coulomb’s law.
 Describe that a charge has a field of force around it.
 Understand fields of like and unlike charges.
 Explain the electric intensity in a free space and in other media.
 State and prove Gauss’s law.
 Appreciate the applications of Gauss’s law.
 Relate electric field strength and potential gradient.
 Find expression for potential at a point due to a point charge.
 Describe and derive the value of electric charge by Milikan’s method.
 Calculate the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
 Understand and describe electric polarization of dielectric.
 Find energy expression of a charged capacitor.

Q.1 Define electrostatics.

ELECTROSTATICS
It is the branch of physics which deals with charges at rest, under the action of electric forces.
Q.2 Describe electric charges.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is the property of a material due to which it attracts or repels other bodies. In 1600 A.D.
Gilbert showed that some of the substance when rubbed with other acquired the property of attraction.
A similar property is observed when a glass rod is rubbed with silk or ebonite rod is rubbed with
animal fur, they acquired the property of attracting the small bodies Franklin gave the name of positive
charge on a glass rod rubbed with silk and negative charge on the ebonite rod rubbed with animal fur.
According to modern concept, each substance consists of atoms, the atom has a central part
called the nucleus a round which the electrons revolve. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
The proton has a positive charge and the electron has a negative charge. So the atom on the whole is
neutral. The total positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge on the electrons.
Thus when one metal rubbed with another, sharing of electrons take place. That is one loses electrons
and other gains electrons. When a glass rod rubbed with silk, the rod loses electrons and silk gains
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 2
electron. As both were initially neutral. So the glass rod loses electrons gets positive charge and the silk
gains electron, gets negative charge.
Unit of Electric Charge
SI unit of charge is coulomb.
Q.3 State and explain coulomb’s law.
COULOMB‟S LAW
Introduction
There are two kinds of charges, positive and negative charges. The qualitative investigations
made in previous classes revealed that similar charges repel and opposite charges attract each other, with
a force known as force of interaction. To find magnitude and direction of such electrostatic interaction
between charges coulomb carried out series of experiments using an apparatus known as Torsion
Balance and proposed a law as follows.
Statement
This law states that “the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers”.
Explanation
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 having a distance r between them. If F is the force, then
according to Coulomb‟s law
F  q1q2  (i) F q q
2 F
2 1
1 2
1
1
F  r2  (ii)
r
 
Combining (i) and (ii) F12 +q1 +q2 F21
q1q2
F  r2 (a) r

q1q2  
F = K r2 F12 F21
+q1 q2
r
Which is magnitude of coulomb force between charges. (b)
Where K is the constant of proportionality and its value is 9  109 Fig. (a) Repulsive forces between
Nm2/C2. Its value depends upon the nature of the medium between like charges and (b) attractive
forces between unlike charges.
the two charges and system of units in which F, q and r are
measured. If the medium between the two point charges is free
space then
1
K =
4o
where o is an electrical constant, known as permitivity of free space. “The permitivity of free space or
air is the permission given by air for the transmission of force from one charge to other charge”. In SI
units, its value is 8.85  1012 C2N1m2. Coulomb‟s force always acts along the line joining two
charges. Therefore Coulomb‟s force in free space is
1 q1q2
F = 2
4o r
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 3
Q.4 What is the vector form of Coulomb’s law?
VECTOR FORM OF COULOMB‟S FORCE
Consider two like charges q1 and q2 having a distance r between them. If we denote the force
 
exerted on q2 by q1 as F21 and that on charge q1 due to q2 as F12.

If ^r21 is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 and ^r12 is the unit F 21
vector directed from q2 to q1 then q2
r21
 1 q1q2 ^
F21 = 2 r 21  (i) q2
4o r
r
 1 q1q2 ^ q1
F12 = 2 r 12
4o r r
From figure (a ) q1

^r 
21 =  ^r12 F 12
Putting this in equation (i) r12
(b )
 1 q1q2 ^
 F21 = ( r 12)
4o r2
  1 q1q2 
F21 =  . r ^r12
4o 2 
 
 F21 =  F12
Hence Coulombs force is mutual force, it means that if q1 exerts a force on q2 then q2 also exerts
an equal and opposite force on q1. Coulombs force is also known as electrostatic force and force of
interaction.
Q.5 What is the effect of medium on the Coulomb’s force?
EFFECT OF MEDIUM BETWEEN THE TWO CHARGES UPON THE
COULOMB‟S FORCE
If the medium is an insulator, it is usually referred as dielectric. It has been found that the
presence of a dielectric always reduces the electrostatic force as compared with that in free space by a
certain factor which is a constant for the given dielectric. This constant is known as relative permitivity
i.e., r. Thus the Coulomb‟s force in a medium of relative permitivity r is given by
1 q1q2 TABLE
Fmed =  (i)
4or r
2
Material r
when air is placed between the same two charges then, Vacuum 1
1 q1q2
Fair = 2  (ii) Air (1 atm) 1.0006
4o r Ammonia (liquid) 2225
Dividing (ii) by (i)
Bakelite 518
1 q1q2
Benzene 2.284
Fair 4o r2
Fmed = 1 q1q2 Germanium 16
4or r2 Glass 4.810
Mica 37.5
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 4
1 Paraffined paper 2
= 1
Plexiglas 3.40
r Rubber 2.94
Fair Teflon 2.1
Fmed = r Transformer oil 2.1
Fair Water (distilled) 78.5
Fmed =
r
As for all dielectrics r > 1 except for air which is 1. i.e., r = 1.0.006 this value is close to one
that with negligible error.
 Fmed < Fair
Relative Permitivity
It is the ratio of force between the two charges placed in air to the force between the same two
charges when a dielectric is placed between them. It has no unit.
Q.6 Describe the fields of force.
FIELDS OF FORCE
Newton‟s universal gravitational law and Coulomb‟s law enable
us to calculate the magnitude as well as the directions of the
gravitational and electric forces, respectively. However one may
question: +q

(a) What are the origins of these forces?

(b) How are these force transmitted from one mass to another
or from one charge to another?
(a)
The answer to (a) is still unknown; the existence of these forces
is accepted as it is. That is why they are called basic forces of nature.
Faraday Concept:
To describe the mechanism by which electric force is F = qo E
+q
transmitted, Michael Faraday (1791-1867) introduced the concept of an +

electric field. According to his theory, it is the intrinsic property of

nature that an electric field exists in the space around an electric charge.
This electric field is considered to be a force field that exerts a force on
(b)
other charges placed in that field. For example, a charge q produces an
Fig. (a) Dots surrounding the
electric field in the space surrounding it. This field exists whether the positive charge indicate the
other charges are present in space or not. However, the presence of field presence of the electric field.
cannot be tested until another charge qo is brought into the field. Thus The density of the dots is
proportional to the strength of
the field of charge q interacts with qo to produce an electrical force. The the electric field at different
interaction between q and qo is accomplished in two steps: (a) the points. (b) Interaction of the
charge q produces a field and (b) the field interacts with charge qo to field with the charge qo.

produce a force F on qo. These two steps are illustrated in figure as shown.
In this figure the density of dots is proportional to the strength of the field at the various points.
Q.7 Define electric field and electric field intensity. Also calculate the electric field
intensity due to a point charge.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 5
ELECTRIC FIELD
The region or space around a charge within which other charges are influenced is called electric
field.
Electric Field Intensity

Electric field intensity E at a point is force per unit charge acting on a positive test charge
placed at that point.
 
It is a vector quantity and its direction is same as that of E F
  P
force F . Let F is the force experienced by test charge qo placed in the qo ^
r
field of a charge q then, r
 q+
 F
E = q
o

Unit of Electric Intensity

N
SI unit of electric intensity is NC1 or C .

Electric Field Intensity Due to a Point Charge

Consider a point charge q placed at O. Now when a positive test charge qo is placed inside the
field of charge q at point P which is at a distance r from O, then according to Coulomb‟s law, the force
experienced by qo is
 1 qqo ^
F = 2 r  (i)
4o r

where ^r is a unit vector directed from point charge q to the test charge qo which is placed at P where E
is to be evaluated.

 F
As E = q  (ii)
o


Putting the value of F in eq. (ii)
 1 qqo ^
E = 2 r
4o qor
1 q^
= 2 r
4o r

where ^r is a unit vector directed from the point charge q to the test charge qo.
The magnitude of electric intensity is
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 6
1 q
E = 2
4o r
q
E = Constant r2

1
E  r2

Thus electric intensity is inversely proportional to the square of distance between the charges.

Q.8 Describe the electric field lines. Write some properties of electric lines of force.
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
+qO
+qO +qO
Definition
“The number of lines per unit area passing perpendicularly +qO +q +qO
through an area is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field”.
+qO +qO
Explanation +qO

A visual representation of the electric field can be obtained in (a)

terms of electric field lines; an ideal proposed by Michael Faraday.
Electric field lines can be thought of a “map” that provides information
about the direction and strength of the electric field at various places. As
electric field lines provide information about the electric force exerted
on a charge, the lines are commonly called “lines of force”.
To introduce electric field lines, we place positive test charges
each of magnitude qo at different places but at equal distances from a
positive charge +q as shown in the figure. Each test charge will
experience a repulsive force, as indicated by arrows in figure (a). (b)
Therefore, the electric field created by the charge +q is directed radially Fig. (a) A positive test charge
outward. Figure (b) shows corresponding field lines which show the +qo placed anywhere in the
field direction. Figure shows the electric field lines in the vicinity of a vicinity of a positive point
charge +q, experiences a
negative charge q. In this case the lines are directed radially “inward”, repulsive force directed
because the force on a positive test charge is now of attraction, radially outward. (b) the
electric field lines are directed
indicating the electric field points inward. radially outward from the
positive point charge +q.
Figures represent two dimensional pictures of the field lines.
However, electric field lines emerge from the charges in three
dimensions, and an infinite number of lines could be drawn.
The electric field lines “map” also provides information about
the strength of the electric field. As we notice in figures that field lines
are closer to each other near the charges where the field is strong while
they continuously spread out indicating a continuous decrease in the
(c)
field strength.
Fig. The electric field lines are
The electric field lines are curved in case of two identical d i r e c t e d r a d ia l ly in w a r d
towards a ne gative point
separated charges. Figure (d) shows the pattern of lines associated with charge q.
two identical positive point charges of equal magnitude. It reveals that
the lines in the region between two like charges seem to repel each
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 7
other. The behaviour of two identical negatively charges will be exactly
the same. The middle region shows the presence of a zero field spot of
neutral zone.
The figure (c) shows the electric field pattern of two opposite +q +q
+q
charges of same magnitudes. The filed lines start from positive charge
and end on a negative charge. The electric field at points such as 1, 2, 3
is the resultant of fields created by the two charges at these points. The
directions of the resultant intensities is given by the tangents drawn to
the field lines at these points. (d)
Fig. The electric field lines for two
identical positive point charges.

In the regions where the field lines are parallel and equally E1
spaced, the same number of lines pass per unit area and therefore, field 1 2

is uniform on all points. Figure (f) shows the field lines between the E2
plates of a parallel plate capacitor. The field is uniform in the middle
region where field lines are equally spaced. +q -q

We are now in a position to summarize the properties of electric

field lines. 3

(1) Electric field lines originate from positive charges and end 3 E
(e)
on negative charges. Fig. Attractive forces between
unlike charges.
(2) The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction +q q
of the electric field at that point.
(3) The lines are closer where the field is strong and the lines
are farther apart where the field is weak.

(4) No two lines cross each other. This is because E has only

one direction at any given point. If the lines cross, E could
have more than one direction.
(f)
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS Fig. In the central region of a
parallel plate capacitor the
There are two applications of electrostatics electric field lines are parallel
and evenly spaced, indicating
(1) Xerography (Photocopier) that the electric field there has
the same magnitude and
(2) Inkjet Printers direction at all points.

Q.9 Describe xerography in detail.

XEROGRAPHY (PHOTOCOPIER)
Figure describes a photocopy machine.
Definition
The copying process is called xerography, from the Greek word “xeros” and “graphos”, meaning
“dry writing”.
Construction
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 8
The heart of machine is a drum
which is an aluminium cylinder coated page to be copied - face down

with a layer of selenium. Aluminium is

an excellent conductor. On the other lens
hand, selenium is an insulator in the lamp
dark and becomes a conductor when toner cartridge
exposed to light; it is a photoconductor. containing black
As a result, if a positive charge is toner cust
sprinkled over the selenium it will
remain there as long as it remains in printed image paper on which the
heated rollers image is printed
dark. If the drum is exposed to light,
Fig. The basics of photocopying. The lamp transfers an image of the
the electrons from aluminium pass page to the drum, which leaves a static charge. The drum collects toner
through the conducting selenium and dust and transfers it to the paper. The toner is melted onto the page.
neutralize the positive charge.
Working
If the drum is exposed to an image of the document to be
copied, the dark and light areas of the document produce corresponding
areas on the drum. The dark areas retain their positive charge, but light
areas become conducting, lose their positive charge and become
neutral. In this way, a positive charge image of the document remains
on the selenium surface. Then a special dry, black powder called
“toner” is given a negative charge and spread over the drum, where it
sticks to the positive charged areas. The toner from the drum is
transferred on to a sheet of paper on which the document is to be
copied. Heated pressure rollers then melt the toner into the paper which
is also given an excess positive charge to produce the permanent
impression of the document.

This computer image shows the

electric field lines generated by
the fish at the top of the picture.
Through the electric field, the
presence of other fish can be
detected, such as the one
silhouetted at the bottom.

Q.10 What is the inkjet printers?

INKJET PRINTERS
An inkjet printer figure (a) is a type of printer
which uses electric charge in its operation. While
shuttling back and forth across the paper, the inkjet
printer “ejects” a thin stream of ink. The ink is
forced out of a small nozzle and breaks up into
extremely small droplets. During their flight, the Fig. (a) An inkjet printer
droplets pass through two electrical components, a
“charging electrode” and the “deflection plates” (a
parallel plate capacitor). When the printhead moves
over regions of the paper which are not to be inked,
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 9
the charging electrode is left on and gives the ink Charging Deflection plates
droplets a net charge. The deflection plates divert electrode

such charged drops into a gutter and in this way such

drops are not able to reach the paper. Whenever ink
Nozzle of
is to be placed on the paper, the charging control, printhead Gutter
responding to computer, turns off the charging electrode.
The uncharged droplets fly straight through the
deflection plates and strike the paper. Schematic Paper

diagram of such a printer is shown by figure (b).

Inkjet printers can also produce coloured copies.
Instructions from computer
Vector Area Fig. (a) An inkjet printhead ejects a steady flow of ink
droplets. The charging electrodes are used to charge
the droplets that are not needed on the paper. Charged
droplets are deflected into a gutter by the deflection
plates, while uncharged droplets fly straight onto the
paper.


Usually the element of area is represented by a vector area A whose magnitude is equal to the
surface area A of the element and whose direction is normal to the surface area.

Q.11 Define electric flux. Also discuss its particular cases.

ELECTRIC FLUX
The number of field lines passing through a certain element of B
area is known as electric flux through that area. It is denoted by Greek
letter .
Mathematical Definition
The electric flux e through a patch of flat surface is defined as
  A
the scalar product of electric intensity E and vector area A .
 
 e = E .A F ig . E le c tric flu x th ro u g h
a s u rfa c e n o rm a l to E .
e = EA cos 
 
where  is the angle between E and A . Electric flux, being a scalar product is a scalar quantity.
Unit of Electric Flux
SI unit of electric flux is Nm2C1.
Special Cases

Case-I When area element (plane of the surface) is held perpendicular to electric field E . (OR
 
vector area A is parallel to E )
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 10

 
As e = E .A
 
e = EA cos  A E

In this case  = 0
e = EA cos 0

e = EA (1)
e = EA
In this case the flux is maximum.
 
Case-II When area element (plane of surface) held parallel to E . (Vector area A is perpendicular

to E )
  
As e = E .A A

e = EA cos  E

In this case
As  = 90
e = EA cos 90
e = EA (0)
e = 0

In this case the flux is minimum. A
Case-III In the case when A is neither perpendicular nor parallel to

field lines but makes an angle  with the lines. In this case we have to 
E
find the projection of the area which is perpendicular to the field lines.
The projection of area is A cos . The flux e in this case is 
e = EA cos  A cos 

Q.12 Calculate the electric flux through a surface enclosing a charge.

ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE

Consider a closed surface, in shape of a sphere of radius „r‟ due E
to a point charge q placed at the center of sphere as shown in figure. 
  A
To apply e = E . A , the surface area should be flat. For this reason,
the total surface area of the sphere is divided into „n‟, small patches
   
with areas of magnitudes A1, A2, A3, , An. If n is very large,
each patch would be a flat element of area. The corresponding vector +q

   
areas are A1, A2, A3, , An respectively. The direction of each
vector area is along perpendicular drawn outward to the corresponding
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 11
      
patch. The electric intensities at the centers of vector areas A1, A2, A3, , An are E1, E2 , , En
respectively.
The total flux passing through the closed surface is
e = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +  + n
       
e = E1 . A1 + E2 . A2 + E3 . A3  En . An
The direction of electric intensity and vector area is same at each patch.
i.e.,  = 0
 e = E1A1 cos 0 + E2A2 cos 0 + E3A3 cos 0
= E1A1 + E2A2 + E3A3 +  + EnAn ( cos 0 = 1)

The magnitude of electric intensity is same at the surface of each patch.

   
i.e., |E1| = |E2| = |E3|  |En| = E because they are all equidistance from the charge.
     e = EA1 + EA2 + EA3 +  + EAn
e = E(A1 + A2 + A3 +  + An)
As A1 + A2 +  + An = Total spherical surface area
= 4r2
1 q
and E = 2
4o r
1 q
Therefore, e = 2 (total spherical surface area)
4o r
1 q
e = 2  (4r )
2
4o r
q
e =
o
Conclusion
So we conclude that total flux through a closed surface does not depend upon the shape or
geometry of the closed surface but it depends upon the medium and the charge enclosed.

Q.13 State and explain Gauss’s law.

GAUSS‟S LAW
Statement
1
This law states that “the flux through any closed surface is time the total charge enclosed in it”.
o
Proof
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 12

Suppose point charges q1, q2, q3, , qn are arbitrarily distributed

in a closed surface as shown in figure. As electric flux through a surface
q q2 q3
enclosing a charge is e = . Hence the electric flux passing through a
o
closed surface is qn
q1
e = 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n q6

q1 q2 q3 qn q5
e = + + +  +
o o o o q4

1
e = (q + q2 + q3 +  + qn)
o 1
1
e = (total charge enclosed by the closed surface)
o
1
e = Q
o
which is the mathematical form of Gauss‟s law.
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS‟S LAW
Gauss‟s law is applied to calculate the electric intensity due to different charge configurations.
Steps to find electric intensity are:
(i) An imaginary closed surface is considered which passes through the point at which the
electric intensity is to be evaluated. This closed surface is known as Guassian surface.
(ii) Charge enclosed by Guassian surface is calculated.
(iii) Electric flux through the Guassian surface is calculated.
(iv) Applying Gauss‟s law.

Q.14 Calculate the intensity of field inside a Hollow charged sphere.

INTENSITY OF FIELD INSIDE A HOLLOW CHARGED SPHERE
Consider a hollow conducting sphere of radius R is given a
positive charge. Now imagine a sphere of radius R < R to be inscribed Gaussian Surface
within the hollow charge sphere as shown in figure. The surface of this
sphere is the Guassian surface. Let  be the flux through this closed R
surface. It is clear from the figure that the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is zero.
i.e., q = 0
R
Applying Gauss‟s law
q
e =
o
0
e =
o
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 13
e = 0
Since from the definition:
 
e = E .A
 
 E .A = 0

As A  0

Therefore, E = 0
Thus the interior of a hollow charged metal sphere is a field free region. As a consequence any
apparatus placed within a metal enclosure is “shielded” from electric fields.

Q.15 Calculate the electric intensity due to an infinite sheet of charge.

ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO AN INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE
Suppose we have a plane sheet of infinite extent (size) on
which positive charges are uniformly distributed. The uniform surface
Toe liminate s traye lectric field
charge density is defined as charge per unit area. interfe rence ,circuitso fs e nsitive
elec tro nic d ev icess ucha sT .V
Q
i.e.,  = A and C
en clo se
om
dw
puters are often
ithinm etalb ox es.

 Q = A  (i)
where A is the surface area of the faces. A finite part of this sheet is
shown in figure. To calculate electric intensity E at a point P, close to 
E
the sheet, imagine a closed Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder
 P 
passing through the sheet whose one flat face contains the point P. E A
 P
From symmetry we can conclude that E points at right angles to the 
A

end faces and away from the plane. Since E is parallel to the curved Fig. The closed surface is in the
surface of the cylinder so there is no contribution to flux from the form of a cylinder whose one face
curved wall of the cylinder. contains the point P at which electric
intensity has to be determined.
Now electric flux through a Gaussian surface is 
e = Flux through left face + Flux through right face  A 
E E
+ Flux through curved portion of cylinder
e = EA cos 0 + EA cos 0 + EA cos 90   
A A A
e = EA + EA + 0
e = 2EA  (ii)
Applying Guass‟s law
1
e = Q
o
Putting the values of Q and e from eq. (i) and (ii)
1
2EA = A
o
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 14

E =
2o
In vector form
  ^
E = r
2o
where ^r is a unit vector normal to the sheet directed away from it. If the sheet is negatively charged then,
  ^
E =  r
2o
Q.16 Calculate the electric intensity between two oppositely charged parallel plates.
ELECTRIC INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED
PARALLEL PLATES
Consider two parallel and closely spaced metal plates of infinite
extent (size) separated by vacuum are given opposite charges. Under these
P
conditions the charges are essentially concentrated on the inner surfaces
of the plates. Thus the charges are uniformly distributed on the inner
surface of the plates in a form of sheet of charges. Imagine now a
Gaussian surface in the form of a hollow box with its top inside the upper
metal plate and its bottom in the space between the plate as shown in
Fig. (2).
The surface charge density Fig. (1) The lines of force
Q between the plates are normal
 = A to the plates and are directed
from the positive plate
i.e., Q = A  (i) towards the negative one.

where A is the area of the plate and Q is the amount of charge on either of +Q
the plates. + + + + + + + + + + +

Now the total flux through the Gaussian surface is

e = Flux through front face + Flux through rear face
+ Flux through left face + Flux through right face Q
F ig. (2) D o tted re cta ng le
+ Flux through upper face + Flux through bottom face represents the cross-section
of Gaussian box will its top
e = EA cos 90 + EA cos 90 + EA cos 90 inside the upper metal plate
and its bottom in the dielectric
+ EA cos 90 + 0 A cos  between the plates.

(there is no flux through the upper face of the box because there is no field inside the metal plate
according to 1st application of Gauss‟s law) + EA cos 0
 cos 90 = 0
   e = EA  
 cos 0 = 1
Applying Gauss‟s law
1
e = Q
o
Putting values of Q and e
1
  EA = A
o
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 15

E =
o
The field intensity is the same at all points between the plates. The direction of field from +ve to
ve plate because a unit positive charge anywhere between the plates would be repelled from +ve and
attract to ve plate so these forces are in the same direction.
In vector form
  ^
E = r
o

where ^r is a unit vector directed from positive to negative plate.

Q.17 Describe electric potential and potential difference with its units.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
B+ + + + + + +
Consider a positive charge qo which is allowed to move in an
electric field produced between two oppositely charged parallel plates as
shown in fig. (i). The positive charge will move from plate B to A and +qo
d
will gain K.E. If it is to be moved from A to B, an external force is
needed to make the charge move against the electric field and will gain qoE
potential energy. As the charge is moved from A to B. It is moved A- - - - - - -
keeping electrostatic equilibrium i.e., it moves with uniform velocity. Fig. (i)

This condition could be achieved by applying a force F equal and

opposite to E qo at every point along its path as shown in fig. (ii).
Electric Potential Energy
“The work done by external force against the electric field B+ + + + + +

increases electric potential energy of the charge that is moved”. F

Let WAB be the work done by the force in carrying the positive d
charge qo from A to B while keeping the charge in equilibrium. This
work is stored in the charge as electric potential energy. qoE
The change in its P.E is A- - - - -
Fig. (Ii)
U = WAB
UB  UA = WAB
where UA and UB are defined to be the potential energies at A and B respectively.
Electric Potential Difference
The potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field is defined as
“The work done in carrying a unit positive charge from A to B against the electric field while
keeping the charge in equilibrium.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 16
WAB
i.e., V = VB  VA = qo
U
or V = q ( WAB = U)  (i)
o
U
VB  VA = q
o
where VA and VB are electric potentials at A and B respectively.
Electric P.E and electric P.D between the points A and B are
related as
U = qoV = WAB
An ECG records the “voltage”
from eq. (i) electric potential difference can also be defined as between points on human skin
“The difference of potential energy per unit charge”. generated by electrical process in
the heart. This ECG is made in
Unit of Potential Difference running position providing
information about the heart's
performance under stress.
The unit of P.D is J/C
WAB J
As V = = C
qo
It is also called volt. “A potential difference of 1 volt exist between two points if work done in
moving a unit positive charge from one point to another keeping in equilibrium is 1 J”.
Absolute Potential or Potential at a Point
The work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point, (at which potential is
to be determined) keeping it in equilibrium is called the absolute potential.
WAB
As VB  VA = q
o
To calculate absolute potential at B we assume that point A is at infinity and take VA = 0.
WB
  VB  0 = q
o
WB
VB = q
o
W
V = q
o

Potential at a point is potential difference between the potential at that point and potential at
infinity. Both potential and potential difference are scalar quantities because both W (work) and qo
(charge) are scalars.
Q.18 Explain the electric field as potential gradient. (OR) What is the relation between
electric field and potential?
ELECTRIC FIELD AS POTENTIAL GRADIENT
B+ + + + + + +
The electric field E between the charged plates is uniform as
shown in the figure. Let WAB be the work done in moving charge qo
from plate A to B against the electric field. Now +qo
d
 
F = E qo qoE

 A- - - - - - -
and d is the displacement covered by the charge then
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 17
  
as d
Work = W = F . d
  qo
 WAB = qo E . d
WAB = qo Ed cos 180 (cos 180 = 1) 
E
WAB = qo Ed (1)
WAB = qo Ed
From the definition of potential difference
WAB
V = q Electrodes connected
to detection and
o
recording device
Putting value of WAB
qo Ed
     V =  q
o

V =  Ed EEG (Normal alpha rhythm)

V
E =  d
Potential
If the plates A and B are separated by very small distance r difference
then,
V Time
E = 
r
EEG (Abnormal)
V
The quantity gives the maximum value of rate of “change
r
of potential with distance” because the charge has been moved along Potential
field lines along which the distance r between the two plates is difference
minimum. It is known as potential gradient. Thus the electric intensity
is equal to the negative of the gradient of potential. The negative sign Time
indicates that direction of E is along the decreasing potential. In electroencephalography the
potential differences created by
Unit the electrical activity of the brain
Another unit of electric intensity is volt/metre (V/m). are used for diagnosing abnormal
behaviour.

Q. Show that V/m = N/C.

V
Ans. L.H.S. = m
J
As V = C
V J/C J
then = =
m m mC
Since J = Nm
Nm
then = mC
N
= C
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 18
Q.19 Define absolute potential. Also calculate the potential at a point due to a point
charge.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Consider a point charge q whose electric field intensity is E .
In order to calculate potential at point A we bring a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point keeping the charge in equilibrium.
 
This can be done by using V =  E r provided E remains constant. rA rB
+q A r
 B
However in this case E varies as square of the distance from the point
 1 q
charge because E = 2. To overcome this difficulty so we
 4o r 
divide the field line into very small segments each of length r.

Consider two points A and B, very close to each other so that, E remains almost constant
between them. The distance of points A and B from q are rA and rB respectively.
From figure
rB = rA + r
r = rB  rA
As r represents mid point of interval between A and B so
rA + rB
r = 2
As the points A and B are very close then we can use a
geometric average as
r rB
= r Fish and other sea creatures
rA
produce electric fields in a variety
 r2 = rArB of ways. Sharks have special
organs, called the ampullae of
Now if a unit positive charge is moved from B to A, the work Lorenzini, that are very sensitive
done is equal to the potential difference between A and B to electric field and can detect
potential difference of the order of
 V = Er nanovolt and can locate their prey
very precisely.
vA  vB = E(rA  rB) = E(rB  rA)
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 19
Putting the value of E
1 q
 vA  vB = 4 r2 (rB  rA)
o

Putting the value of r2 Electrodes connected

to detection and
q 1
 vA  vB = 4 r r (rB  rA) recording device
o A B

vA  vB = 4 r Br  r Ar 

q r r
o A B A B
ERG (Normal)
q 1 1
=   
4o rA rB
Potential
1 1 1
=    difference
4o rA rB
To calculate absolute potential or potential at A, point B is
1 1 Time
supposed to be at infinity point so that vB = 0 and r = = 0.
B  ERG (Abnormal)

vA  0 = 4 r  0

q 1

o A
Potential
1 1 difference
vA =
4o rA Time
The general expression for electric potential vr at a distance r The electrical activity of the retina
of the eye generates the potential
from q is differences used in electroretino-
1 1 graphy.
vr =
4o r

Q.20 Define electron volt.

B
ELECTRON VOLT ++++++++
F
We know when a charge q is moved from A to B keeping Fe
electrostatic equilibrium the change in potential energy is A

U = qV
If no external force acts on the charge to maintain equilibrium, this change in potential energy
appears in the form of change in K.E. The energy gained by the charge will be
K.E = qV
= eV
= 1.6  1019 C  V
Let V = 1 volt
= 1.6  1019 C  1 V
= 1.6  1019 C J/C ( V = J/C)
= 1.6  1019 J
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 20
The amount of energy equal to 1.6  1019 J is called 1 electron volt and is denoted by 1eV.
Definition of Electron Volt
“The amount of energy gained or lost by an electron as it moves through a potential difference of
one volt is called electron volt (1 eV).
 1 eV = 1.6  1019 J
Note: Electron volt is the unit of energy in atomic physics.

Q.21 Compare the electric and gravitational forces.

COMPARISON OF ELECTRIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES
Electric Force Gravitational Force
(i) Electric force is a conservative force. (i) It is also a conservative force.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the square of (ii) It is also inversely proportional to the
distance i.e., square of distance i.e.,
q1q2 m1m2
F = K r2 F = G r2
1 1
F  r2 F  r2

(iii) Electric force is a strong force. (iii) Gravitational force is a weak force.
(iv) Electric force is attractive or repulsive (iv) Gravitational force only a attractive force.
force.
(v) Electric force depends upon the medium. (v) It does not depend upon the medium.

Q.22 Describe the charge on an electron by Millikan’s method. (OR) How Millikan’s
method can be used to determine the charge?
CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN‟S METHOD
Introduction
In 1909, R.A Millikan devised a technique that resulted in precise measurement of charge on
electron.
Construction
(i) Two parallel plates are placed in a A
C
container C to avoid disturbances due
to air currents.
M +
(ii) The upper plate P has a hole H in it. W1 P + H +
S
D d W2 V
(iii) The separation between the plates is d.
P’
L
(iv) A voltage V is applied to the plates and an
electric field is setup between the two
plates.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 21
V
(v) The magnitude of its value is E = d (potential gradient).

(vi) An atomizer A is used for spraying oil drops into the container through nozzle. The oil droplets
get charged due to the friction between walls of atomizer and oil droplets. These oil droplets are
so small and are actually in term of mist.
(vii) The space between two plates is illuminated through source S through lens L and window W.
(viii) The path of motion of these drops can be carefully observed by a microscope M.
Working
Some of the these drops happen to pass through the hole. A given droplet between the two plates
could be suspended in air if gravitational force Fg = mg acting on the droplet is equal to the electrical
force Fe = qE.
 Fe = Fg
Eq = mg
mg
q = E  (i)

V
As we know E = d so putting value of E in eq. (i)

mg
 q = V/d

mgd
q =  (A)
V
Calculation of Mass „m‟:
In order to determine mass m of the droplet, the electric field between the plates is switched off.
The droplet fall under the action of gravity through air. It attains terminal speed vt almost at the instant
electric field is switched off. Its terminal speed vt is determined by timing the fall of the droplet over a
measured distance. Since drag force F due to air acting upon the droplet when it is falling with constant
terminal speed is equal to its weight.
Hence by using Stoke‟s law
Fd = 6rvt
Fd = mg
where r is the radius of the droplet and  is the coefficient of viscosity of air.
Comparing both
mg = 6rvt  (ii)
6rvt
m = g
If  is the density of the droplet then
m
 =
v
m = v
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 22
4
m =  3 r3  (B)

Putting value of m in eq. (ii)

4 3
3 r g = 6rvt
4 2
3 r g = 6vt

6vt
r2 =
4/3 g
18vt
r2 =
4g
18vt
r2 =
4g
9vt
r2 =
2g
Knowing the value of r, the mass m can be calculated by using the above equation. The value of
m is putting in equation (A) to get the value of charge q on droplet.
Millikan measured the charge on many droplet and found that each charge was an integral
multiple of a minimum value of charge equal to 1.6  1019 C. He therefore, concluded that this
minimum value of the charge is the charge on an electron.
Q.23 Define capacitor and what is the parallel plate capacitor? Also define
capacitance with its units.
CAPACITOR
Definition
A capacitor is a device that can store charge.
Explanation
It consist of two conductors placed near one another separated +Q -Q
by vacuum or air or any other insulator known as dielectric. As the
conductors are in the form of parallel plates due to this the capacitor is
known as parallel plate capacitor. When the plates of such a capacitor d
are connected to a battery of voltage V as shown in figure, it + S
establishes a potential difference V volts between the two plates and V
the battery places a charge +Q on the plate connected with its positive
terminal and a charge Q on the other plate connected to its negative
Onefaradisanenorm ousam ount
terminal. of capacitance. For practical
purposes its sub-multiple units
Let Q is the magnitude of the charge on either of the plates. It is areusedwhicharegivenbelow:
experimentally found that 1m icro-farad =1F=10 farad
6

 V
12
Q 1pico-farad =1pF=10 farad

Q = CV
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 23
Where C is constant called the capacitance of the capacitor. It may be defined as the ability of a
capacitor to store charge. Its value depends upon the geometry of the plates and the medium between
them. It may be defined as the amount of charge on one plate necessary to raise the potential of that plate
by one volt with respect to the other.
Mathematically
Q
C = V  (*)

Unit of Capacitance
The SI unit of a capacitance is Farad. It may be defined as the capacitance of a capacitor is 1
Farad which stores one coulomb of charge (1C) when potential difference across the capacitor is one
volt (1V).

Q.24 Describe the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. Also discuss the effect of
medium on capacitance.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
Consider a parallel plate capacitor consisting of two metal +Q Q
+
plates each of area A separated by distance d as shown in figure. The
distance d is small so that electric field E between the plates is
uniform. When the medium between the plates is air or vaccuum then d A
Q = CV
Q
Cvac = V  (i)
+
where Q is the charge on capacitor and V is the potential difference
between the plates.
The magnitude of electric intensity E is related with distance d by
V  V
E = d  (ii) E =  
 r 
As Q is the charge on either of the plates then surface density
of charges on the plates is
Q
 = A

As we know electric intensity between two oppositely charged

plates is

E = (By 3rd application of Gauss‟s law)
o The electric field lines between
the plates of a parallel-plate
Putting the value of  capacitor. Small bits of thread are
suspended in oil and become
Q aligned with the electric field.
 E = Note that the lines are equally
A/o spaced, indicating that the
electric field there is uniform.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 24
Q
E =  (iii)
Ao
From eq. (ii) and (iii)
V Q
=
d Ao
Ao Q
=
d V
Q
As V is equal to Cvac

Ao
  Cvac =  (iv)
d
This equation shows that the capacitance of a capacitor depends on area of the plates, distance
between the plates and medium between them.
Effect of Medium on Capacitance
If an insulating material called dielectric of relative
permitivity r is introduced between the plates, the capacitance of the
capacitor enhanced by the factor r. Capacitors commonly have some
dielectric medium thereby r is also called dielectric constant. r is Vo

also called as dielectric constant.

Experiment (a)

Consider a charged capacitor whose plates are connected to

voltmeter as shown in figure. The deflection of the meter is a measure
of potential difference between the plates. When a dielectric is
inserted between the plates reading drops, indicating a decrease in the
potential difference as shown in Fig. (b). From the definition V
Q
As C = V
V < Vo
Since V decreases while Q remains constant, the value of C (b)
Fig. Effect of a dielectric on the
increases. capacitance of a capacitor.
Aor
 Cmed =  (v)
d
Dividing eq. (v) by eq. (iv)
Cmed Ao/d r
=
Cvac Ao/d
Cmed
Cvac = r
Dielectric constant r is defined as A collection of capacitors used in
various appliances.
“The ratio of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with an
insulating substance as medium between the plates to its capacitance
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 25
with vacuum (or air) as medium between them”.

Q.25 What is the electric polarization of dielectrics?

ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRICS
The increase in the capacity of a capacitor due to presence of dielectric is due to electric
polarization of dielectric.
The dielectric consists of atoms and molecules which are electrically neutral on the average, i.e.,
they contain equal amounts of negative and positive charges. The distribution of these charges in the
atoms and molecules is such that the centre of the positive charge coincides with the centre of negative
charge. When the molecules of dielectric are subjected to an electric field between the plates of a
capacitor, the negative charges (electrons) are attracted towards the positively charged plate of the
capacitor and the positive charges (nuclei) towards the negatively charged plate. The electrons in the
dielectric (insulator) are not free to move but it is possible that the electrons and nuclei can undergo
slight displacement when subjected to an electric field. As a result of this displacement the centre of
positive and negative charges now no longer coincide with each other and one end of molecules shows a
negative charge and the other end, an equal amount of positive charge but the molecule as a whole is
still neutral. Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance are said to constitute a
dipole. Thus the molecules of the dielectric under the action of electric field become dipoles and the
dielectric is said to be polarized.
The effect of the polarization of dielectric is shown in figure. The 
E E
positively charged plate attracts the negative end of the molecular dipoles
and the negatively charged plate attracts the positive end. Thus the
surface of the dielectric which is in contact with the positively charged
plate places a layer of negative charges on the plate. Similarly the surface
of the dielectric in contact with the negatively charged plate places a
layer of positive charges. It effectively decreases the surface density of
the charge  on the plates. As the electric intensity E between the plates

is , so E decreases due to polarization of the dielectric. This results into a
o
decrease of potential difference between the plates due to presence of
dielectric.
Q.26 Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device to store charge. It is also possible for a capacitor to store electrical
energy. The charge on the plate possesses electrical potential energy which arises because work is to be
done to deposit charge on the plates. Initial when the capacitor is uncharged the potential difference
between the plates is zero and finally it becomes V when q charge is deposited on each plate. Thus the
average potential difference is
0+V V
Average P.D = =
2 2
 Electric potential energy = q Vave
V
= q 2
1
= 2 qV
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 26
Since, q = CV
1
Electric potential energy = 2 (CV)(V)
1
= 2 CV2
1
Energy stored = 2 CV2  (i)

Energy in Terms of Electric Field

This energy stored in a capacitor in terms of electric field between the plates, so
V = Ed
Aor
and C = d
Putting in eq. (i)
1 Aor
 Energy = 2 (Ed)2
d
1 Aor
Energy = 2 d E2d2

1
Energy = 2 orE2 (Ad)

which is the energy stored in the form of electric fields. As Ad is volume between the plates.
Energy Density
Energy
Energy density = Volume

1 E2or (Ad)
Energy density = 2 Ad
1
Energy density = 2 E2or

This equation is valid for any electric field strength.

Q.27 Describe the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 27
Many electric circuits consists of both capacitors and resistors. R +q -q

Figure (i) shows a resistor-capacitor circuit called R.C circuit. C

When the switch is at terminal A, the R.C combination is connected to
battery of voltage Vo which starts charging the capacitor through the B S
resistor R. A
The capacitor is not charged immediately, rather charges build
Vo
up gradually to the equilibrium value of qo = CVo. The growth of
charge with time for different resistance is shown in figure (ii).
Fig. (i) Charging a capacitor
According to this graph q = 0 at t = 0 and increases gradually q
with time till it reaches its equilibrium value qo = CVo. The voltage V
cvo = qo
across capacitor at any instant can be obtained by dividing q by C as
V = q/C.
The capacitor is charging or discharging, depends upon the 0.63
product of resistance R and capacitance C used in circuit. As the unit of Large RC
qo
product of R.C is that of time, so this product is known as time Small RC
constant. RC RC t
Fig. (Ii)

In Fig. (iii) switch S is set at point B so the charge +Q on the left plate can flow anticlockwise
through the resistance and neutralise the charge on the right plate. The graph (iv) shows that discharging
begins at t = 0 when q = CVo and decreases gradually to zero. Smaller values of time constant, R.C lead
to a more rapid discharge.
Important Points
 The resistance introduces the element of time in the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
 When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for the
capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot charge
instantaneously because. A finite time is requited to move charge from one point to another. The
rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant of the
circuit.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 28
R +q -q
Time Constant
The time constant of a series R.C circuit is a time interval that C
equal to the product of the resistance and the capacitance. The time
constant is express in seconds when resistance is in ohms and S
capacitance is in Farads. B
A
t = RC
Q
 As I = t the current depends on the amount of charge +
Fig. (iii) Discharging of a
moved in a given time. capacitor
q
 When the resistance is increased, the charging
current is reduced, thus increasing the charging time CVo
of the capacitor.
Large RC
 When the capacitance is increased amount of charge
Small RC
increases, thus for the same current, more time is
required to charge the capacitor.
 During time constant interval, the charge on a capacitor Fig. (iv) t
changes approximately 63%.
An uncharged capacitor charges to 63% of its fully
charged voltage in one time constant. When a capacitor is The charging/discharging of a
capacitor enables some windshield
discharging its voltage drops approximately 37% of its wipers of cars to be used
initial value in one time constant which is a 63% change. intermittently during a light
drizzle. In this mode of operation
 It takes 5 times constant to approximately reach the final the wipers remain off for a while
value. and then turn on briefly. The
timing of the on-off cycle is
A five time constant interval is accepted as a time to fully determined by the time constant
of a resistor-capacitor combination.
charge or discharge a capacitor and is called the transient
time.
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 29

SOLVED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 12.1

Charges q1 = 100 C and q2 = 50 C are located in xy-plane at positions r1 = 3.0 ^j and

r2 = 4.0 ^i respectively, where the distances are measured in metres. Calculate the force on q2.

Data
Charge = q1 = 100 C
= 100  106 C
Charge = q2 = 50 C
= 50  106 C
  
r21 = r2  r1

Position vector = r21 = 4^i  3^j

To Find

Force on charge q2 = F21 = ?

SOLUTION
By formula
q1
 q1q2
F21 = K r ^r21
2


r1 = 3.0 j

^r r 4^i  3^j 4^i  3^j r21

21 = r = =
42 + 32 5
 q2
 100  106  10  106 (4^i  3^j) O 
So F21 = 9  109  r2 = 4.0i
52 5
F21
= 1.44 ^i  1.08 ^j

F21 = (1.44)2 + (1.08)2 = 1.8 N

Result
Force on charge q2 = F21 = 1.8 N
Direction of force =  = 37 with x-axis
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 30

EXAMPLE 12.2
Two positive point charges q1 = 16.0 C and q2 = 4.0 C are separated by a distance of 3.0 m,
as shown in figure. Find the spot on the line joining the two charges where electric field is zero.
Data
Charge = q1 = 16.0 C
= 16.0  106 C
Charge = q2 = 4.0 C
= 4.0  106 C
Distance between the charges = r = 3.0 m
To Find
Distance where the field is zero = d = ?

SOLUTION
The electric intensity due to charge q1 is 3
.
0 m
P
1 q1 +
q +
q1
E1 = 2
4o (3  d)2 d
and the electric intensity due to charge q2 is
1 r2
E2 = 2
4o d
At point P
E1 = E2
1 q1 1 q2
=
4o (3  d)2
2
4o d
16.0  106 4.0  106
=
(3  d)2 d2
16.0 4.0
=
(3  d)2 d2
4 2
= d
3d
4d = 2(3  d)
4d = 6  2d
4d + 2d = 6
6d = 6
6
d = 6

d = 1
Result
Distance where field is zero = d = 1.0 m
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 31
EXAMPLE 12.3
Two opposite point charges, each of magnitude q are separated by a distance 2d. What is
the electric potential at a point P mid-way between them?
Data
Distance between the charges = 2d
Charge = +q
Charge = q
To Find
Electric potential = V = ?

SOLUTION
As the potential due to +ve charge
1 q
V+ =
4o d
and the potential due to ve charge
1 q
V =
4o d
Since the total potential is
V = V+ + V1
1 q 1 q
= +
4o d 4o d
V = 0
Result
Potential at a mid-point due to two opposite charges will be zero.

EXAMPLE 12.4
A particle carrying a charge of 2e falls through a potential difference of 3.0 V. Calculate the
energy acquired by it.

Data
Magnitude of charge = q = 2e
Potential difference = V = 3.0 V

To Find
Energy acquired = E = ?
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 32
SOLUTION
The energy acquired by the particle is
K.E = qV
K.E = (2e)(3.0 V)
K.E = 6 eV
K.E = 6.0  1.6  1019 J
K.E = 9.6  1019 J
Result
Energy acquired = K.E = 9.6  1019 J

EXAMPLE 12.5
In Millikan oil drop experiment, an oil drop of mass 4.9  1015 kg is balanced and held
stationary by the electric field between two parallel plates. If the potential difference between the
plates is 750 V and the spacing between them is 5.0 mm, calculate the charge on the droplet.
Assume g = 9.8 ms2.
Data
Mass of droplet = m = 4.9  1015 kg
Potential difference = V = 750 volt
Distance between plates = d = 5.0 mm
= 5.0  103 m
Value of g = 9.8 m/s2

To Find
Charge on the droplet = q = ?

SOLUTION
By formula
mgd
q = V
4.9  1015  9.8  5.0  103
= 750
q = 3.2  1019 C
Result
Charge on the droplet = q = 3.2  1019 C
[CHAPTER 12] ELECTROSTATICS 33
EXAMPLE 12.6
The time constant of a series RC circuit is t = RC. Verify that an ohm times farad is
equivalent to second.

SOLUTION
Ohm‟s law in terms of potential difference V, current I and resistance R can be written as
V = IR
q
Putting I = t

q
V = tR

Vt
or R = q
According to equation
q
q = CV , C = V

Multiplying this equation with above equation gives

Vt q
RC = q V = t
Hence 1 ohm  1 farad = 1 second