The Student and the School Curriculum

(EDUC 105)

Jennifer P. Adriano, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor II
 The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

Module 2 describes the school curriculum in terms of its definition, its nature
and scope, which are needed by the teacher as a knower . This module, provides a
wider perspective for the teachers about the curriculum, in terms of curriculum
approach, curriculum development process, some curriculum models and the
foundation upon which curriculum is anchored.

Lesson 3

Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

"Every Journey Begins With The First Step."

The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be

taught, who will be taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and
interacts with other components. For example, what will be taught is affected by who
is being taught (e.g., their stage of development in age, maturity, and education).
Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their
characteristics, and the setting.

Curriculum Development Process

A curriculum often consists of a guide for educators to teach content and

skills. Some curricula are general road maps, while others are quite detailed and
give instructions for day to day learning. Developing a curriculum can be quite
challenging, especially when expectations have such a large range. No matter the
situation, it is important to start with a general topic and bring in more details with
each step. Finally, evaluate your work to see if any changes need to be made. No
matter what age group you teach and regardless of your main subject area,
curriculum development is an important part of an educator's job. Even if you work
primarily with textbooks or preplanned curriculum materials, it is helpful to go through
the process of curriculum development so that you can have a sense of where you
are going with your students and what your major purposes are.
Four phases of Curriculum Development

PHASE I: PLANNING

"Nobody plans to fail but failure results from a failure to plan."

The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps.
The steps in this phase include:

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

↪(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

↪(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about
a major issue or problem of one or more target audience. This section explores
some of the questions that need to be addressed to define the issue and to develop
a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum development
team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify, the scope (what will be
included) of the curriculum content.

(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the
members of the curriculum development team can be selected. Topics covered in
this section include: (1) the roles and functions of team members, (2) a process
for selecting members of the curriculum development team, and (3) principles
of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas
included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and
develop an effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is
procedures for conducting a needs assessment. A number of techniques are
aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to the identified issue.
Techniques covered in this section include: KAP - Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice
Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.
 Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes
techniques on how to use the data and the results of the information gathered.
Included are: ways to identify gaps between knowledge and practice; trends
emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the
characteristics of the target audience.

"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS

Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after

participation in curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the
methods (how it will be taught). Steps include:

(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪ (5) Select Content

↪(6) Design Experiential Methods

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs
assessed, analyzed and prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if
needed, and develop the intended outcomes or educational objectives. An
intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of
participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the

components of intended outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3)
examples of intended outcomes, and (4) an overview of learning behaviors. A more
complete explanation of the types and levels of learning behaviours is included in
the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from FAO population
education materials.

(5) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting

content that will make a real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately
society as a whole. At this point, the primary questions are: "If the intended outcome
is to be attained, what will the learner need to know? What knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?"
 The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and
the sequence (order) of the content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of
population education with content topics is provided in the Addendum section as an
example and application of how intended outcomes are linked with content.

(6) Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning
experiences) to help the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An
experiential learning model and it's components (i.e., experience, share, process,
generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.

Additional topics include:

1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;

2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

Ten population education sample activity sheets along with tips for facilitators
working with youth and dealing with sensitive topics are included in the Addendum.

PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

↪(9) Recruit and Train

Facilitators

↪(10) Implement Curriculum

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the
actual production of curriculum materials begins. This section includes: 1)
suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials; 2) evaluation criteria; and
3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.
(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative
evaluation of curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation
form is provided.

(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training

is not provided for facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate
facilitators are provided with a sample three-day training program.

(10) Implement Curriculum

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to

occur without planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed
in this step.

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a

specific step. Two types of evaluation, formative and summative, are used during
curriculum development. Formative evaluations are used during the needs
assessment, product development, and testing steps. Summative evaluations are
undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum. This step
reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and
reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative
evaluation process and a sample evaluation format is suggested.

(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e.,
getting the results into the hands of people who can use them). In this step,
suggestions for what and how to report to key shareholders, especially funding and
policy decision makers, are provided and a brief discussion on how to secure
resources for additional programming.
Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Curriculum Development: The Tyler Model

The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940’s, is the quintessential
prototype of curriculum development in the scientific approach. One could almost
dare to say that every certified teacher in America and maybe beyond has developed
curriculum either directly or indirectly using this model or one of the many variations.

Tyler did not intend for his contribution to curriculum to be a lockstep model for
development. Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction for his students to give them an idea about principles
for to making curriculum. The brilliance of Tyler’s model is that it was one of the first
models and it was and still is a highly simple model consisting of four steps.

1. Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose
3. Organize the experiences
4. Evaluate the purposes

Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words,
what do the students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural
objectives that are indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the
philosophy of the school and this is often neglected in curriculum development. For
example, a school that is developing an English curriculum may create an objective
that students will write essays. This would be one of many objectives within the
curriculum.

Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve
step one. For example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay.
The learning experience might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an
essay. The students than might practice writing essays. The experience (essay
demonstration and writing) is consistent with the objective (Student will write an
essay).

Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first
or should the students learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and
preference is determined by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the
students. The point is that the teacher needs to determine a logical order of
experiences for the students.

Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the
students’ ability to write an essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the
teacher could have the students write an essay without assistance. If they can do
this, it is evidence that the students have achieved the objective of the lesson.

There are variations on this model. However, the Tyler model is still considered by
many to be the strongest model for curriculum development.

2. Curriculum Development: The Taba Model

The Taba Model was developed by Hilda Taba (1902 – 1967), an architect, a
curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. She was born in
the small village of Kooraste, Estonia. Taba believed that there has to be a definite
order in creating a curriculum.

Hilda Taba is the developer of the Taba Model of learning. This model is used
to enhance the thinking skills of students. Hilda Taba believed that there must be a
process for evalutating student achievement of content after the content standards
have been established and implemented. The main concept of this approach to
curriculum development is that teachers must be involved in the development of the
curriculum.

Taba believed that there has to be a definite order in creating a curriculum.

She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development
which meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design, rather
than the traditional deductive approach starts with the general design and work
towards the specifics which was rooted in Tyler’s model.
 Strengths of using the Taba Model in the classroom:

 Gifted students begin thinking of a concept, then dive deeper into that concept
 Focuses on open-ended questions rather than right/wrong questions
 The open-endedness requires more abstract thinking, a benefit to our gifted
students
 The questions and answers lend themselves to rich classroom discussion
 Easy to assess student learning

Limitations of using the Taba Model in the classroom:

 Can be difficult for non-gifted students to grasp

 Difficult for heterogeneous classrooms
 Works well for fiction and non-fiction, may be difficult to easily use in all subjects

3. Curriculum Development: The Galen Saylor and William Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as

consisting of four steps. According to them, curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of
learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific
objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre”.

 Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners
begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish
to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they
advocate 4 major goals or domains: personal development, human relations,
continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains
are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such as
findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community
groups and others.

 Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been
established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here
decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and
how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum be
designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs
and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be
answered at this stage of the development process.

 Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step
is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the
curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select
relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students in the classroom.
 Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The
model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of
evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational
programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction
and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum
planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of the school and
the objectives of instruction have been met.
Lesson 4

Foundations of Curriculum Development

Foundation of Curriculum

1. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION.

Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have espoused a

philosophy or philosophies that are deemed necessary for planning, implementing,
and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced will
help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the
kind of learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional
materials, methods and strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated.
Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the
administrators, curriculum planners, and teachers make sound decisions. A person’s
philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background,
common beliefs, and education.
When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is
realized when put into practice. Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s
philosophy served as anchor to the country’s educational system.

The following four educational philosophies relate to curriculum:

1. Perennialism. The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary analysis

and considers curriculum as constant.

2. Essentialism. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects of English,
Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus of the curriculum.

3. Progressivism. The curriculum is focused on students' interest, human problems

and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.

4. Reconstructionism. The focus of the curriculum is on present and future trends

and issues of national and international interests.

Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum

planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school heads, evaluator anchors
his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.
2. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM.

Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918
with the publication of Franklin Bobbit's book."The Curriculum"

Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced
back to the glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American
educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system.

The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum:

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes

on students' need.

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is

based on students' need, and the teachers plan the activities.

3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities which

are child-centered.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the
teacher plans the lesson in advance.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social

functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's interests.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension

of school's philosophy. based on students' need and interests.

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles
and content of the curriculum.

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements
of the learning process and some of the some of questions which can be addressed
by psychological foundations.

The following are the three major groups f learning theories:

1. Behaviorists Psychology - consider that learning should be organized in order

that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter,
and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a step by step manner with
proper sequencing of task.

2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process

information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For the cognitive theorists,
learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.
Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of
problem and thinking skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by practices
like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, etc.

3. Humanistic Psychology - concerned with how learners can develop their human
potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of
the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the
learner is continuously reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is concerned
with the process not the products, personal needs not subject matter; psychological
meaning and environmental situations.

4. SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION.

Schools exists within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools
and their curricula.

The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to

be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its
aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe the changes brought about
by the formal institutions called schools.

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita Bilbao, et. al, Loremar Pub., 2008)
What I have
learned? Write down the importance of the Three Curriculum Models

Tyler’s Saylor and Alexander

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Taba’s
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Reflections and
Insights

1. What phase of the curriculum process do you find very important as a

teacher? Why?

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2. Show the interrelationship of the Four Foundation of Curriculum.

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 My Portfolio

(Pieces of Evidence – Records – Documents – Pictures)