Topic: Data communication Full-duplex: is a mode of data transmission where data signals can flow in

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two both directions at the same time. E.g. telephone communication.
or more computers. Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around time
This refers to the electronic transmission of information that has been required in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example of this mode of
encoded digitally (as for storage and processing by computers) from source transmission is the telephone line.
to destination.
Or; It is the high speed data exchange between computers and other
electronic devices via cable or wireless.
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Message. This is data/information to be communicated. This can be text,
numbers, audio or video or any combination of these types
SENDER
A sender is a device that sends the data message. This can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera or mobile phone.
MEDIUM
The conduits/channels/media are the physical paths that
telecommunications signals use to move from place to place. The various Communication media /Transmission Media
types of conduits of data include cables, fiber optics, satellite, and cellular. Is a path/ways/channels/route through which data signal are transferred /
RECEIVER conveyed from one point to another.
A device that receives the messages. It be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television set or mobile phone. Types of transmission media
protocol; is a setoff rules and procedures that govern data communication. Wired/cabled/bounded or guided (Coaxial, fiber optics, twisted
pair/untwisted pair)
FEEDBACK. Wireless/unbounded or unguided (radio waves, infrared & micro waves)
Feedback can be an oral or a written message, an action or simply silence. .
Classes of transmission media
Data communication tools
These are devices that allow the user to send and receive messages. These
can be electronic or manual. Examples of electronic communication tools
include; computers, mobile phones and internet etc.
Manual communication tools include; manual drums, bells and messengers.
Data Transmission Modes
There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another.
Simplex: is a mode of transmission where data flows in only one direction
between the two communicating devices e.g. broadcast on radio, TV and
transmission between keyboard and the monitor, fire alarms.
Half-duplex: is a mode of transmission where data signals can flow in both
directions but not at the same time. E.g. walkie talkie communication well
known as radio calls.
Physical transmission media

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It uses wires, cables and other tangible materials to send communication
signals. These include;
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fibre-optics cable

Twisted-pair cable
Twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together.
Twisted-pair cable comes in two forms: unshielded and shielded
The twisting helps to reduce the interference (noise) and crosstalk.

Shielded Twisted (STP) Cable

STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that enhances each pair
of insulated conductors.
The metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise.
Materials and manufacturing requirements make STP more expensive
than UTP but less susceptible to noise.

Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) cable

Any medium can transmit only a fixed range of frequencies!

UTP cable is the most common type of telecommunication medium in use
today.
The range is suitable for transmitting both data and video.
Advantages of UTP are its cost and ease of use. UTP is cheap, flexible, and
easy to install

Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high
data rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded
twisted-pair cables.

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Local area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also used UTP Optic fibre cable uses light signals to transmit data from one point to
cables another on the network. The electrical signals from the source are converted
to light signals which are then propagated along the fibre optic cable. This
Coaxial Cable. A coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its centre. eliminates the problem of electrical interference.
A plastic layer provides insulation between the centre conductor and Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several
braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside layers of protective materials.
interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
Advantages of fibre optic cables
Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps. They are installed in a Can transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted
network to form the network backbone ( link that connects two or more pair
separate local area networks) They are not affected by electrical interference such as lighting and power
surges
Advantages They are thinner and lighter than coaxial cables
It is highly resistant to signal interference They provide greater security because they are difficult to tap into.
It can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted They have a high transmission speed and a low arror rate
pair cable. They can carry thousands of separate signals.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
It is difficult to install They are expensive
They are difficult to install and modify
Coaxial Cable standards:
RG-8, RG-9, RG-11 are Unguided media (wireless communication). This is a type of media that is
used in thick Ethernet used to transmit data from one point to another without a physical link
RG-58 Used in thin Ethernet established between two or more devices.
RG-59 Used for TV Wireless media re used when it is inconvenient, impractical, or impossible
to install cables.

Or a type of media that transports electromagnetic waves without using a

physical conductor. Instead, signals are broadcast through air (or, in a few
cases, water), and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.

Types of wireless communication media

Infrared rays. This is a wireless transmission medium that sends signals
using infrared light waves.
Infrared transmission requires a line of sight transmission that is the sender
and receiver must be aligned so that nothing obstructs the path of infrared
light wave. Communication devices should be close to each other (about 5
Optic fibre cable metres)

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Radio waves. Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio signals. transmission media such as cables to form a local area network (LAN).
They can penetrate through walls and structures alike. The power of radio Several LANs can be connected to form Wide Area Networks (WANs),
waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance unlike micro wave. which constitute the global Internet. The Internet enables millions of
Bluetooth technology also uses radio waves. computers to communicate and share resources globally.
History of the Internet:
Micro waves. Microwaves are extremely high frequency radio waves. In 1969 the U.S. Department of Defense commissioned the Advanced
Unlike radio waves, microwave signals must be transmitted in a straight Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). The purpose was to
line with no obstructions between microwave antennas. Because micro provide communication links between supercomputers located at various
waves travel in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be regional sites (Universities and defense bases) within the United States. It is
strictly in line of sight. this ARPANET that evolved into the Internet after computer networks were
connected to it in different parts of the world. By1992, more than 1 million
Advantages of wireless transmission media hosts existed on the Internet
Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to wired medium i.e. Connecting to the Internet
devices can be moved around without losing access to the network. Requirement
Wireless network covers large geographical areas easily. A computer or PDA or cell phone
Can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines A modem (modulator/demodulator) for dial-up services or a NIC (Network
Interface Card) for DSL/Cable services
Disadvantages
It is relatively difficult to establish or configure Connection Types
The initial cost is very high.
Signals can be easily blocked by thick material.  Dial-up Services. This method requires users to link their phone
lines to a computer in order to access the internet
FACTORS THAT AFFECT DATA TRANSMISSION
Frequency:  Modem (Modulator/demodulator) A device that converts analog
This Refers to the cycle of waves per second. The amount of data that can signal to digital (modulation) and vice versa (demodulation).
be transmitted depends on the wave frequency. Frequency is expressed in  ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network). This allows users to
hertz send data, voice and audio content over digital telephone lines. The
Band width: installation of ISDN adapters require at both ends of transmission
This is the difference between the highest and lowest frequency (+max 2 – an ISP.
min).The higher the bandwidth the higher the rate of data transmission.
Transmission impairments:  DSL (Digital Subscriber Line). A technology that provides digital
Such as attenuation and electro magnetic interference data transmission over unused frequencies on traditional telephone
lines.
TOPIC: INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB  Cable network. A technology that provides digital data
SUB TOPIC: INTERNET transmission over cable TV infrastructure
 Satellite. A technology that provide digital data transmission over
satellites. Need a satellite dish
Internet refers to the global interconnection of computer networks.
Computers within a laboratory or office can be connected together using

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  Broadband Services. This is a high speed internet connection different types of debates and discussions express their views and
method that is provided through either a cable or telephone gather valuable knowledge.
companies.
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity). A wireless technology that connects  A variety of other advantages offered via Internet, include: job
computers without cables searching, online banking, buying movie tickets, hotel reservations
 Access Point (AP). A device (base station) that connects wireless and consultation services etc.
devices together. usually connected to a wired-network. ESSID
(Extended Service Set ID) A “name” for the AP, eg. mobilenet Disadvantages of the Internet:
 Hotspots. These are sites that offer internet access over a wireless  Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet,
local area network by use of a router that connects to an ISP especially when it comes to young children.
 Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk,
Advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet which serve no purpose.

Advantages of the Internet:  Virus threat. Virus is a program that interrupts the usual operation
 Communication: By sending an e-mail, we can contact a person of your personal computer system. PCs linked to the Internet have
who is physically present thousand miles away within the fraction high probability of virus attacks and as a result of this your hard
of a second’s time. disk can crash, giving you a lot of trouble.
 Theft of personal details while using the Internet, there is high
 E-commerce is the idea that is implemented for any form of probability that your personal details like name, address and credit
business transactions that entails transmission of data from one card number may be accessed by con artists and used for
corner of the world to another. E-commerce has become a fantastic fraudulent purposes.
option through which you can shop anything.  Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing
problems with their interaction of friends and loved ones
 Online Chat: There are many ‘chat rooms’ on the web.  It provides a lot of wrong information. This is because any one can
 Downloading Software: This is one of the most happening and fun post anything and much of it is garbage.
things to do via the Internet.
 Online learning. It facilitates long distance learning.
Factors that determine internet speed.
 Entertainment. A wide variety of entertainment including video  Internet traffic; the server speed of the site you are
games, music, movies, chat room, news and others can be accessed visiting determines the speed of the internet.
through the Internet.  Device hardware; your computer’s resources like speed,
memory etc also determine the internet speed i.e. if they
 The biggest benefit offered by the Internet is information. It are inadequate, the speed will be low.
functions as a valuable resource of information. You can find any  Viruses and malware; these consume significant resources
type of information on any subject with the help of the search like memory and adversely affect internet speed.
engines like Yahoo and Google.  Number of applications running; multiple programs using
internet like downloading music with ITUNES and
 Formation of communities. Internet helps in formation of surfing the web using Firefox will reduce the overall
communities or forums. Here a number of people can participate in speed.

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  Number of devices connected; multiple laptops, tablets, -Web Directory: A listing of Web sites and their URLs, categorized by
smart phones reduce the overall speed of each device on topic.
the internet. -Electronic Commerce/e-commerce: Conducting commercial activities on
the Internet.
-Social Networking. A type of service where users can seek others who
share their interests, find out what's going on in their areas of concern, and
Internet service provider (ISP) . A company that provides internet access share information with one
to individuals and business. Examples; Info com, Mai web, communication another (e.g. Facebook, Twitter)
companies like MTN, AIRTEL, AFRICELL etc. -Internet Relay Chat (IRC) –A live interactive discussion in which parties
Services provided by ISP include; internet access, Domain name on the network exchange ideas and observation electronically. Chats are
registration, E-mail accounts, web hosting, Ip addresses and ranges. usually organized in what we call chat rooms.
-File Transfer Protocol –The standard method for transferring files, whether
Factors to consider when selecting an ISP downloading or uploading, to and from your computer with another
Price; one should select an ISP whose price is friendly. computer on the Internet.
Technical support; Be sure the ISP you select provides technical -Newsgroups –Worldwide discussion areas where notices can be posted for
support that meets your organization's requirements or that can anyone to view. They are equivalent to a discussion group or an electronic
offer help incase things go wrong. bulletin board. There are newsgroups for every conceivable topic and more,
Viability; when selecting an ISP, do some checking to see how e.g. educational technology.
long the company has been in existence, track of records and -World Wide Web –This refers to the global collection of websites
whether or not they received an award. consisting of linked electronic documents called Webpagesstored on
Performance; whether you are paying for a high speed connection internet servers all over the world.The www is the most exciting service that
or just using dial up, you should check the ISP’s track records for has revolutionized the Internet, people use this service to browse for
such things as uptime and overall throughout. information.
-Instant Messaging: A combination of real-time chat and e-mail by which
short text messages are rapidly exchanged over the Internet, with messages
Internet communication services appearing on recipient’s display screen immediately upon arrival.
These are computer software programs that help to accomplish specific -Usenet: A system of worldwide discussion groups.
tasks related to telecommunications. A variety of examples of application -Cloud Computing: A service in which computer software, hardware and
software for communications include: data are used remotely over the Internet, instead of acquiring and using
-Telnet–enables users to use the resources of a computer in another part of them on a local computer.
the world. This is done by remotely logging to the distant computer which -Search Engines: Software programs that look through the Web to locate
iscalled the host. sites matching a keyword entered by the user. Keyword: A string of letters
-Email–It allows the transfer of messages, documents, and pictures among or words that indicates the subject to be searched.
others, across the Internet. Email Services
-Mailing list –This is based on the email protocol. As an electronic mailing Electronic mail (or e-mail) is an Internet service that allows those people
listit is very convenient when somebody wants to send a message or who have an e-mail address (accounts) to send and receive electronic
newsletter, for example, to many people in one go. letters.
-Internet Telephony or Voice over IP: Real-time voice conversations Advantages of email:
transmitted between computers on the Internet. Cost .Email is cheap: businesses can save large amounts of money using e-
mail, in lieu of long-distance phone calls and postal deliveries.

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Time .Email will reach its destination across the world in a few seconds as – Date and time received (On). The time the message was received.
opposed to days or even weeks with the postal service. – Recipient (To :). First/last name of email recipient, as configured by
Convenient .Email doesn't worry about crossing time zones or that the sender.
colleagues are not in their offices to take telephone calls. – CC: “Carbon copy” enables copies of the email message to be sent to
Email can be sent to groups of people at the same time. This facilitates third party while acknowledging other recipients. Carbon copy: here you
collaborative working and efficient dissemination of information. type the addresses of those to whom you are sending carbon copies.
Doesn't use any paper (good for the environment). – Bcc: Enables copies of the mail message to be sent to the third party
Can attach large documents and other files with a click of a button (and without acknowledging nay other recipients. Blind carbon copies: here
without using up resources like paper). you type the addresses as in cc, but the recipients will not know whether the
Unlikely to be lost other has received the copy.
Faster to arrive – Reply-to. This is the Internet email address that will become the
Allows sending messages to several people at a time recipient of your reply if you click the Reply button.
Cheaper in terms of costs incurred 2. Body:
Less prone to illegal access – The body of a message contains text that is the actual content.
Allows sending multimedia format document – The message body also may include signatures or automatically
Several documents can be sent at once generated text that is inserted by the sender's email system.
3. Attachments
Disadvantages of emails: – Attachments are optional and include any separate files that may be
User has to open email website or email program to read the message. If part of the message
you do not login, unread messages can remain unread forever.
Socially, writing a letter and talking over a phone is thought to bring you Other internet communication services/tools
closer to the recipient compared to writing an email through a computer. Instant messaging; this type of online chat which offers real time text
Alot of unwanted emails from spammers can fill your email inbox and transmission over the internet.
important emails may not get delivered. Video conferencing; this is a technology that allows users in different
Email attachments can bring virus into your computer if not scanned by the loctions to hold face-to-face meetings on the internet. It involves
network or virus program on your computer. transmission of audio and video data.
Emails cannot really be used for official business documents.
Less hand-writing practice. Equipments for video conferencing
Can be bad for your eyes if you spend too long sending e-mails on your Computers, web cam, a microphone, skype, speakers, high speed internet,
computer. video conferencing software
Messages may be misinterpreted easily. Advantages of video conferencing
Components of an e-mail It can take place without leaving the office
It minimizes travel costs
1. Headers : The message headers contain information concerning the Meetings can be called instantly
sender and recipients. The exact content of mail headers can vary Delegates can still attend the meeting even if they are physically unable
depending on the email system that generated the message. Generally, It saves time
headers contain the following information: Increases productivity by sharing of data.
Disadvantages
– Subject. The theme of the email message Confidential documents that need to be viewed and signed in person may
– Sender (From). This is the senders Internet email address. not be used.

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It is more expensive Search engine. It’s a program or web site that can be used to search for
It is limited to certain number of participants keywords on web pages throughout the World Wide Web.
Stability of connection requires complex technology
Chat room; this is a software application in which participants can A web search engine is a type of website that helps computer user find
engage in real time discussions about a specific topic with one another. specific information on the Internet.
News group. This is an internet based discussion about a particular
topic. It ranges from transport, cars, investments etc. Search engines include: Google, Yahoo!, Ask.com, Forestle, Bing and (Alta
Cloud computing; In cloud computing a type of Internet-based Vista.
computing," where different services — such as servers, storage and Searches for information from the Web
applications — are delivered to an organization's computers and devices Uses search engine syntax.
through the Internet. Website Addresses
Or the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the internet Each computer on the internet does have a unique identification number,
to store and manage resources. Examples include; e-mail communication, called an IP (Internet Protocol) address. The IPv4 addressing system uses a
online storage such as Google drive, Drop box, web hosting services etc four-part number. For example, 106.29.242.17. Most web browsers do not
Sub topic: The World Wide Web use the IP address to locate Web sites and individual pages. They use
(Abbreviated as WWW commonly known as the web) is a system of domain name addressing.
interlinked hypertext documents accessed over a network
Or it’s a vast collection of linked documents held on computers all over the A domain name is a unique name associated with a specific IP address by a
world and is accessible via the internet. program that runs on an Internet host computer. This program, which
coordinates the IP addresses and domain names for all computers attached
The Web (World Wide Web) consists of websites hosted on servers on the to it, is called DNS (Domain Name System ) software.
internet globally. Websites contain information organized into Web pages.
Webpagesare electronic documents with text and graphic images, written in Uniform Resource Locators
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). It contains hypertext links, or The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular computer on
highlighted keywords and images that lead to related information. A the Internet. However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML
collection of linked Web pages that has a common theme or focus is called document resides on that computer. To identify a Web pages exact location,
a Web site. Web browsers rely on a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). URL is a four-
The main page that all of the pages on a particular Web site are organized part addressing scheme that tells the Web browser:
around and link back to is called the site’s home page. What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file
The domain name of the computer on which the file resides
TERMS USED The pathname of the folder or directory on the computer on which the file
Web browser resides
Web Browser is a software tool or program that allows you to navigate The name of the file
through the web.
Or it’s an application software that allows users to access/connect to the Structure of a Uniform Resource Locator
internet or
It’s a tool that allows you to view web pages and interact on the internet.
Examples of web browsers include: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox,
Internet Explorer, (Opera, and (Safari, Konqueror, Flock , etc.
Search engine

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 •
"pages" and "bones" are the folder and sub-folder names
•
"lesson1"is the file name
•
"html"is the file type extension and, in this case, stands for
“hypertext mark-up language" (that's the language the computer
reads).
Website
Web site is the location of a web domain name in a computer somewhere on
the internet.
Collection of related web pages.

Types of Websites
Static websites
In static Websites, the information does not change, and the same
information is displayed to all visitors.
READING WEB ADDRESSES Mostly coded in HTML so easier to build.
Let's look at the parts of a typical URL: Most commonly used for simple sites.
• Updating is difficult.
http://www.sc.edu/beaufort/library/pages/bones/lesson1.html Cannot do complex tasks, such as providing user interactivity.
•
Here's what it all means: Dynamic websites; Dynamic website pages are able to accept input data
• (fill-in forms) and store that information in a database on the server,
"http"means hypertext transfer protocol and refers to the rules allowing a visitor to cre ate a user profile and personalized experience.
used to transfer and deal with information In Dynamic Websites, the information may change at any given time and
• according to the visitor. Mostly built in scripting languages like Javascript,
"www"stands for World Wide Web and is the general name for and can be more difficult to build.
the host server that supports text, graphics, sound files, etc. (It is Used for large sites with a lot of content, sites that need extensive updates,
not an essential part of the address, and some sites choose not to use real time services (e.g. online stores), and/or require automatic changes
use it) (e.g. blogs). Updating is easy.
• Personal Websites
"sc"is the second-level domain name and usually designates the A platform for individuals to provide information about themselves,
server's location, in this case, the University of South Carolina promote themselves, create an online CV and/or portfolio, keep in touch
• with family and friends, share photos and videos, expand hobbies and
"edu"is the top-level domain name (see below) interests, and express thoughts and ideas.
• Commercial/Business Websites
"beaufort"is the directory name A platform for companies or organizations to provide information about
• themselves, market or sell their products and/or services, and provide
"library"is the sub-directory name customer support

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Informative Websites A website can improve customer service
These are dedicated to providing information. They may include news
websites, online encyclopedias, educational websites, and websites
providing topic-specific information like sports data, medical information, Netiquettes
weather reports, stock market quotes and analysis, and TV guides. Refers to the do's and don'ts of online communication
Search Engines/Directories Or rules and regulations governing online communication
These are search engines index material on the web that automatically Here are some of the Best Rules of Netiquette
respond to a search query with links to relevant websites. o Keep messages brief and use proper grammar and
Directories list businesses by different categories and/or locations. spellings
Wikis o Never read someone’s private email
A wiki is a specialized form of content-managed web site designed to o Respect other people’s privacy
support the easy collaborative creation of web pages by groups of users. o Know where you are in cyberspace. Understand the group
Wikis differ from blogs and other cms options in that wikis allow all users of people you are interacting with. When you join a new
to change the content of the wiki pages, not just to post comments about the group, first understand its likes and dislikes before giving
content. your full contribution
Examples of wiki are Wikipedia, online encyclopaedia can be publicly o Post only acceptable information that has no harm to the
accessible and edited by any user. public
Blogs o Minimize use of uppercase in text when sending messages
Web logs, or blogs, are the most popular, inexpensive, and widespread form o Be forgiving of other’s people’s mistakes like spelling
of web content management. Blog software such as Blogger, Roller, or
error, a stupid question or unnecessary long answers
WordPress allows nontechnical users to combine text, graphics, and digital
because experts on internet were once beginners.
media files easily into interactive web pages.
o Respect other people’s time and bandwidth. Ensure that
Blog – online journal used to express ideas/opinions
time and bandwidth people spend reading your posting is
E-Commerce website – platform to sell products online
not wasted. Send a well prepared message and ensure that
Forum – promotes discussions among people with mutual interests
its sent to right recipient.
Media-Sharing Website – where people can share pictures, videos, music,
o Make yourself look good online
etc.
Review Websites – where people can write and/or view reviews of o Avoid impersonation
products, services, etc. o Be ethical and aim at acting within the laws of society and
Social Networking Website – where people can meet, interact and share cyberspace
multi-media.  Don't spam. That is, don't repeatedly post the same advertisement
Webmail – provides e-mail services for products or services. Most sites have strict and specific rules
Why an institution should own a website about who is allowed to post ads and what kind of ads they are.
Your business will gain credibility  Remember that your posts are public. They can be read by your
It saves you money in the long term partner, your children, your parents, or your employer.
Customers can be kept informed  Do not post copyrighted material to which you do not own the
A website is always accessible rights.
A website enables you to target a wider audience  Treat others as you would like to be treated.
It provides a medium to showcase your work TOPIC: COMPUTER NETWORKS
A website saves you time What is a Network?

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A network is the connection of two or more devices for a function or outsiders like suppliers. This is also a version of internet connection that
purpose uses the same protocols of internet.
A computer network is a connection of two or more computers in order to
share resources, exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, Networking hardware
radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. Networking hardware are Communications devices that enable two or
Requirements for setting up a computer network more computers to exchange items such as data, instructions, and
A computer information with each other.
Cables/ transmission media Examples include: a server computer, clients/work stations, network
Communication devices (router,Switch,Network interface card) interface card, modems, Hub/Switch, repeater, Router, etc.
Server SERVER
Network resources like printers A server is the host or central computer that manages the resources on a
Network software network.
TYPES OF NETWORKS A server provides a centralized storage area for programs, data, and
The two basic types of networks include: LAN, MAN and WAN. information.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) is a computer network that This is a very fast processor computer dedicated to providing specific
interconnects computers within a limited area such as a room of a building services for other computers connected in a network.
like school, laboratory, university campus or office building. A dedicated server is a server that performs a specific task. Examples of
note; A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that does not use physical wires, dedicated Servers include: file server, print server, database server, and a
but uses wireless media such as radio waves. network server
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) Roles of Dedicated Servers
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connects larger geographic areas, such as A file server stores and manages files on a network
London, the UK, or the world. In this type of network dedicated A print server manages printers and print jobs.
transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used. A database server stores and provides access to a database
OTHER NETWORKS INCLUDE A network server (e.g., a DNS) manages network traffic.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN) Requirements of a server computer
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers relatively larger geographic It needs a computer with very high processing speed
areas, such as cities. Often used by local libraries and government agencies It needs large amounts of RAM
to connect to citizens and private industries It needs a very big storage capacity
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN); this covers a relatively small It needs a very fast Network interface card
geographical area of buildings close to each other like in a hospital, It needs network operating system such as Novell Netware, Windows NT
university, hotel, etc Server or Apple Share
Personal Area Network (PAN); this involves a personal computer connected Expansion abilities.
to other devices (like modem, printer, loud speaker, etc) to form a network,
Intranet; is a private network that allows access to organization Functions of a Server
data/information to only members of the organization. It is a smaller version Administration of client computers.
of internet that uses similar protocols like internet. Security of files and applications.
Extranet; is a private network that allows access to organization Managing printer Jobs.
data/information to members within the organization and some authorized Data bank.
Software and Applications handling.

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 A network bridge is device that connects two networks making each
Client computers accessible to the other. A bridge knows all of the addresses on each side of
These are computers sharing resources and capable of sending and the bridge and can send information accordingly. These networks are of
receiving data signals to and from the server. the same protocol.
A Client is a computer that accesses remote service on another computer MULTIPLEXER
(server). All of the computers connected to the file server on a network are This is a hardware device which merges several low speed transmissions
called workstations into one high-speed transmission.
A multiplexer is a device that combines two or more input signals from
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD various devices into a single stream of data and then transmits it over a
A network card, also called network interface card (NIC), is a device that single transmission medium.
enables the computer or device that does not have built-in networking By combining the separate data streams into one, a multiplexer increases
capability to access a network. the efficiency of communications and reduces the need for using multiple
Examples include: adapter card, PC Card, USB network adapter, flash card separate transmission media.
e.t.c Concentrator
MODEMS (signal converters) This is a network device which enables several client computers to share a
This is a hardware device which transforms digital signals into analog single line.
signals (Modulation) to facilitates their transmission into air space, and vice Gateway
versa (demodulation) This is a device (interface) used to link two different networks to
HUBS and SWITCHES communicate with one another.
These are devices that provide a central connection point for cables from Bridge:
workstations, servers, and peripherals. This is a device used to link two similar networks to communicate to one
A hub, (also called a multi-station access unit (MAU)) is a device that another, making each accessible to the other.
provides a central point for cables in a network. NOTE: To Connect to or create a home or small office (SOHO) network,
A switch does not broadcast the data to all the computers, it sends the data you need the following components:
packets only to the destined computer. Computers
REPEATER Network Adapter/Network Interface Card
This is a device which accepts transmitted signals, amplifies them, and Hub/Switch
rebroadcasts them back on the network media. Cables
As a signal travels over a long distance, it undergoes a reduction in Modem
strength, an occurrence called attenuation. Internet Service Provider (ISP)
A ROUTER
This is a device used to link more than two different network configurations Network models or architecture
to communicate one another.These networks can be of different protocols. A network architecture refers to the construction of computers on the
A Router connects multiple networks and routs communications traffic to network. These are majorly two are:
the appropriate network using the fastest available path. Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
A router allows multiple computers to share a single high-speed Internet Peer-to-Peer. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;
connection such as through a cable modem they all have the same abilities to use the resources available on the
A router translates information from one network to another. network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium
NETWORK BRIDGE local area networks. AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are

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examples of programs that can function as peer-to-peer network operating
systems.
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and
files located on their computers and to access shared resources found on
other computers.
However, they do not have a file server or a centralized management source
(See fig. 1).

Fig. 2. Client/server network

Advantages of a client/server network:
Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs
Fig. 1. Peer-to-peer network increase.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network: Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server. Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may Accessibility - Servers can be accessed remotely and across multiple
only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations. platforms.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network: Disadvantages of a client/server network:
Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications. Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated servers.
Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient
network. operation.
Client/Server Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the
A server is a centralized computer that controls the shared resources on the network.
network while a client computer is a computer that sends requests to the Client-server model
server and it is dependant on the server.
Client/server network allows the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers (See fig. 2).

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 Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware
necessary to install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and
professional communication for all school personnel, and it facilitates the
dissemination of general information to the entire school staff. Electronic
mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and peers
at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can
communicate with others throughout the world.
Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to
the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft
BackOffice) allows many users to work on a document or project
Advantages of computer Networks concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools within a
Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about the new
files. Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
then carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This
method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time- Disadvantages of computer Networks
consuming. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over
Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are time, the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network
available at considerable savings when compared to buying individually cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may require the
licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network services of a technician.
allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a computer
only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations. network requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have
Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy installed networks, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary
inhibit," so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. administrative support.
Also, passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to
to authorized users. failure than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the
Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of entire network may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school
installing a network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be may lose access to necessary programs and files.
loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates the need to spend Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the
time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent various configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to
computers throughout the building. minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations,
Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network one broken cable can stop the entire network.
exceeds stand-alone computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser
printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each Other disadvantages of networks
computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, Server faults stop applications being available
they can be shared by many users. Network faults can cause loss of data.
Network fault could lead to loss of resources

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User work dependent upon network If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.
System open to hackers More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
Decisions tend to become centralised concentrators.
Could become inefFicient a star network generally requires more cable,
Could degrade in performance
Resources could be located too far from user
Ring Topology. Ring Layout/topology
A ring topology is a network layout in which each node has exactly two
Network topology neighbours connected to it for communication purposes. For each node to
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, communicate, it must make a request for a token be able to send a signal
computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology is the method used to along the path.
pass information between workstations. A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
Main Types of Network Topologies In networking, the term "topology" entire network.
refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. A sketch diagram of a ring topology
Network topologies include the following:
Star Topology. Star topology
A topology in which all the nodes are connected to a central hub. Each node
has an equal right of transmission of data. Cable

A sketch diagram of a star topology

Bus Topology: Bus or linear topology

A topology in which each node is connected in series along a
single conduit or main cable called a bus.
A sketch diagram of a bus topology
Hub/Concentrator/Server/Switch

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's
network access and not the entire LAN.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology Printer
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

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Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the
requires less cable than a star topology. top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes
Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level),
networks. Each of the second level nodes will also have one or more other
Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level)
the main wire and it can be difficult to identify the problem if the network connected to it.
shuts down. The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical - Each node in the
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. the next lower level in the hierarchy.
Requires less cable length than a star topology. It usually has three layers: the core layer, the distribution layer and
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology the Access layer.
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Mesh Topology: A network topology in which at least each node has two
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. or more paths between them.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. A sketch diagram of a mesh topology
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
.
Tree Topology
Tree network topology is also known as a the hierarchical network
topology.
This is because it contains different levels of hierarchy.

Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect

the rest of the network.
Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network
becomes unusable.
Extended Star/Tree/Hybrid topology
It’s a combination of two or more topology
The same network topology to be distributed in different segiments
It’s the extended star Or a combination of two or more star topology
Or. it’s a combination of two or more topologies

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 identifying each device in the communication path;
securing the attention of the other device;
verifying correct receipt of the transmitted message;
determining that a message requires retransmission if it is incomplete or has
errors;
performing recovery when errors occur.

Common protocols
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an internet protocol for
Factors to consider When Choosing a Topology transferring of e-mails.
Cost. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It allows files containing text, programs,
Future growth: graphics, numerical data, and so on to be downloaded off or uploaded onto
Length of cable needed. a network.
Number of computers to be connected Internet Protocol (IP) - does the packet forwarding and routing.
Level of security required Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a network
Networking Operating System standard that defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a
A network operating system (NOS) is the system software that organizes network to the other, ensuring the data arrives correctly.
and coordinates the activities on a network. The principal functions of NOS Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - responsible for delivery of data
include network control, access control, transmission control, error over the network.
detection/correction, and network security. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It allows Web browsers and
System maintenance tasks such as backup servers to send and receive Web pages.
File management tasks Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): It allows the
Prioritizing print jobs on the network management of networked nodes to be managed from a single point.
Examples of NOSs include: Telnet Protocol: It provides terminal emulation that allows a personal
Novell NetWare computer or workstation to act as a terminal, or access device, for a server.
Microsoft Windows server 2003 and 2008. Sequential Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX) - works with the Novell's internet
AppleShare work' packet / sequential exchange; responsible for delivery of sequential
Unix /NFS data over the network
Sun Solaris Packets and Packet Switching
Apple Talk When a computer sends data over the Internet, the data is divided into small
Linux pieces called packets.
IBM OS/2 Wrap Each packet contains the data, as well as the recipient (destination), the
Mac OS origin (sender), and the sequence information used to reassemble the data at
Windows OS (Win NT, Win XP, Win 7, and Win 8 etc.) the destination.
Client/Server Linux Each packet travels along the fastest individual available path to the
recipient's computer via communications devices called routers.
Network Protocols This technique of breaking a message into individual packets, sending the
This refers to a set of rules and procedures governing transmission between packets along the best route available, and then reassembling the data is
components in a computer network. called packet switching.
The principal functions of protocol in a network include:

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