Complex Analysis

Chapter V. Singularities
V.1. Classification of Singularities—Proofs of Theorems

April 5, 2018

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Table of contents

1 Theorem V.1.2

2 Proposition V.1.4

3 Corollary V.1.18

4 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2. If f has an isolated singularity at a then z = a is a

removable singularity if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a

Proof. Suppose f is analytic in {z | 0 < |z − a| < R} and define

(z − a)f (z) for z 6= a
g (z) = Suppose limz→a (z − a)f (z) = 0; then
0 for z = a.
g is continuous on B(z; R). We now show that g is analytic and hence
that a is a removable singularity of f .

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2. If f has an isolated singularity at a then z = a is a

removable singularity if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a

Proof. Suppose f is analytic in {z | 0 < |z − a| < R} and define

(z − a)f (z) for z 6= a
g (z) = Suppose limz→a (z − a)f (z) = 0; then
0 for z = a.
g is continuous on B(z; R). We now show that g is analytic and hence
that a is a removable singularity of f .
We show that g is analytic by applying Morera’s Theorem. Let T be a
triangle in B(a; R) and let ∆ be the inside of T together with T . (1) If
a 6∈ ∆ then T ∼ 0 Rin {z | 0 < |z − a| < R} and so by Cauchy’s Theorem
(Theorem IV.6.6), T g = 0.

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2. If f has an isolated singularity at a then z = a is a

removable singularity if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a

Proof. Suppose f is analytic in {z | 0 < |z − a| < R} and define

(z − a)f (z) for z 6= a
g (z) = Suppose limz→a (z − a)f (z) = 0; then
0 for z = a.
g is continuous on B(z; R). We now show that g is analytic and hence
that a is a removable singularity of f .
We show that g is analytic by applying Morera’s Theorem. Let T be a
triangle in B(a; R) and let ∆ be the inside of T together with T . (1) If
a 6∈ ∆ then T ∼ 0 Rin {z | 0 < |z − a| < R} and so by Cauchy’s Theorem
(Theorem IV.6.6), T g = 0.

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 1)

Proof (continued). (2) If a is vertex of T then we have T = [a, b, c, a].

Let x ∈ [a, b] and y ∈ [c, a] and form triangle T1 = [a, x, y , a]. If P is a
polygon [x, b, c, y , x] then
Z Z Z Z
g (z) dz = g (z) dz + g (z) dz = g (z) dz
T T1 P T1

since P ∼ 0 in {a | 0 < |z − a| < R}:

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 3)

Proof (continued). Since g is continuous and g (a) = 0, then for any

ε > 0, x and y can bechosen such that |g (z)| < ε/`(T ) for any z on T1 .
R  R R
Hence  g (z) dz  = 
T1 g (z) dz  < ε. Therefore, T g (z) dz = 0.

T

(3) If a ∈ ∆ and T = [x, y , z, x] then consider triangles T1 = [x, y , a, x],

T2 = [y , z, a, y ], and T3 = [z, x, a, z]:

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 3)

Proof (continued). Since g is continuous and g (a) = 0, then for any

ε > 0, x and y can bechosen such that |g (z)| < ε/`(T ) for any z on T1 .
R  R R
Hence  g (z) dz  = 
T1 g (z) dz  < ε. Therefore, T g (z) dz = 0.

T

(3) If a ∈ ∆ and T = [x, y , z, x] then consider triangles T1 = [x, y , a, x],

T2 = [y , z, a, y ], and T3 = [z, x, a, z]:

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 3)

Proof (continued). Since g is continuous and g (a) = 0, then for any

ε > 0, x and y can bechosen such that |g (z)| < ε/`(T ) for any z on T1 .
R  R R
Hence  g (z) dz  = 
T1 g (z) dz  < ε. Therefore, T g (z) dz = 0.

T

(3) If a ∈ ∆ and T = [x, y , z, x] then consider triangles T1 = [x, y , a, x],

T2 = [y , z, a, y ], and T3 = [z, x, a, z]:

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 4)

Theorem V.1.2. If f has an isolated singularity at a then z = a is a

removable singularity if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a

R
Proof (continued). As above, Tj g (z) dz = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3 and so
R R R R
T g (z) dz = T1 g (z) dz + T2 g (z) dz + T2 g (z) dz = 0. Therefore, by
(1), (2), and (3), g must be analytic by Morera’s Theorem, and f has a
removable singularity at z = a
Next, suppose f has an isolated, removable singularity at z = a. Then
there is analytic g : B(a; R) → C such that g (z) = f (z) for
0 < |z − a| < R (by definition of isolated singularity). Then
limz→a (z − a)f (z) = limz→a (z − a)g (z) = 0.

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 Theorem V.1.2

Theorem V.1.2 (continued 4)

Theorem V.1.2. If f has an isolated singularity at a then z = a is a

removable singularity if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a

R
Proof (continued). As above, Tj g (z) dz = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3 and so
R R R R
T g (z) dz = T1 g (z) dz + T2 g (z) dz + T2 g (z) dz = 0. Therefore, by
(1), (2), and (3), g must be analytic by Morera’s Theorem, and f has a
removable singularity at z = a
Next, suppose f has an isolated, removable singularity at z = a. Then
there is analytic g : B(a; R) → C such that g (z) = f (z) for
0 < |z − a| < R (by definition of isolated singularity). Then
limz→a (z − a)f (z) = limz→a (z − a)g (z) = 0.

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 Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4. If G is a region with a ∈ G , and if f is analytic in

G \ {a} with a pole at z = a, then there is a positive integer m and an
g (z)
analytic function g : G → C such that f (z) = .
(z − a)m
Proof. Suppose f has a pole at z = a. Then limz→a |f (z)| = ∞ and
limz→a 1/f (z) = 0. So 1/f has a removable
 discontinuity at z = a by
1/f (z) for z 6= a
Theorem V.1.2. So the function h(z) = is analytic
0 for z = a
in B(a; R) for some R > 0 (since a pole is an isolated singularity).

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 Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4. If G is a region with a ∈ G , and if f is analytic in

G \ {a} with a pole at z = a, then there is a positive integer m and an
g (z)
analytic function g : G → C such that f (z) = .
(z − a)m
Proof. Suppose f has a pole at z = a. Then limz→a |f (z)| = ∞ and
limz→a 1/f (z) = 0. So 1/f has a removable
 discontinuity at z = a by
1/f (z) for z 6= a
Theorem V.1.2. So the function h(z) = is analytic
0 for z = a
in B(a; R) for some R > 0 (since a pole is an isolated singularity). Since
h(a) = 0, by Corollary IV.3.9, h(z) = (z − a)m h1 (z) for some analytic h1
where h1 (a) 6= 0 and m ∈ N. Then f (z) = 1/h(z) = g (z)/(z − a)m where
g (z) = 1/h1 (z).

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 Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4

Proposition V.1.4. If G is a region with a ∈ G , and if f is analytic in

G \ {a} with a pole at z = a, then there is a positive integer m and an
g (z)
analytic function g : G → C such that f (z) = .
(z − a)m
Proof. Suppose f has a pole at z = a. Then limz→a |f (z)| = ∞ and
limz→a 1/f (z) = 0. So 1/f has a removable
 discontinuity at z = a by
1/f (z) for z 6= a
Theorem V.1.2. So the function h(z) = is analytic
0 for z = a
in B(a; R) for some R > 0 (since a pole is an isolated singularity). Since
h(a) = 0, by Corollary IV.3.9, h(z) = (z − a)m h1 (z) for some analytic h1
where h1 (a) 6= 0 and m ∈ N. Then f (z) = 1/h(z) = g (z)/(z − a)m where
g (z) = 1/h1 (z).

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 Corollary V.1.18

Corollary V.1.18
Corollary V.1.18. Let z = a be an isolated singularity of f and let
∞
X
f (z) = an (a − z)n be its Laurent expansion in ann(a; 0, R). Then
−∞
(a) z = a is a removable singularity if and only if an = 0 for
n ≤ −1,
(b) a = z is a pole of order m if and only if a−m 6= 0 and an = 0
for n ≤ −(m + 1), and
(c) z = a is an essential singularity if and only if an 6= 0 for
infinitely many negative integers n.
Proof. (a) If an = 0 for n ≤ −1 then g (z) = ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − a) on B(a; R)
is analytic
P∞and equals f non ann(a; 0, R). Conversely, if
f (z) = n=0 an (z − a) on ann(a; 0, R), then
∞
!
X
lim (z − a)f (z) = lim an (z − a)n+1 = 0
z→a z→a
n=0
and f has a removable singularity at z = a by Theorem V.1.2.
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 Corollary V.1.18

Corollary V.1.18
Corollary V.1.18. Let z = a be an isolated singularity of f and let
∞
X
f (z) = an (a − z)n be its Laurent expansion in ann(a; 0, R). Then
−∞
(a) z = a is a removable singularity if and only if an = 0 for
n ≤ −1,
(b) a = z is a pole of order m if and only if a−m 6= 0 and an = 0
for n ≤ −(m + 1), and
(c) z = a is an essential singularity if and only if an 6= 0 for
infinitely many negative integers n.
Proof. (a) If an = 0 for n ≤ −1 then g (z) = ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − a) on B(a; R)
is analytic
P∞and equals f non ann(a; 0, R). Conversely, if
f (z) = n=0 an (z − a) on ann(a; 0, R), then
∞
!
X
lim (z − a)f (z) = lim an (z − a)n+1 = 0
z→a z→a
n=0
and f has a removable singularity at z = a by Theorem V.1.2.
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 Corollary V.1.18

Corollary V.1.18 (continued)

Proof (continued). (b) Suppose an = 0 for n ≤ −(m + 1). Then

(z − a)m f (z) has a Laurent expansion which has no negative powers of
(z − a). By part (a), (z − a)m f (z) has a removable singularity at z = a.
So, by definition, f has a pole of order m at z = a. Each of these steps is
“if and only if,” so the converse holds.
(c) For an essential singularity at z = a, neither (a) nor (b) holds and
hence (c) must be the case (and conversely since both (a) and (b) are “if
and only if”).

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 Corollary V.1.18

Corollary V.1.18 (continued)

Proof (continued). (b) Suppose an = 0 for n ≤ −(m + 1). Then

(z − a)m f (z) has a Laurent expansion which has no negative powers of
(z − a). By part (a), (z − a)m f (z) has a removable singularity at z = a.
So, by definition, f has a pole of order m at z = a. Each of these steps is
“if and only if,” so the converse holds.
(c) For an essential singularity at z = a, neither (a) nor (b) holds and
hence (c) must be the case (and conversely since both (a) and (b) are “if
and only if”).

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 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem V.1.21

Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem.

If f has an essential singularity at z = a then for every δ > 0,
{f (ann(a; 0, δ)}− = C.
Proof. Suppose that f is analytic in ann(a; 0, R). We need to show that
every complex number is a limit point of f (ann(a; 0, δ)) (for every δ). If
this is NOT the case (we go for a contradiction) then there is δ > 0, c ∈ C
and ε > 0 such that |f (z) − c| ≥ ε for all z ∈ G = ann(a; 0, δ).

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 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem V.1.21

Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem.

If f has an essential singularity at z = a then for every δ > 0,
{f (ann(a; 0, δ)}− = C.
Proof. Suppose that f is analytic in ann(a; 0, R). We need to show that
every complex number is a limit point of f (ann(a; 0, δ)) (for every δ). If
this is NOT the case (we go for a contradiction) then there is δ > 0, c ∈ C
and ε > 0 such that |f (z) − c| ≥ ε for all z ∈ G = ann(a; 0, δ). Then
 
 f (z) − c  ε
lim   ≥ lim = ∞,
z→a z −a  z→a |z − a|

which implies that (f (z) − c)/(z − a) has a pole at z = a. If m is the

order of the pole (known to exist by Proposition V.1.4), then
limz→a |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| = 0 by Corollary V.1.18(b).

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 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem V.1.21

Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem.

If f has an essential singularity at z = a then for every δ > 0,
{f (ann(a; 0, δ)}− = C.
Proof. Suppose that f is analytic in ann(a; 0, R). We need to show that
every complex number is a limit point of f (ann(a; 0, δ)) (for every δ). If
this is NOT the case (we go for a contradiction) then there is δ > 0, c ∈ C
and ε > 0 such that |f (z) − c| ≥ ε for all z ∈ G = ann(a; 0, δ). Then
 
 f (z) − c  ε
lim   ≥ lim = ∞,
z→a z −a  z→a |z − a|

which implies that (f (z) − c)/(z − a) has a pole at z = a. If m is the

order of the pole (known to exist by Proposition V.1.4), then
limz→a |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| = 0 by Corollary V.1.18(b).

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 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem V.1.21 (continued)

Proof. We know

|z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| ≥ |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| − |z − a|m+1 |c|,

or
|z − a|m+1 |f (z)| ≤ |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| + |z − a|m+1 |c|.
So

lim |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| ≤ lim |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| + lim |z − a|m+1 |c| = 0 + 0,

z→a z→a z→a

and limz→a |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| = 0 (remember m ≥ 1). But then Theorem

V.1.2 implies that f (z)(z − a)m has a removable singularity at z = a. By
Proposition V.1.4, f has a pole of order m, CONTRADICTING the
hypothesis that f has an essential singularity at a.

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 Theorem V.1.21. Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem V.1.21 (continued)

Proof. We know

|z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| ≥ |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| − |z − a|m+1 |c|,

or
|z − a|m+1 |f (z)| ≤ |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| + |z − a|m+1 |c|.
So

lim |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| ≤ lim |z − a|m+1 |f (z) − c| + lim |z − a|m+1 |c| = 0 + 0,

z→a z→a z→a

and limz→a |z − a|m+1 |f (z)| = 0 (remember m ≥ 1). But then Theorem

V.1.2 implies that f (z)(z − a)m has a removable singularity at z = a. By
Proposition V.1.4, f has a pole of order m, CONTRADICTING the
hypothesis that f has an essential singularity at a.

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