“DESIGN, FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS OF

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM APPARATUS”

A project report submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
ANANTHAPURAMU - 515 002, A.P, INDIA.

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B.VIJAYA KRISHNA 163R1A0354
CH.TEJA 163R1A0346
B.VENKATESWARLU 163R1A0352
SK.YASIN BABU 163R1A0357
B.PRASANNA KUMAR 163R1A0325
T.KIRAN KUMAR 143R1A0313

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. S. NAGA KISHORE M.E (Ph.D)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RAMIREDDY SUBBARAMI REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
NH-5, KADANUTHALA, KAVALI, SPSR NELLORE Dist.
(2016-2020)
RAMIREDDY SUBBARAMI REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
NH-5, KADANUTHALA-524142, KAVALI, SPSR Nellore Dist., (A.P)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “DESIGN, FABRICATION AND
ANALYSIS OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM APPARATUS” is a bonafide
work submitted by
B.VIJAYA KRISHNA 163R1A0354
CH.TEJA 163R1A0346
B.VENKATESWARLU 163R1A0352
SK.YASIN BABU 163R1A0357
B.PRASANNA KUMAR 163R1A0325
T.KIRAN KUMAR 143R1A0313
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of “BACHELOR
OF TECHNOLOGY” in “MECHANICAL ENGINEERING” during the academic
year 2016-2020.

Project Guide: Head of Department:

Mr. S. NAGA KISHORE M.E (Ph.D) Dr.C.V. SUBBA REDDY Ph.D.
Associate professor, Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engg. Department of Mechanical Engg.

External Examiner : ____________

Date : ____________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to our guide Mr. S. NAGA
KISHORE Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, RSR
ENGINEERING COLLEGE for his valuable guidance and suggestions in each and every
stage of our project.
We are grateful to Dr. C.V.SUBBA REDDY, Professor and Head of the
Department, for his co-operation and support that enabled us to complete this project.
Our Special Thanks and Love goes to Dr. A.S.RAO, Professor and
Principal of the college for helping us in many regards by his timely suggestions in
successful completion of this work.
We are highly thankful to our beloved Director Prof. Dr. K.RAJA REDDY
for his co-operation in completing our project.
We greatly indebted to Mr. PRATAP KUMAR REDDY, Correspondent
of the “RAMIREDDY SUBBARAMI REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE” for providing
the good infrastructure to complete the project.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all faculty members of
Mechanical Engineering without whom this project would not have been possible. We
also wish to express our thanks to all our friends who directly or indirectly helped us to
complete our project.
Last, but not least, we are highly grateful and indebted to our beloved
parents and all our family members who have continuously encouraged and motivated
us throughout the period of our study.

B.VIJAYA KRISHNA 163R1A0354

CH.TEJA 163R1A0346
B.VENKATESWARLU 163R1A0352
SK.YASIN BABU 163R1A0357
B.PRASANNA KUMAR 163R1A0325
T.KIRAN KUMAR 143R1A0313
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1-2
1.2 Types of fluids 3
1.2.1 Ideal fluids 3
1.2.2 Real fluids 3
1.2.2.1 Newtonian fluids 3
1.2.2.2 Non-Newtonian fluids 3
1.3 Types of fluid flows 3-5
1.3.1 Steady and unsteady flow 4
1.3.2 Uniform and non-uniform flow 4
1.3.3 Laminar and turbulent flow 4
1.3.4 Compressible and incompressible flow 4
1.3.5 Rotational and irrotational flow 5
1.4 Bernoulli’s principle 5
1.5 Significance of each term in Bernoulli equation 5-6
1.6 Basic idea about converging and diverging 7
1.7 Hydraulic gradient line and Total energy line 8-9
2 Literature survey 10-12
2.0 Introduction 10-11
2.1 Objective of the work 12
3 Design and Fabrication of Bernoulli’s apparatus 13-26
3.0 Introduction 13
3.1 Design of Bernoulli’s Apparatus 13
3.1.1 Design of Base 13
3.1.2 Design of Tank setup 14
3.1.2.1 Design of Over head tanks 15
3.1.2.2 Design of Sump tank 16
3.1.2.3 Design of Measuring tank 17
3.1.3 Design of 0.5HP SP Pump 18
3.1.4 Design of Venturimeter Setup 18
3.1.4.1 Design of Venturimeter Section 19
3.1.4.2 Design of piezometric tubes 19
3.1.5 Design of PVC pipes (∅25𝑚𝑚) 20
3.1.6 Design of assembly of Bernoulli’s apparatus 20
3.2 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s apparatus 21-26
3.2.1 Base 21
3.2.2 Tank Setup 22-23
3.3.3.1 Over head tanks 22
3.2.2.2 Sump tank 23
3.2.2.3 Measuring tank 23
3.2.3 0.5HP Self priming Pump 24
3.2.4 Venturimeter with piezometric tubes setup 24
3.2.5 PVC equipment 25-26
3.2.6 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s apparatus 26
4 Experimentation and Observations 27-35
4.0 Experimental procedure for Bernoulli’s equation 27
4.1 Observations 27-28
4.2 Calculation formulae 29-30
4.3 calculations 31-33
5 Results and Discussions 34-35
Conclusion 36
References 37
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO
1.1 Nozzle and Diffuser 7
1.2 Explanation of HGL and TEL 8
1.3 HGL and TEL of converging and diverging section 9
3.1 Design of Base 14
3.2 Design of Left Overhead tank 15
3.3 Design of Right Overhead tank 15
3.4 Design of Sump tank 16
3.5 Design of Measuring tank 17
3.6 Design of 0.5HP SP Pump 18
3.7 Design of Venturimeter setup 18
3.8 Design of Venturimeter section 19
3.9 Design of piezometric tubes 19
3.10 Design of PVC Equipment 20
3.11 Design of assembly of Bernoulli’s apparatus 20
3.12 Base 21
3.13 Over head tank 22
3.14 Sump tank 22
3.15 Measuring tank 23
3.16 0.5 HP Self priming Pump 23
3.17 Venturimeter with piezometric tubes setup 24
3.18 PVC pipe and PVC fitter 24
3.19 PVC coupling and PVC coupler 25
3.20 PVC Ball Valve 25
3.21 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s apparatus 26
4.1 Analysis of Datum head 28
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO
4.1 Area of Ducts 28
4.2 Observation readings 1 29
4.3 Observation readings 2 29
4.4 Head calculations 30
4.5 Velocity calculations 30

LIST OF GRAPHS
GRAPH.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO
5.1 Pressure,velocity and total head vs Distance 34
5.2 Flow volume vs head number 35
 ABSTRACT
Bernoulli’s apparatus is one of the simple but fundamental experimental devices of the
fluid mechanics. with this setup anyone could be able to verify physically the Bernoulli’s
equation which is foundation of fluid mechanics. it helps us to understand the basic components
like fluid friction pressure head velocity head and many other related terminology about static
and dynamic fluid flow. Present work gives an idea about the design, construction and analysis
of Bernoulli’s apparatus.

It includes the detail study of Bernoulli theorem and integration of Euler’s equation for
one dimensional fluid flow. This work also proves the Bernoulli’s equation by using
Bernoulli’s apparatus which designed and fabricated in RSR Engineering college to know the
exact behavior of operating conditions for the experiment. The design is done by using Autocad
software and solid works software for attaining a zero error and perfect dimensions with a 2-D
and 3-D views.
 NOMENCLATURE

NOTATION DEFINITION

g = Gravitational acceleration, 9.81m/s2

P = Pressure of fluid, Pa
U = Velocity off liquid, m/s
Z = Height above datum, m

𝛾 = Density of fluid, kg/m3

P = Static pressure of the fluid,

𝜌 = Specific Weight of the flowing fluid

= Dynamic or velocity head

= Pressure head

𝑉 = velocity of flow, from continuity equation.

𝑉 = velocity of flow, from Bernoulli’s equation

Cd = Coefficient of discharge

Q = Discharge Volume m3/sec

X = Pitot tube water height

t = time taken for 10cm rise of water in tank

 Department of mechanical engineering, RSREC

CHAPTER-1
1.0 Introduction
The Bernoulli equation has application in many branches of science and engineering.
Bernoulli’s equation is based on the conservation of energy and energy equation that is
described from Euler’s force equation. When it is applied to fluid passing through pipe at first
it is considered the fluid is ideal i.e, viscosity of fluid is 0. The velocity of every liquid particle
across any cross section of pipe is uniform, irrotational and incompressible.

1.1Background

The Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) discovered the
principle that bears his name while conducting experiments concerning an even more
fundamental concept: the conservation of energy. This is a law of physics that holds that a
system isolated from all outside factors maintains the same total amount of energy, though
energy transformations from one form to another take place.

For instance, if person was standing at the top of a building holding a baseball over the
side, the ball would have a certain quantity of potential energy which is the energy that an
object posseses by virtue of its position. Once the ball is dropped, it immediately begins losing
potential energy and gaining kinetic energy which is the energy that an object possesses by
virtue of its motion. Since the total energy must remain constant, potential and kinetic
energy have an inverse relationship: as the value of one variable decreases, that of the other
increases in exact proportion.

The ball cannot keep falling forever, losing potential energy and gaining kinetic energy.
In fact, it can never gain an amount of kinetic energy greater than the potential energy it
possessed in the first place. At the moment before the ball hits the ground, its kinetic energy is
equal to the potential energy it possessed at the top of the building. Correspondingly, its
potential energy is zero which is the same amount of kinetic energy it possessed before it was
dropped.

Then, as the ball hits the ground, the energy is dispersed. Most of it goes into the ground,
and depending on the rigidity of the ball and the ground, this energy may cause the ball to
bounce. Some of the energy may appear in the form of sound, produced as the ball hits bottom,

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and some will manifest as heat. The total energy, however, will not be lost and it will simply
have changed form.

Bernoulli was one of the first scientists to propose what is known as the kinetic theory
of gases: that gas, like all matter, is composed of tiny molecules in constant motion. In the
1730s, he conducted experiments in the conservation of energy using liquids, observing how
water flows through pipes of varying diameter. In a segment of pipe with a relatively large
diameter, he observed, water flowed slowly, but as it entered a segment of smaller diameter,
its speed increased.

It was clear that some force had to be acting on the water to increase its speed.
Earlier, Robert Boyle (1627-1691) had demonstrated that pressure and volume have an inverse
relationship, and Bernoulli seems to have applied Boyle's findings to the present situation.
Clearly the volume of water flowing through the narrower pipe at any given moment was less
than that flowing through the wider one. This suggested, according to Boyle's law, that the
pressure in the wider pipe must be greater.

As fluid moves from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the volume of that fluid that moves
a given distance in a given time period does not change. But since the width of the narrower
pipe is smaller, the fluid must move faster in order to achieve that result. One way to illustrate
this is to observe the behaviour of a river: in a wide, unconstructed region, it flows slowly, but

if its flow is narrowed by canyon walls (for instance), then it speeds up dramatically.

The above is a result of the fact that water is a fluid, and having the characteristics of a
fluid, it adjusts its shape to fit that of its container or other solid objects it encounters on its
path. Since the volume passing through a given length of pipe during a given period of time
will be the same, there must be a decrease in pressure. Hence Bernoulli's conclusion: the slower
the rate of flow, the higher the pressure, and the faster the rate of flow, the lower the pressure.

Bernoulli published the results of his work in Hydrodynamica (1738), but did not
present his ideas or their implications clearly. Later, his friend the German
mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) generalized his findings in the statement known
today as Bernoulli's principle.

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1.2 TYPES OF FLUIDS

Fluids are classified into two types and they are ideal fluids and real fluids.

1.2.1 Ideal fluids

Ideal fluids are those fluids which does not exist practically, which does not have the
properties like; viscosity, compressibility and surface tension. Resistance is irrespective to
these fluids.

1.2.2 Real fluids

Real fluid are those fluids which imbibes the properties like; viscosity, compressibility
and surface tension. They really exist in nature and are mathematical analyzed of fluid flow
problems.

1.2.2.1 Newtonian fluid

Newtonian fluid are the types of fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity. They
have a linear relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient. E.g.; water, air, etc.

1.2.2.2 Non-Newtonian fluid

Non Newtonian fluids are the type of fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity. The behaviour of viscosity is given by the power law equation. e.g.: milk, blood,
liquid cement.

1.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOWS

The different types of fluid flow are:

1. Steady and Unsteady Flow

2. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow

3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

4. Compressible and Incompressible Flow

5. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

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1.3.1 Steady and unsteady flow :

A flow is defined steady when its fluid characteristics like velocity, density, and
pressure at a point do not change with time.

A flow is defined unsteady, when the fluid characteristics velocity, pressure and density
at a point changes with respect to time.

1.3.2 uniform and non-uniform flow:

Uniform flow is the type of fluid flow in which the velocity of the flow at any given
time does not change with respect to space [Along the length of direction of flow].

A non-uniform flow is a type of fluid flow in which the velocity of the flow at any given
time changes with respect to space.

1.3.3 Laminar and Turbulent flow:

Laminar and Turbulent flow in a pipe flow is characterised based on Reynold number.

Laminar flow is defined as a type of flow in which the fluid particles move along a well-defined
streamline or paths, such that all the streamlines are straight and parallel to each other. In a
laminar flow, fluid particles move in laminas. The layers in laminar flow glide smoothly over
the adjacent layer. The flow is laminar when the Reynolds number is more than 4000.

Turbulent flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-zag manner.
The movement in zig-zag manner results in high turbulence and eddies are formed. This results
in high energy loss. The flow is turbulent when the Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

1.3.4 Compressible and incompressible flow :

A compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from
one point to another point. This means the density is not constant.

Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid is constant from one
point to another. Liquids are generally incompressible and gases are compressible.

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1.3.5 Rotational and Irrotational flow :

A type of flow in which the fluid particles rotate about their own axis while flowing along the
streamlines is called a rotational flow. If the fluid particles while flowing along the streamline
do not rotate about their own axis, then the flow is called irrotational flow.

1.4 Bernoulli’s principle

Bernoulli's principle describes the relationship between the pressure and the velocity of
a moving fluid (i.e., air or water). Bernoulli's principle states that as the velocity of fluid flow
increases, the pressure exerted by that fluid decreases.

It states in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point
of the fluid is constant. The total energy mainly consists of summation of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential or datum energy. Bernoulli’s theorem is the principle of energy
conservation for ideal fluids in steady and streamlines flow and it is the basis for many
engineering applications.

Mathematically, the Bernoulli’s theorem is written as:

𝑽𝟐 𝑷
+ + Z = constant
𝟐𝒈 𝜸

Where (in SI units)

P=static pressure of fluid at the cross section

𝛾=specific weight of the flowing fluid

g=acceleration due to gravity;

v= mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

Z=elevation head of the centre of the cross section with respect to a datum.

1.5 Significance of each term of Bernoulli’s equation:

Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the three quantities, i.e , and Z is a

constant. From the principle of dimensional homogeneity it implies that each term of equation
must have the same dimensions and, therefore, the nature of quantities must be same. let
examine what each term of equation stands for.

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The first term , represents kinetic energy of flow per unit weight (per kg or per N)

of fluid. Kinetic energy = * mass *V2, and kinetic energy divided by the weight of the fluid
( )∗ ( )∗
= = .
( )

The second term represents ability of unit weight of fluid to do work by virtue of its

pressure. Let a net pressure p act over a fluid element of cross-sectional area dA resulting in a
pressure force pdA acting in the direction of flow. When the fluid element moves a distance ds,
work is done on the element by the pressure force which is equal to pdAds. The work done by

the pressure force per unit weight of fluid element is = . The term is, therefore, the

work done by the pressure force per unit weight of fluid and it known as flow work or flow
energy. It is sometimes misleadingly termed as pressure energy. When a pressure is applied to
a fluid, it gets compressed to some extent and the elastic energy is imparted to the fluid. The
flow energy has nothing to do with the elastic energy.

The third term Z is the potential energy per unit weight of fluid and represents the
energy given to a unit weight of fluid in raising it from datum level to a height Z above itThe
potential energy of weight Wof fluid in raising it to a height Z above the datum level is WZ,
and, therefore, potential energy per unit weight of fluid is W Z/ W= Z. The potential energy is
also sometimes known as the gravitational energy.

Each term of the Bernoulli's equation, therefore, represents some form of energy per

unit of weight of fluid and has the dimension = = = 𝐿 . Since each term has

alength dimension, it can be represented graphically with reference to an arbitrarily chosen

datum plane. The quantities , and Z are, therefore, known as velocity head, pressure head

and elevation or datum head and their sum is called the total head.

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1.6 Basic idea about converging and diverging:

A converging and a diverging section of a cylindrical duct act as follows.The
converging section of the duct is a nozzle and the diverging section of the duct act as a diffuser.

A decreases A increases

V increases V decreases

P decreases P increases

This is a Nozzle This is a diffuser

Fig 1.1 Nozzle and Diffuser

So in a converging-diverging section of a rectangular duct the H.G.L. (Hydraulic Grade

Line) and E.G.L (Energy Grade Line) changes for the change of pressure and the velocity of
flow. A most common example of converging and diverging section is a venture nozzle and
for visualizing the changes of H.G.L. and E.G.L. Bernoulli’s apparatus is the most efficient
way and these are shown in fig no.1.1. Loss of head inside duct is a common phenomenon in
fluid mechanics as well as minor losses like loss due to sudden contraction, loss due to sudden
enlargement, fitting loss, elbow loss etc. Bernoulli’s apparatus can show the major loss and
two other minor losses of expansion and contraction termed also as “Eddy Loss”. These are the
main purpose of designing and construction of Bernoulli’s Apparatus.

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1.7 Hydraulic Gradient Line and Total Energy Line:

Let us discuss the Hydraulic gradient line and Total energy line with the help of the
diagram.

Fig 1.2 Explanation of HGL and TEL

1.7.1 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Hydraulic Grade Line i.e. HGL is defined as a line joining all the liquid levels indicated
by piezometers connected to the pipeline throughout. If HGL is above the center of the
pipeline, the pressure is positive and HGL is below the center of the pipeline, the pressure
is negative.

Consider a pipeline that is carrying a liquid from one point to the other and the
piezometer is attached to this pipe at any random point.

The liquid rises in the tube and represents the pressure head (P/γ) above the center of
the pipe. The height of the center of the pipe above any selected datum indicates the datum
head (Z) as shown in the above figure1.2.

It means, the liquid level in the piezometer records, the sum of (P/γ +Z) with respect to
the selected datum. This is called as Piezoelectric Head.

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If many piezometers are placed along the pipeline at random locations, then the line
joining the liquid levels in the piezometers indicates the variation of the piezoelectric head
along the whole pipeline. This line is called a Hydraulic Grade Line.

1.7.2 Total Energy Line (TEL)

Total Energy Line i.e. TEL is defined as a line joining the points representing the total
head (P/γ + V²/2g + Z).

When the velocity head (V²/2g) at a section is added to the piezoelectric head i.e. (P/γ
+Z), then the total head (total energy) of fluid at that section is obtained as shown in the figure.
Therefore, the total heads at different sections along the pipeline can be plotted. The line joining
all these points is called as Total Energy Line (TEL).

For ideal or non-viscous fluid there are no losses hence TEL for that fluid is a horizontal
line. But for real fluid, it will always slope down in the direction of flow because the energy
must decrease in the direction of flow.

Fig 1.3 HGL and TEL of converging and diverging section

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review
Giovanni Venturi [1] (1746-1822), the Italian physicist, who is credited with developing
the Venturi tube, an instrument for measuring the drop in pressure that takes place as the
velocity of a fluid increases. It consists of a glass tube with an inward-sloping area in the
middle, and manometers, devices for measuring pressure, at three places: the entrance, the point
of constriction, and the exit. The Venturi meter provided a consistent means of demonstrating
Bernoulli's principle.

Ludwig Prandtl [2], the German physicist (1875-1953) In 1904, he was conducting
experiments in liquid flow, the first effort in well over a century to advance the findings of
Bernoulli and others. Observing the flow of liquid in a tube, Prandtl found that a tiny portion
of the liquid adheres to the surface of the tube in the form of a thin film, and does not continue
to move. This he called the viscous boundary layer. Like Bernoulli's principle itself, Prandtl's
findings would play a significant part in aerodynamics, or the study of airflow and its
principles. They are also significant in hydrodynamics, or the study of water flow and its
principles, a discipline Bernoulli founded.

In Traffic Flow Theory, Daiheng Ni [3] invented a Bernoulli model. This model is
based on the Bernoulli principle, which states that for an ideal fluid (e.g., air) on which no
external work is performed, an increase in velocity occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure or a change in the fluid’s gravitational potential energy. When the fluid flows through
a pipe (e.g., the intake manifold) with a constriction (e.g., the throttle) in it, the fluid velocity at
the constriction must increase in order to satisfy the equation of continuity, while its pressure
must decrease because of conservation of energy. The limiting condition of this effect is choked
flow, where the mass flow rate is independent of the downstream pressure (e.g., in the
combustion chamber), depending only on the temperature and pressure on the upstream side of
the constriction (e.g., the atmosphere). The physical point at which the choking occurs is when
the fluid velocity at the constriction is at sonic conditions or at a Mach number (the ratio of
fluid velocity and sound speed) of 1.

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In Biermann's Handbook of Pulp and Paper (Third Edition), Pratima Bajpai [4], stated
that Bernoulli's principle is valid for any fluid (liquid or gas) in 2018.Here the principle is
especially important to fluids moving at a high velocity. Its principle is the basis of venturi
scrubbers, thermo-compressors, aspirators, and other devices where fluids are moving at high
velocities. It also explains cavitation in fluids (such as in valves and pumps). The sum of
pressure (potential energy) and kinetic energy in any system is constant (i.e., energy is
conserved if frictional losses are ignored). Thus when a fluid flows through areas of different
diameters, there is a change in velocity. The change in velocity leads to a change in kinetic
energy and so the pressure changes as well. A decreased pipe diameter means an increase in
velocity and kinetic energy and a decrease in pressure.

In Chapter 3 of Materials for Energy Efficiency and Thermal Comfort in Buildings,

J.Jones [5] introduced natural ventilation Which is design strategy that can both reduce energy
consumption and provide occupants with a positive psycho-physical connection between inside
and out. When designing buildings for natural ventilation, the design of the roof can play a
significant role in the ventilation strategy. Bernoulli’s principle indicates that as wind speed
increases, pressure will decrease. Because of this, as wind flows over a building, it typically
accelerates producing a low pressure uplifting force. This is why roofs often fail during high
wind events such as hurricanes. This condition may be enhanced by moderately sloping the
roof while smoothly compressing and accelerating the airflow on the windward surface of the
roof and near the ridge. Utilization of the Bernoulli principle through the design of the roof can
lead to solutions that intentionally create low pressure conditions to draw stale air out of the
building.

Dr. Thomas DeVilbliss [6] invented an atomizer nozzle (aspirator nozzle) for
producing a fine spray of a liquid based on the Venturi effect. Which is based on the Bernoulli’s
principle. For instance take a perfume atomizer, In fact, the idea behind an atomizer for a
perfume spray bottle can also be found in certain garden-hose attachments, such as those used
to provide a high-pressure car wash. The air inside the perfume bottle is moving relatively
slowly; therefore, according to Bernoulli's principle, its pressure is relatively high, and it exerts
a strong downward force on the perfume itself. In an atomizer there is a narrow tube running
from near the bottom of the bottle to the top. At the top of the perfume bottle, it opens inside
another tube, this one perpendicular to the first tube. At one end of the horizontal tube is a
simple squeeze-pump which causes air to flow quickly through it. As a result, the pressure

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toward the top of the bottle is reduced, and the perfume flows upward along the vertical tube,
drawn from the area of higher pressure at the bottom. Once it is in the upper tube, the squeeze-
pump helps to eject it from the spray nozzle. A carburetor works on a similar principle, though
in that case the lower pressure at the top draws air rather than liquid.

Sir George Cayley [7] discovered the four aerodynamic forces of flight: weight, lift,
drag, thrust; and cambered wings, basis for the design of the modern aeroplane. And also stated
that There are three basic forces to be considered in aerodynamics: thrust, which moves an
airplane forward; drag, which holds it back; and lift, which keeps it airborne. Lift is generally
explained by three theories: Bernoulli's principle , the Coanda effect , and Newton's third law
of motion . In 1996, Suplee, C. "Everyday science explained." Washington, D.C.: The National
Geographic Society [pp. 54-55].Explained how we use Bernoulli’s principle in the
aerodynamics in a simplified manner. Concerning flight, Bernoulli's Principle has to do with
the shape of an airplane's wing. The bottom is flat, while the top is curved. Air travels across
the top and bottom in the same time, so air travels slower on the bottom (creating more
pressure) and faster on top (creating less pressure). This supposedly keeps the plane in the air.

2.1 Objective of the Work :

Though various works are available on the Bernoulli’s principle, the main intention of
present work is to study and observe Bernoulli’s principle practically by designing and
constructing an apparatus. The objectives of the present project work are given below.

 To visualize the Bernoulli's equation and the conditions for which it applies and to
verify Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship between pressure head
and kinetic head.
 To define and visualize the changes in energy gradient line and the hydraulic gradient
line and to measure the flow rate and throat area and review how it is used to measure
velocity.
 To Demonstrate the use of manometer for measuring manometric head in the "Bernoulli
apparatus" that consists of a horizontal flow in a contracting section, a constant cross
sectional area throat, and an expanding section.
 To observe the various losses of flow through conduits of circular tube sections.

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CHAPTER-3

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BERNOULLI’S APPARATUS

3.0 Introduction

SolidWorks is a solid modelling computer-aided design and computer-aided

engineering computer program that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It is created,
developed and owned by Dassault system of FRANCE.

In this chapter we will discuss the design and drafting of various essential components
required for fabricating the Bernoulli’s apparatus.

3.1 Design of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

The Design of Bernoulli’s apparatus experimental setup consisting of following

components.

3.1.1 Base
3.1.2 Tank Setup
3.1.2.1 Overhead tanks
3.1.2.2 Sump tank
3.1.2.3 Measuring tank

3.1.3 0.5HP Self Priming Pump

3.1.4 Venturimeter Setup

3.1.4.1 Venturimeter Section

3.1.4.2 Pizeometric tubes

3.1.5 PVC pipes (∅25mm )

3.1.1 Design of Base

The design of the base consists of the following steps,

 This Base part was designed by using SOLID WORKS 2015 X64 EDITION
software.

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 A frame with dimensions 1400*800*800 mm was created by using line, Extrude

commands.
 A table with dimensions 1500*900*25 mm was created on the top side of the frame.

Fig 3.1: Design of the Base

3.1.2 Tank Setup

3.1.2.1 Over head tanks

The Designing of the overhead tanks can be done as follows

 Select the line option and draw a rectangular frame like structure with
300*200*8000mm as dimensions.
 Now, by using extrude option we can create the overall solid tanks without any error
with 25mm as thickness.

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 Take a circle of diameter 20 mm and put a slot in top and bottom 80mm from two
directions of the front view to fix the peziometric tubes.

Fig 3.2 Left Overhead Tank Fig 3.3 Right Overhead Tank

3.1.2.2 Sump Tank

 Select the line option and draw a rectangular frame like structure with
800*300*400mm as dimensions.
 Now, by using extrude option we can create the overall solid tanks without any error
with 25mm as thickness.
 Take a circle of diameter 20 mm and put a slot in top and bottom 80mm from two
directions of the front view to fix the peziometric tubes.

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Fig 3.4 Design of Sump Tank

3.1.2.3 Measuring Tank

 Select the line option and draw a rectangular frame like structure with
200*200*400mm as dimensions.
 Now, by using extrude option we can create the overall solid tanks without any error
with 25mm as thickness.
 Take a circle of diameter 20 mm and put a slot in top and bottom 80mm from two
directions of the front view to fix the peziometric tubes.

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Fig 3.5 Design of Measuring Tank

3.1.3 0.5 HP Self Priming Pump

 The designing of the 0.5HP pump is very complicated in this design since various
parts with different designs are included in it.
 The Final design of this 0.5H pump is

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Fig 3.6 Design of 0.5HP Self Priming Pump

3.1.4 Venturimeter Setup

The venturimeter setup mainly consist of venturimeter section and pizeometric tubes
attachment . lets see the designing of these in detail.

Fig 3.7 Design of Venturimeter Setup

3.1.4.1 Venturimeter Section

The Venturimeter section is created in solid works as follows.

 Take a circle command and draw a circle of diameter 30mm and take a distance of
192.5mm , again draw a circle of 15mm diameter and leave a distance of 192.5mm

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and draw the circle of 30mm diameter. Thus By using the extrude option, we can
get converging and diverging sections in a horizontal direction.
 Take a 16mm diameter circle to make 9 ports above the top view of the venturimeter
with a distance of 35mm each . thus we can get the solid model of venturimeter
section.

Fig 3.8 Design of Venturimeter Section

3.1.4.2 Peziomeric tubes

 Take a circle of diameter 0.59mm and vertical distance of 50mm height and a small
curve was made of radius 10mm.

Fig 3.9 Design of peziometric tubes

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3.1.5 PVC Pipe Setup (25mm diameter)

The PVC pipes are very simple to create ,take a 25mm diameter of circle and
extrude a required distance of vertical or horizontal heights.

Fig 3.10 Design of PVC pipes

3.1.6 Assembly of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

The overall parts of these Bernoulli’s apparatus are assembled here using
SOLID WORKS assembly option.

Fig 3.11 Design of Assembly of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

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3.2 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

The fabrication of Bernoullis Apparatus is done using following components.

3.2.1 Base

3.2.2 Tank setup

3.2.2.1 Over head tanks

3.2.2.2 Measuring Tank

3.2.2.3 Sump Tank

3.2.3 0.5 HP Self Priming Pump

3.2.4 Venturimeter Setup

3.2.5 PVC Pipes (∅25mm)

3.2.1 Base

The base is a frame with suitable dimensions used to support all the necessary
components and it also acts housing for the components. Here we used zinc metal bars for
frame and this frame supports the wooden table on which the entire parts located at various
locations.

Fig 3.12 Base

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3.2.2 Tank Setup

The tank setup consist of three tanks named overhead,sump and measuring tanks.

 The Overhead tanks are placed at the top of the frame on either side with equal
distances from center, these tanks are used to maintain the constant flow of water
without any disturbances.
 The sump tank is the source of water for this experiment. it is placed at the bottom
of the frame and there by with the help of motor the water will be pumped to the
overhead tanks.
 The measuring tank is placed on the sump tank to measure the flow discharge using
stop watch .

Fig 3.13 Over head tank

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Fig 3.14 Sump Tank

Fig 3.15 Measuring Tank

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3.2.3 0.5HP Self Priming pump

The 0.5HP pump is a device designed to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. It is used to move water from lower points to higher points with required
discharge and pressure head.

Fig 3.16 0.5HP Self Priming Pump

3.2.4 Venturimeter Setup

The Venturimeter section is the key component for this experiment .This is the setup
that consist of venturimeter section and peziometric tubes attached it self. The present
fabricated part was installed with the help of indiamart Haryana.

Fig 3.17 Venturimeter Setup

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3.2.5 PVC Pipes (25mm diameter)

It's the white plastic pipe commonly used for plumbing and drainage. PVC stands for
polyvinyl chloride, and it's become a common replacement for metal piping. ... PVC is a
thermoplastic material that is molded into different shapes to create pipes, fittings, valves and
other liquid handling supplies.

Fig 3.18 PVC Pipe and PVC fitter

Fig 3.19 PVC Coupling and PVC Coupler

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Fig 3.20 PVC Ball Valve for flow adjustment

3.2.6 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

Fig 3.21 Fabrication of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

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CHAPTER-4

Experimentation and Observations

4.0 Experimental Procedure for Bernoulli’s Apparatus

 Keep the bypass valve open and start the pump and slowly start closing valve to get
a constant flow of water in horizontal direction across the venturimeter section.
 The water shall start flowing through the flow channel. The level in the Piezometer
tubes shall start rising.
 Open the valve on the delivery tank side and adjust the head in the Piezometer tubes
to steady position, therefore the datum head will be equal.
 Measure the heads at all the points on the venturimeter section without any error.
 5.calculate the discharge with help of stop watch and measuring tank.
 Steadily increase the flow rate by increasing the total differential head, while
carefully observing the condition of the fluid in the channel and measure the
corresponding value of the flow rate.
 Continuous manipulation of the flow rate while observing the flow conditions may
be conducted as a useful visual aid to the appreciation of laminar and turbulent flow
conditions and head losses.
 Switch off the pump and allow the apparatus to drain back to the main reservoir.

4.1 Observations

These are the terms that we generally absorb during experimentation.

 Distance between each piezometer = 3.5 cm

 Density of water,𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3
 Note down the 11 No’s of Pitot tubes and their cross sectional areas.
 Time taken for 15cm rise of water in measuring tank, t=………. Sec.
 Accelration due to gravity, g=9.81m/s2 =981cm/s2

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X in mm

Fig 4.1 Analysis of Datum Head

Please note: Measure the distance between the centre section to the zero marking of the Glass Tube and add the
value to the relevant head reading (Example if 𝐻1 is 100 mm and 𝑥 is 50 mm, total 𝐻1 is 100+50 = 150 mm).

According to our fabrication work ,we made a zero distance between the center
of the venturimeter section to the zero marking of the glass tube added to the inlet tank.
Thus we consider that distance as zero i.e, x = 0.

Therefore , pressure head = phi = pi +x

= phi =pi

Tapping
number H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9
Area of
flow 5.72 4.15 2.80 1.76 1.13 1.76 2.80 4.15 5.72

water(cm2)

Table 4.1 Area of Ducts

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Sl. Initial Reading of Final Reading of Time taken Head intake Area of
No. Collection Tank Collection Tank for 10cm rise of inlet tank collecting
(cm) (cm) of water (cm) tank (cm2)
(sec)

1. 3 13 12 35 400

Table 4.2 observation readings 1

Sl. H1(cm) H2(cm) H3(cm) H4(cm) H5(cm) H6(cm) H7(cm) H8(cm) H9(cm)
No.
1. 29.5 28.6 26.3 24.9 20.8 25 27.2 29.3 30.1

Table 4.3 observation readings 2

4.2 Calculation Formulae:

( )∗
1. Discharge =
( )

∗
𝑄= 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

2. Bernoulli’s equation:

According to Toricelli’s theorem, Bernoulli’s equation can be written as

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (𝐻 − ℎ )𝑚/𝑠

3. Continuty equation:

𝑉 = 𝑚/𝑠

4. Velocity head: 𝑉 = 𝑚/𝑠

∗

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Sl. Cross Using Head Pressure Velocity Total Head Discharge

No. Section Continuity at 𝐻𝑖 Head( 𝐻𝑖 Head (Pressure (Q) in
Area of equation 𝑉𝑖𝑐 in + 𝑥 )in 𝑉2/2𝑔 head + cm3 /sec
Flow 𝐴 in =𝑄/𝐴(cm/sec) cm cm in cm Velocity
cm2 (x = 0) Head) in cm
1. 5.72 27.29 29.5 29.5 0.379 29.879 156.12
2. 4.15 37.61 28.6 28.6 0.729 28.329 156.12
3. 2.80 55.75 26.3 26.3 1.584 27.88 156.12
4. 1.76 88.75 24.9 24.9 4.012 28.91 156.12
5. 1.13 138.15 20.8 20.8 9.732 30.531 156.12
6. 1.76 88.75 25 25 4.012 29.01 156.12
7. 2.80 55.75 27.2 27.2 1.584 28.78 156.12
8. 4.15 37.61 29.3 29.3 0.729 30.02 156.12
9. 5.72 27.29 30.1 30.1 0.379 30.47 156.12
Table 4.4 Head calculations

Sl. Head Intake Head at 𝐻𝑖 Cross Using Using Continuity

No. Tank (H) (cm) Sectional Area Bernoulli’s equation 𝑉𝑖𝑐 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑖
(cm) of Flow 𝐴𝑖 Equation (cm/s)
(cm2) 𝑉𝑖𝑏 (cm/s)
1. 35 29.5 5.72 103.87 27.29
2. 35 28.6 4.15 112.05 37.61
3. 35 26.3 2.80 130.64 55.75
4. 35 24.9 1.76 140.77 88.7
5. 35 20.8 1.13 166.9 138.15
6. 35 25 1.76 140.07 88.7
7. 35 27.2 2.80 123.70 55.75
8. 35 29.3 4.15 105.75 37.61
9. 35 30.1 5.72 98.04 27.29
Table 4.5 Velocity calculations

4.3 Calculations:

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1. time taken for 10cm rise of water in measuring tank = t = 12sec

2. acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81m/s2 = 981cm/s2
3. Area of measuring tank = 20*20 = 400cm2
( )∗
4. Discharge, Q =
( )

∗
Q= = 156.12 cm3/sec

5. From continuity equation,

Vic =

.
Velocity of water at port-1 = Vic1 = = .
= 27.29 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-2 = Vic2 =
𝐴𝑖2
= .
= 37.61 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-3 = Vic3 =
𝐴𝑖3
= .
= 55.75 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-4 = Vic4 =
𝐴𝑖4
= .
= 88.7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-5 = Vic5 =
𝐴𝑖5
= .
= 138.15 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-6 = Vic6 =
𝐴𝑖6
= .
= 88.7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-7 = Vic7 =
𝐴𝑖7
= .
= 55.75 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-8 = Vic8 =
𝐴𝑖8
= .
= 37.61 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑄 .
At port-9 = Vic9 =
𝐴𝑖9
= .
= 27.29 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

6. since the distance between the center section to zero marking on glass tube
is zero (x = 0 ),there is no change in total pressure head values .

.
7.Velocity head, V1 = = = 0.379𝑐𝑚
∗

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.
V2 = = = 0.729𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V3 = = = 1.584𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V4 = = = 4.013𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V5 = = = 9.732𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V6 = = = 4.013𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V7 = = = 1.584𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V8 = = = 0.729𝑐𝑚
∗

.
V9 = = = 0.379𝑐𝑚
∗

8. Therefore, Total head = pressure head +velocity head +datum head

Since there is a steady flow of water through the section the datum head is
equal (z1=z2).

Total head at port-1, T1 = 29.5+0.379 = 29.879cm

Total head at port-2, T2 = 28.6+0.729 = 28.329cm

Total head at port-3, T3 = 26.3+1.584 = 27.88cm

Total head at port-4, T4 = 24.9+4.013 = 28.91cm

Total head at port-5, T5 = 20.8+9.73 = 30.53cm

Total head at port-6, T6 = 25+4.013 = 29.01cm

Total head at port-7, T7 = 27.2+1.584 = 28.78cm

Total head at port-8, T8 = 29.3+0.729 = 30.02cm

Total head at port-9, T9 = 30.1+0.379 = 30.479cm

9. Bernoulli’s equation : (which is derived from toricelli’s equation)

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𝑉 = 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (𝐻 − ℎ )𝑚/𝑠

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 29.5) = 103.87𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 28.6) = 112.05𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 26.3) = 130.64𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 24.9) = 140.77𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 20.8) = 166.9𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 25) = 140.07𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 27.2) = 123.70𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 29.3) = 105.75𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉 = 2 ∗ 981 ∗ (35 − 30.1) = 98.04𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

From the above calculations, the values of head and flow velocities are tabulated in given
tables 4.4 and 4.5.

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CHAPTER-5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From the observations of calculation in the previous chapter, the graphs were
prepared based on the parameters using distance across the venturi.

we plotted the graphs between following observations

(i) pressure head,velocity head and total head and distance across the venturi.

(ii) flow velocity and head number.

35

30

25

20
Head (cm)

Pressure head

Velocity head
15
Total head

10

0
0 3.5 7 10.5 14 17.5 21 24.5 28 31.5 35
Distance (cm)

Fig.5.1: Variation of pressure head, velocity head and total head across the distance of venturi

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180

160 Vic

Vib
140

120
Flow velocity (cm/s)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 3.5 7 10.5 14 17.5 21 24.5 28 31.5 35
Distance (cm)

Fig 5.2: Flow velocity variation across distance of venturi

The diagram represents the changes of pressure head, velocity head and total
head at various positions of venturi at constant discharge. It was observed that the pressure
head was gradually decreased in converging portion, reached minimum value at throat section
(at 17.5cm) and later it was increased in diverging portion. The velocity head and total head
were gradually increased in converging portion, reached maximum values at throat section (at
17.5cm) and later they were decreased in diverging portion.

Similarly, the diagram represents flow velocity which was investigated by continuity
equation and toricelli’s equation at constant discharge across the distance of venturi. These
velocities reached maximum values at throat and later decreased as shown in figure. From the
diagrams, it can say that the results obtained from the apparatus satisfied Bernoulli’s principle.

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CONCLUSION

 Bernoulli’s principle is one of the most renowned theories of fluid mechanics.

Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the three quantities, such as velocity
head, datum head & pressure head is a constant. When the fluid flows through the
closed conduits, there is a loss of head (energy) and the total energy decreases in
the direction of flow. Loss of head inside the duct is a common phenomenon in
fluid mechanics. To understand and visualize these basic ideas of fluid mechanics
Bernoulli’s apparatus is an useful scientific tool.
 As we have study the various experiments based on the Bernoulli’s principle like
venturi, airplanes, pitot etc..,For practical view, we proposed this experiment. we
learn many terminology of fluid mechanics like gradient and energy lines of a
fluid in the tubes and energy conservation etc. from this experiment .Thus, we
have practically observed the principle of this Bernoulli’s equation and we are
satisfied for achieved results from the observations.

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REFERENCES

1.THE VENTURI EFFECT (1797) BY GIOVAANI VENTURI.

2.BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY BY LUDWIG PRANDTL.
3.TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY BY DAIHENG NI.
4.BIERMANN’S HAND BOOK OF PULP AND PAPER 3RD EDITION
5.MATERIALS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND THERMAL
COMFORT IN BUILDINGS BY J JONES.
6.ATOMIZER AND NEUBILIZER BY DR,THOMAS DELVIBLISS.
7.EVERY DAY SCIENCE EXPLAINED BY DR. GEORGE CAYLEY.
8.HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS INCLUDING HYDRAULIC
MACHINES BY DR. P.N. MODI AND DR. S.M. SETH.

9. FLUID MECHANIC WITH ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS BY E.

JOHN FINNEMORE JOSEPH B. FRANZINI.

10. FLUID MECHANICS BY VICTOR L. STREETER AND E. BENJAMIN

WYLIE.

11. FLUID MECHAANICS INCLUDING HYDRAULIC MACHINES

BY DR. A.K. JAIN.

12. A TEXT BOOK OF HYDRAAULIC, FLUID MECHANICS AND

HYDRAULIC MACHINES BY R.S. KHURMI.

13. A TEXT BOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS BY R.K. RAJPUT.

14. THE TURNER COLLECTION, KEELE UNIVERSITY.

15. http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/References/Bernoulli_Daniel.html

16. http://plus.maths.org/issue1/bern/

17. Thesis paper on DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF BERNOULLI’S

APPARATUS (ME-6).

18. ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS BY K.L. KUMAR.

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