Network protocol - defines a "language" of rules and conventions for communication between

network devices. A protocol includes formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into
messages. It also may include conventions like message acknowledgement or data compression
to support reliable and/or high-performance network communication.

Basics network protocols:

A network protocol is composed of:

Network Layer
Transport Layer

The Network Layer allows data packet to be sent to the correct computer on the same network
or on another network, and a way to establish a connection to another computer.
The Transport Layer provides means how data exchange can be done, the quality of
data exchange in terms of: speed and priority ,and error correction.
The internet’s main network protocol is the TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internetwork Protocol.

Network topology:
- is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a network,
especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes.

There are five major topologies in use today:

Bus
Ring
Star
Tree
Mesh

Error Detection-Non ideal transmission characteristics associated with any communications

system.

Data communications Error can be generally classified as ;

Single bit errors

When only one bit within a given data string is in error.
Multiple bit errors
When two or more nonconsecutive bits within a given data string are in error.
Burst Time Error
When two or more consecutive bits within a given data string are in error.

Error Performance-Is the rate in which error occur which can be describe as either an expected
value or an empirical value.

Two general categories of Error control

1.Error Detection
Is the process monitoring data and determining when transmission error have occurred.
2.Error Correction

Techniques
• Redundancy – is a form of error detection where each data unit is sent multiple times,
usually twice.
 • Echoplex (echo checking) - is a relatively simple error detection scheme used almost
exclusively with data communications systems involving human operators working in real
time at computer terminals or PCs.

• Exact count-encoding – the number of binary 1s (and binary 0s) in each character is
the same.

• Redundancy Checking – adding bits for the sole purpose of detecting errors.

Four basic types Redundancy Checking

1.Vertical Redundancy Checking(VRC) – probably the simplest error detection scheme
used for asynchronous data communications systems and is generally referred to as character
parity of simply parity.

2. Checksum – is another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking where the data
within a message is summed together to produce an error checking character

Five Primary ways of calculating a checksum:

• Check character – a decimal value is assigned to each other .

• Single Precision Checksum – is probably the most common method of calculating

checksum.

• Double Precision Checksum – is computed in the same manner as with Single Precision
except the checksum 2n bits long.

• Honeywall – the checksum is based on interleaving consecutive data words to form

double length words.

• Residue Checksum – is virtually identical to the single precision checksum except for
the way the carry bit is handled.

Local Area Networks:Ethernet

Traditional Ethernet
MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer
Physical Layer Implementation
Bridged Ethernet
Switched Ethernet
Full-Duplex Ethernet

Introduction to TCP/IP
An entire suite of data communications protocols derive from two of the most important
protocols that belong to it: the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol.
Developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research project to connect a number of
different networks designed by different vendors into a network of networks (the "Internet").
IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node.
tCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server.
sockets - is a name given to the package of subroutines that provide access to TCP/IP n
most systems.

Historical Background
-Developed by ARPA in the early 70s as an experimental protocol for their packet-switching
network (ARPANET).
 -Adopted as Military Standard in 1983 and implemented in UNIX to aid in converting other
hosts connected in the network. Internet came into usage.
in 1985, NSF connected to the Internet linking 5 supercomputer which aims to extend the
network to every engineer and scientist in the US.
-Today, Internet has grown exponentially but TCP/IP remain its protocol suite.

TCP/IP Features
-Open protocol standards, freely available and developed independently from any specific
computer hardware or operating system.
-Independence from specific physical network hardware.
-A common addressing scheme that allows any TCP/IP device to uniquely address any
other device in the entire network, even if the network is as large as the worldwide Internet.
-Standardized high-level protocols for consistent, widely available user services.

Wide Area Network Basics

WANs used to be characterized with slow, noisy lines.
Today WANs are very high speed with very low error rates.
WANs usually follow a mesh topology.
A station is a device that interfaces a user to a network.
A node is a device that allows one or more stations to access the physical network and is a
transfer point for passing information through a network.
A node is often a computer, a router, or a telephone switch.
The sub-network or physical network is the underlying connection of nodes and
telecommunication links.

Types of Network Structures

Circuit switched network - a sub-network in which a dedicated circuit is established between
sender and receiver and all data passes over this circuit.
The telephone system is a common example.
The connection is dedicated until one party or another terminates the connection.
Packet switched network - a network in which all data messages are transmitted using fixed-
sized packages, called packets.
More efficient use of a telecommunications line since packets from multiple sources can
share the medium.
One form of packet switched network is the datagram. With a datagram, each packet is on its
own and may follow its own path.
Virtual circuit packet switched network create a logical path through the subnet and all
packets from one connection follow this path.
Broadcast network - a network typically found in local area networks but occasionally found in
wide area networks.
A workstation transmits its data and all other workstations “connected” to the network hear
the data. Only the workstation(s) with the proper address will accept the data.

Routing
Each node in a WAN is a router that accepts an input packet, examines the destination
address, and forwards the packet on to a particular telecommunications line.
How does a router decide which line to transmit on?
A router must select the one transmission line that will best provide a path to the destination
and in an optimal manner.
Often many possible routes exist between sender and receiver.

Least Cost Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s least cost algorithm finds all possible paths between two locations.
By identifying all possible paths, it also identifies the least cost path.
The algorithm can be applied to determine the least cost path between any pair of nodes.
Flooding Routing
When a packet arrives at a node, the node sends a copy of the packet out every link except
the link the packet arrived on.
Traffic grows very quickly when every node floods the packet.
To limit uncontrolled growth, each packet has a hop count. Every time a packet hops, its hop
count is incremented. When a packet’s hop count equals a global hop limit, the packet is
discarded.

Centralized Routing
One routing table is kept at a “central” node.
Whenever a node needs a routing decision, the central node is consulted.
To survive central node failure, the routing table should be kept at a backup location.
The central node should be designed to support a high amount of traffic consisting of routing
requests.
Distributed Routing
Each node maintains its own routing table.
No central site holds a global table.
Somehow each node has to share information with other nodes so that the individual routing
tables can be created.
Possible problem with individual routing tables holding inaccurate information.
Adaptive Routing versus Static Routing
With adaptive routing, routing tables can change to reflect changes in the network
Static routing does not allow the routing tables to change.
Static routing is simpler but does not adapt to network congestion or failures.
Routing Examples - RIP
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) - First routing protocol used on the Internet.
A form of distance vector routing. It was adaptive and distributed
Each node kept its own table and exchanged routing information with its neighbors.
Routing Examples - OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) - Second routing protocol used on the Internet
A form of link state routing
It too was adaptive and distributed but more complicated than RIP and performed much
better
Network Congestion
When a network or a part of a network becomes so saturated with data packets that packet
transfer is noticeably impeded, network congestion occurs.
What can cause network congestion? Node and link failures; high amounts of traffic;
improper network planning.
When serious congestion occurs buffers overflow and packets are lost.