DOI 10.

1515/secm-2012-0014   Sci Eng Compos Mater 2012; 19(3): 279–285

Mao-Chieh Chi*

Effects of sugar cane bagasse ash as a cement

replacement on properties of mortars

Abstract: Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA), a by-product composition for application as a pozzolan, mainly in
of sugar and alcohol production, is one of the potential regard to its high content in silica. Several studies have
pozzolanic material that can be blended with Portland been conducted to investigate the chemical effect or
cement. In this study, SCBA with particle sizes  < 45 μm pozzolanic activity of SCBA and concluded that SCBA
was used to replace type I ordinary Portland cement with is a pozzolan, which improves the performance when
various dosages (10%, 20%, and 30%) by weight of binder. mixed to cement [2–7].
The water/cementitious material (w/cm) and sand/binder SCBA is a pozzolan that can partially replace
ratios were kept at constants of 0.55 and 2.75, respectively. clinker in cement production, and its use improves the
Composites were mixed, and effects of SCBA on properties behavior of the cementitious material [1]. The main
were investigated by conducting flow test, water absorp- products from the reaction between calcium hydroxide
tion test, initial surface absorption test, drying shrinkage and SCBA are calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) gel [2].
test, compressive strength test, rapid chloride penetration Singh et al. [3] found that in the presence of SCBA, a
test (RCPT), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and scan- large amount of C-S-H was formed in the paste, and the
ning electron microscopy (SEM). Experimental results compressive strength increased. In addition, Ganesan
show that the flow spread of fresh mortars would decrease et al. [5] showed that SCBA used as a partial replace-
with an increase of SCBA replacement. The specimens ment for Portland cement could increase the mechani-
with 10% SCBA have the superior performance on com- cal properties and durability. A high content in silica
pressive strength, drying shrinkage, water absorption, makes the SCBA to be a pozzolan, but the presence of
initial surface absorption, and chloride ion penetration, unburned material and carbon may reduce its reactiv-
TGA, and SEM at the age of 56 days. It indicates that 10% ity as concluded by Hernández et al. [2]. Cordeiro et al.
cement replacement of SCBA may be considered as the [6] indicated that SCBA would be classified as a poz-
optimum limit. zolanic material, and its reactivity depended mainly on
the maximum particle size and fineness. The produc-
Keywords: properties; rapid chloride penetration test tion of pozzolanic ash from SCBA requires the use of
(RCPT); scanning electron microscopy (SEM); sugar cane ultrafine grinding to transform this industrial residue
bagasse ash; thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). in a mineral admixture, and coarser SCBA may be used
as an inert filler in the cementitious mixtures [6, 8]. The
effects of fineness and loss on ignition (L.O.I.) of SCBA
*Corresponding author: Mao-Chieh Chi, Department of Fire Science,
WuFeng University, 117, Sec. 2, Chiankuo Rd., Minghsiung, Chiayi
on compressive strength and the kinetics of the poz-
County, 62153, Taiwan, ROC, zolanic reaction were reported by previous research-
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] ers [9–12]. However, SCBA advantages and optimum
dosages resulting from chemical or physical effect are
not yet clarified, and its application is limited. Further
testing results are required.
1 Introduction In this study, cementitious composites use SCBA as a
partial replacement for Portland cement in mortars. Com-
Bagasse is a by-product of the sugar cane industry. The posites were mixed, and the effects of SCBA with various
application of sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA), one of amounts of cement replacement on properties were inves-
the main by-products from the bagasse combustion, in tigated by conducting flow test, water absorption test,
concrete production provides an acceptable solution initial surface absorption test, drying shrinkage test,
to some of the environmental concerns [1]. Meanwhile, compressive strength test, rapid chloride penetration test
SCBA can be used as a mineral admixture in mortar (RCPT), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning
and concrete because it presents proper chemical electron microscopy (SEM).
280   M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement

2 Experimental program Chemical composition (%) OPC SCBA

Calcium oxide, CaO 63.9 12.4

2.1 Materials Silicon dioxide, SiO2 20.7 54.4
Aluminum oxide, Al2O3  5.4  9.1
The cement used was type I ordinary Portland cement Ferric oxide, Fe2O3  3.2  5.5
Sulfur trioxide, SO3  4.0  4.1
(OPC) conforming to the American Society for Testing
Sodium oxide, Na2O  0.2  0.9
and Materials (ASTM) standard C150-05 [13]. SCBA used Potassium oxide, K2O  1.1  1.3
was collected at Huwei sugar cane factory in the Yunlin Magnesium oxide, MgO  2.0  2.9
county of Taiwan. The bagasse is ignited in boilers at tem- L.O.I.  1.0  9.4
peratures varying from 900°C to 1100°C. After cooling, Specific gravity  3.14  1.94
the SCBA was dried and ground into a fine powder with
a particle size passing the no. 325 sieve before it was used Table 1 Chemical composition, loss on ignition, and specific
gravity of OPC and SCBA.
as a cement replacement material. SEM micrographs of
SCBA are shown in Figure 1. SCBA particles were of irregu-
lar shape with rough surfaces and highly porous textures. 2.75, respectively. These mixes were designated as BA0 for
The chemical composition, loss on ignition, and specific control mix, BA10 for SCBA mix with cement replacement
gravity of OPC and SCBA are listed in Table 1. It can be of 10%, BA20 for SCBA mix with cement replacement of
seen that SCBA has about three times higher silica content 20%, and BA30 for SCBA mix with cement replacement
than OPC and contains a considerable amount of CaO and of 30%. The mix proportions are summarized in Table 2.
Al2O3. Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that SCBA showed the The cubic specimens (50 × 50 × 50 mm) and cylindrical
loss on ignition value of 9.4%. Figure 2 shows the XRD specimens (ψ100 × 200 mm) were cast and kept in steel
pattern of SCBA, where the quartz (SiO2) is evident and molds for 24 h, and then, the specimens were demolded
consistent with its high SiO2 contents of 54.4% as shown and tested in triplicate sets for each mix until the time of
in Table 1. The fine aggregate used was river sand with a testing.
fineness modulus of 2.40. The absorption value is 1.61%,
and its relative density at the saturated surface dry (SSD)
condition is 2.64. 2.3 Methods

2.3.1 Flow test
2.2 Mixture and specimen preparation
Flow was determined by ASTM C1437-07 [14]. A cone-
SCBA-blended cements were used to replace OPC with shaped mold was filled with fresh mix in two lifts and
different amounts of SCBA (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%) placed at the center of a flow table. When the mold was
by weight of cement in dry condition. The mixes were removed, the vibrating table was dropped 25 times in 15 s.
completely homogenized and kept in polythene bottles Diameters (mm) of the mixes were measured along four
before use. The water/cementitious material (w/cm) and lines.
sand/binder ratios were kept at a constant of 0.55 and
4000

3500
SiO2 (Quartz)
3000

2500
Intensity

2000

1500

1000

500

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Angle (2θ)

Figure 1 SEM micrograph of SCBA ( × 1K). Figure 2 XRD pattern of SCBA.

 M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement   281

Mix w/cm Water Cement SCBA Fine aggregate of 4, 11, 18, and 25 days, respectively. The length change
no. (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) was then calculated by the following formula:
BA0 0.55 288.1 523.8  0 1440.4 Li -Lx
BA10 0.55 264.3 480.6  53.4 1468.6 Length change: LC(%) = ×100 (2)
G
BA20 0.55 239.7 435.7 108.9 1497.9
BA30 0.55 214.0 389.0 166.7 1528.3
where G is the nominal effective length.

Table 2 Mix proportions of SCBA-blended mortars.

2.3.5 Compressive strength test

2.3.2 Water absorption (WA) The compressive strength tests of the specimens were
conducted according to ASTM C109-08 [18]. Three 50-mm
Water absorption was obtained in accordance with ASTM cubic specimens were prepared and tested for each mix at
C642-06 [15]. Specimens were prepared and tested for each the ages of 7, 14, 28, and 56 days, respectively.
mix at the age of 56 days. After the required curing period,
the cubic specimens (50 mm) were oven dried at tempera-
ture of 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and weighed and then immersed 2.3.6 Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)
in water for 24 h and weighed again. Water absorption was
calculated as follows. The RCPT was performed in accordance with ASTM C1202-
ws -wd 05 [19] for each mix. Two specimens of 100 mm in diam-
Water absorption: WA(%) = ×100 (1) eter and 50 mm in thickness at the age of 56 days, which
wd
had been conditioned according to the standard were
where wd is the weight of the dried specimens before the subjected to a 60 ± 0.1 V potential for 6 h. The total charge
test, ws is the weight of the dried specimens immersed in passed through the specimens was determined and used
water for 24 h. to evaluate the chloride permeability of each concrete
mixture. ASTM C1202 recommends the qualitative crite-
rion “chloride ion penetrability” according to the range of
2.3.3 Initial surface absorption test (ISAT) the total charge passed as shown Table 3.

The initial surface absorption test was performed on a cyl-

inder (ψ100 × 50 mm) to measure the absorptive character- 2.3.7 Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA)
istics of the surface in accordance with BS 1881-201 [16].
After the specimens were cured for 28 days, the specimens Thermal analysis has been defined by the International
were oven dried at a temperature of 105 ± 5°C to constant Confederation of thermal analysis (ICTA) as a general
weight prior to the test. Water absorption was measured at term, which covers a variety of techniques that record
10, 30, 60 and 120 min after testing begins. Initial surface the physicochemical changes occurring in a substance
absorption rate is expressed in milliliters per square meter as a function of temperature [20]. Specimens at the ages
per second (ml/m2 s-1). of 28 and 56 days were prepared to evaluate the hydra-
tion activity by TGA. Thermal analysis was performed
using the model TGA/SDTA851e thermal gravimetric ana-
2.3.4 Drying shrinkage measurement lyzer manufactured by Mettler Teledo Inc. (Switzerland).

The drying shrinkage was carried out following the ASTM

Charge passed Chloride ion penetrability
C596-01 [17]. Prismatic specimens with 25 × 25 × 285 mm
dimensions were prepared from bagasse mortar mixes and  > 4000 High
cured for 23.5 ± 0.5 h. After demolding, the specimens were 2000∼4000 Moderate
1000∼2000 Low
soaked in water for another 48 h and then kept in an envi-
  100∼1000 Very low
ronmental control room at a temperature of 23 ± 1°C and <100 Negligible
related humidity of 50% R.H., and then the initial length
(Li) of the shrinkage specimens was measured. The length Table 3 Chloride ion penetrability based on charge passed recom-
(Lx) of the shrinkage specimens was measured at the ages mended in ASTM C 1202 [19].
282   M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement

The specimen was ground into powder passing the no. 50 Mix Flow value Water Total charge
sieve and subjected to TGA, by gradually raising the tem- No. (mm) absorption (%) passed (Coulomb)
perature from 25°C to 1000°C at the rate of 10°C/min. BA0 207 10.44 7270
BA10 164  9.91 3454
BA20 139 11.96 6527
BA30 137 16.73 7930
2.3.8 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Table 4 Flow value, water absorption, and total charge passed of

The specimens with a dimension of 10 × 10 × 3 mm were
cement-based composites.
obtained from 10 mm cube. Representative samples were
air dried first and then followed by resin impregnation.
The impregnated specimens were ground and softly pol- absorption increases evidently. The high water absorp-
ished with decreasing grades down to 0.25 μm. SEM was tion of the mixes containing SCBA was due to the porous
performed using a HITACHI S-4800 microscope equipped nature and rough surface of the SCBA particles. The per-
with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). centage of water absorption is a measure of pore volume
or porosity in hardened concrete, which is occupied by
water in saturated conditions. Thus, 10% cement replace-
ment of SCBA may be considered as the optimum limit.
3 Results and discussions
3.1 Flow spread 3.3 Initial surface absorption test

The flow spread of the mixes containing SCBA is given The variations of initial surface absorption with respect to
in Table 4. It shows that the flow spread decreased with testing time except the mixes containing 30% SCBA (more
an increasing amount of SCBA. The control mix (BA0) than 3.6 ml/m2 s) are plotted in Figure 3. The initial surface
has a flow spread of 207 mm. The flow spreads of mixes absorption values of the mixes decrease with testing
BA10, BA20, and BA30 show a decrease of 164, 139, and time. Lower initial surface absorption values have been
137 mm, respectively. It was reported that SCBA is hygro- obtained in mixes containing SCBA than the comparable
scopic in nature, and it needs more water for proper con- control mix (BA0). Meanwhile, initial surface absorp-
sistency due to the irregular shape with rough surfaces tion values of mixes BA20 are higher than those of mixes
and highly porous textures of SCBA compared to that of BA10 within testing time. The mixes containing SCBA
cement [5]. The higher porous texture of SCBA increases can effectively reduce the initial surface absorption due
the water demand and consequently decreases the flow to pozzolanic reaction between calcium hydroxide and
value, thus resulting in a reducing workability. The flow reactive silica in SCBA. Thus, the addition of SCBA leads
value of BA30 reduced to 37% due to its higher amount of to a reduction of the permeable voids, and 10% cement
cement replacement and smaller particle size. The smaller
particle size of SCBA increases the specific surface area,
5.0
and water cannot be totally reached in each pore, thus
4.5 BA0
decreasing the flow value.
Initial surface absorption (ml/m2s)

4.0 BA10
BA20
3.5
3.2 Water absorption 3.0

2.5
The water absorption of the mixes containing SCBA is
2.0
given in Table 4. With the exception of the mix contain-
1.5
ing 10% BA (BA10), there exists a slight increase in water
1.0
absorption with an increasing amount of BA. Mixes BA10
have a slightly lower water absorption observed than the 0.5

control mix (BA0). However, the mixes containing 20% 0

0 30 60 90 120
SCBA (BA20) show a slight increase of 1.52% on water
Time (min)
absorption compared to the control mix (BA0). When the
cement replacement of SCBA increases to 30%, the water Figure 3 Initial surface absorption vs. testing time.
 M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement   283

replacement of SCBA seems to be the optimal limit based 45

BA0
on the initial surface absorption test results. 40 BA10
BA20
35

Compressive strength (MPa)

BA30
3.4 Drying shrinkage measurement 30

25
Drying shrinkage is an important technical parameter
influencing structural properties and durability of the 20

material. The drying shrinkage results calculated for the 15

SCBA blended mixes at the ages of 4, 11, 18, and 25 days
10
are presented in Figure 4. The drying shrinkage value of
the mixes with SCBA is lower than that of the control mix 5

(BA0) at all ages. It may be due to the filler effects or due 0

to the pozzolanic reactions of SCBA. The drying shrinkage 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (days)
of the mixes is BA20 < BA10 < BA30 < BA0 at the ages of 4,
11, and 18 days. However, at the age of 25 days, the drying Figure 5 Compressive strength vs. age.
shrinkage of BA20 is higher than those of BA10 and BA30.
The proportion of drying shrinkage on BA10, BA20, and had a compressive strength of 37.2 MPa at the age of 28
BA30 are 8%, 5%, and 7% as low as that of the control mix days, which increased to 40.0 MPa at the age of 56 days.
(BA0) at the age of 25 days. Though the drying shrinkage Mixes containing 10% SCBA (BA10) had compressive
of BA10 is higher than that of BA20 at the age of 18 days, strengths of 35.0 and 41.1 MPa at the ages of 28 and 56
however, with prolonged ages from the drying shrinkage days, respectively. Normally, SCBA can be classified as
point of view, 10% of SCBA is still the optimal limit. a pozzolanic material, and its small particles can fill the
voids in the concrete structure and thus increases com-
pressive strength [21]. But in this study, the addition of
3.5 Compressive strength SCBA decreases compressive strength. Particularly, BA30
showed a very low compressive strength of 17.3 Mpa at the
The compressive strength developments of SCBA- age of 56 days. It may be due to the high replacement of
blended cement mortars are shown in Figure 5. The cement and low pozzolanic reaction of SCBA. Based on the
compressive strength decreases with an increase in the test results mentioned above, 10% of the SCBA replace-
dosages of SCBA. The compressive strengths of mixes ment to cement is the optimal limit. At 30% SCBA replace-
containing SCBA are lower than that of the control mix ment to cement, it could be that only 10% SCBA acted as
(BA0) at the ages of 7, 14, and 28 days. The control mix pozzolanic materials, and 20% SCBA acted as fillers. In
addition, the SCBA presents physicochemical properties
appropriate for its use as mineral admixture, and its reac-
0.1
tivity depended mainly on the maximum particle size and
0.09 fineness. SCBA particles used in this study were of irregu-
0.08 lar shape with rough surfaces and highly porous textures
0.07
and lower specific gravity and higher L.O.I. compared to
Drying shrinkage (%)

that of cement. Thus, the replacement of cement by SCBA

0.06
indicates the lower compressive strengths.
0.05

0.04
BA0
0.03 BA10
3.6 Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)
0.02 BA20
RCPT is a convenient test to evaluate concrete permeabil-
BA30
0.01
ity. The test results of the mixes containing SCBA are given
0 in Table 4. The total charge passed of BA10 and BA20
0 5 10 15 20 25
showed a decrease that ranged from 7270 to 3454 and
Age (days)
6527 Coulombs compared to BA0, respectively. But the
Figure 4 Drying shrinkage vs. age. total charge passed of BA30 is higher than that of BA0. It
284   M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement

indicates that chloride permeability is reduced by < 20% 3.8 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
replacement of cement with SCBA. Thus, the replacement
of cement with SCBA is limited, and 10% cement replace- SEM images were used to explore the microstructure of the
ment of SCBA is considered as the optimal limit based on corresponding specimens. SEM images of the specimens
the results of RCPT. with and without SCBA at the age of 56 days were investi-
gated by means of SEM methods. Figure 6 shows the SEM
photograph of BA0. It can be seen that a lot of hydration
3.7 Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) products – like C-S-H gel, Aft crystals, and several pores
were formed on the surface of BA0. Figure 7 shows the
Thermal analysis encompasses many classical tech- SEM images obtained for the specimen of BA10. Obser-
niques such as differential thermal analysis (DTA) and vations revealed that the rough surface of the mixture of
TGA. DTA locates the ranges corresponding to thermal BA10 showed to contain C-S-H gel, Aft crystals, and also
decompositions of different phases in paste, while TGA narrow pores. However, the differences in the microstruc-
simultaneously measures the weight loss due to the tural features between the specimens without and with
decompositions. The calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) bagasse ash are not obvious. With the addition of 10%
endothermal peak can be identified at a temperature SCBA to the mixture, there takes place the reaction of the
range of 115∼225°C, ettringite at 120∼130°C, calcium portlandite produced by the hydration of the calcium sili-
hydroxide (CH) in the range of 430∼550°C, and calcium cates in the cement with the silica and alumina reactivates
carbonate (CaCO3) at 750∼850°C [22]. The weight loss in the pozzolanic material. This reaction produces C-S-H
of SCBA-blended cement mortars at the ages of 28 and gel, which grows into the capillary spaces. Hence, the
56 days are listed in Table 5. To evaluate the hydration paste structure tissue became dense. The observations are
reactivity, this study aimed to discuss the ettringite and consistent with those of water absorption, initial surface
CH decomposition at the temperatures that ranged from absorption, compressive strength, and RCPT results.
115°C to 550°C. The weight loss of mixes containing SCBA
decreases with an increase in dosages of SCBA and is
lower than that of the control mix (BA0) at the age of 28
days. The control mix BA0 had a weight loss of 4.2% at
the age of 28 days, which decreased to 3.14% at the age of
56 days. Mixes containing 10% SCBA (BA10) had a weight
loss of 3.98% and 3.5% at the ages of 28 and 56 days,
respectively. At the age of 28 days, BA10 showed less loss
in C-S-H and CH compared to BA0. However, the weight
loss due to the decomposition of hydration products was
significant at the age of 56 days. It was shown that the
early hydration of BA10 was lower, but it accelerated at a
later stage compared with that of BA0. Thus, 10% cement
replacement of SCBA is considered as the optimal limit
Figure 6 SEM image of specimen without bagasse ash BA0 ( × 5K).
based on the results of TGA.

Temperature Age (days) Weight loss (%)

BA0 BA10 BA20 BA30

105∼440°C 28 4.20 3.98 2.30 2.13

56 3.14 3.50 3.05 1.88
440∼580°C 28 1.14 0.69 0.50 0.36
56 0.87 0.82 0.81 0.35
580∼995°C 28 4.80 4.69 4.10 2.16
56 2.84 2.67 2.50 2.85

Table 5 Weight loss of cement-based composites. Figure 7 SEM image of specimen with 10% bagasse ash ( × 5K).
 M.-C. Chi: SCBA as mortar cement replacement   285

4 Conclusions SCBA is an effective mineral admixture, and 10% of

SCBA replacement to cement may be considered as the
In the past, sugar cane bagasse wastes were burned as a optimal limit on properties of cement-based composites.
means of solid waste disposal, but during the last decade Based on the testing results, the principal conclusions are
these residuals were burned to produce steam and electric- summarized as follows:
ity in a cogeneration plant at the ethanol factory. Mean- 1. The flow spread of fresh mortars would decrease
while, SCBA produced in boilers of the sugar industry can with the increase of bagasse ash replacement. The
be classified as a probable pozzolanic material. At present, specimens with 10% bagasse ash as a Portland
the cost of SCBA is zero or even negative because it is a resid- cement replacement have the superior performance
ual material and should be disposed by the sugarcane plant on compressive strength, drying shrinkage, water
or ethanol factory. Akram et al. [23] indicated that the cost absorption, initial surface absorption, and chloride
of ingredients of specific self-compacting concrete (SCC) ion penetration at the age of 56 days.
containing bagasse ash is 35.63% less than the concrete 2. TGA showed that more amounts of Ca(OH)2 loss
without the addition of SCBA. Pippo et al. [24] reported the were obtained in the specimens with 10% SCBA
economic and environmental advantages of using bagasse than the comparable control mix at the age of
wastes. However, like other residual pozzolans such as fly 56 days. Meanwhile, SEM revealed that the
ash or slag, the cost of the raw material may tend to increase microstructural properties of BA10 are denser
with the increasing demand of the market. than that of BA0.

References
[1] Fairbairn EMR, Americano BB, Cordeiro GC, Paula TP, Filho RDT, [13] ASTM C 150. American Society for Testing and Materials;
Silvoso MM. J. Environ. Manage. 2010, 91, 1864–1871. 2005.
[2] Hernández JFM, Middendorf B, Gehrke M, Budelmann H. Cem. [14] ASTM C 1437. American Society for Testing and Materials;
Concr. Res. 1998, 28, 1525–1536. 2007.
[3] Singh NB, Singh VD, Rai S. Cem. Concr. Res. 2000, 30, [15] ASTM C 642. American Society for Testing and Materials;
1485–1488. 2006.
[4] Payá J, Monzó J, Borrachero MV, Díaz-Pinzón L, Ordóñez LM. [16] BS 1881-201. British Standards Institution; 1986.
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2002, 77, 321–325. [17] ASTM C 596. American Society for Testing and Materials; 2001.
[5] Ganesan K, Rajagopal K, Thangavel K. Cem. Concr. Compos. [18] ASTM C 109. American Society for Testing and Materials; 2008.
2007, 29, 515–524. [19] ASTM C 1202. American Society for Testing and Materials;
[6] Cordeiro GC, Filho RDT, Tavares LM, Fairbairn EMR. Cem. Concr. 2005.
Compos. 2008, 30, 410–418. [20] Ashraf M, Khan AN, Ali Q, Goyal JMA, Anwar AM. Constr. Build.
[7] Morales EV, Villar-Cociña E, Frías M, Santos SF, Jr HS. Cem. Mater. 2009, 23, 2207–2213.
Concr. Compos. 2009, 31, 22–28. [21] Chusilp N, Jaturapitakkul C, Kiattikomol K. Constr. Build. Mater.
[8] Almir S, Lima SA. Waste Manage. 2010, 30, 1114–1122. 2009, 23, 3352–3358.
[9] Rukzon S, Chindaprasirt P. Mater. Des. 2012, 34, 45–50. [22] Ramachandan V, Paroli M, Beaudoin J, Delgado H. Thermal
[10] Chusilp N, Jaturapitakkul C, Kiattikomol K. Constr. Build. Mater. Analysis of Construction Material, Noyes Publications: New
2009, 23, 3523–3531. York, 2003, 71–136 and 293–343.
[11] Villar-Cociña E, Valencia-Morales E, González-Rodríguez R, [23] Akram T, Ali Memon S, Obaid H. Constr. Build. Mater. 2009, 23,
Hernández-Ruíz J. Cem. Concr. Res. 2003, 33, 517–524. 703–712.
[12] Frías MS, Villar-Cociña E, Rojas MI, Valencia-Morales E. Cem. [24] Pippo A, Garzone P, Cornacchia G. Waste Manage. 2007, 27,
Concr. Res. 2005, 35, 2137–2142. 869–885.