‘A’ LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS,

STATISTICS & MECHANICS

Theory-Practice Nexus

First EDITION

Simba Show Mazongonda

Takunda Mandebvu

GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF BUSINESS

‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics, Statistics & Mechanics: Theory-Practice Nexus

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“‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics, Statistics & Mechanics: Theory-Practice Nexus” by

Simba Show Mazongonda and Takunda Mandebvu.

© Global Institute of Business (Pvt) Ltd 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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Machel Avenue, Harare.

The Publishers like to acknowledge the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council

(ZIMSEC), Cambridge International Examinations (CIE), Oxford University Delegacy
of Local Examinations, University of London Examinations and Assessment Council
Associated Examining Board (AEB), Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA),
International Baccalaureate (IB) and the Joint Matriculation Board (JMB) for the past
examination questions used in this text book.

Printed in Harare by Global Institute of Business Press

Global Institute of Business

‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics, Statistics & Mechanics: Theory-Practice Nexus

PREFACE

Simple in approach, exhaustive in nature and syllabus-specific, this book addresses all the
objectives of Zimsec Paper Two Syllabus. Just like the other titles in the Nexus Series, this book
bridges the gap between theory and practice with much emphasis on the practicality of
concepts.

This book is divided into three sections following the provisions of the ZIMSEC Paper Two
syllabus. Section A covers Pure Mathematics, Section B discusses statistical concepts and
Section C breaks down Mechanics.

Just like a well-dressed man, this book is well-dressed so as to improve on the understanding
of hidden interrelationships in Mathematics. Through this contemporary approach, the book
appeals to great advantage to those who want to succeed in Advanced Level Mathematics
and beyond.

Simba Show Mazongonda

Takunda Mandebvu
Global Institute of Business

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‘A’ Level Pure Mathematics, Statistics & Mechanics: Theory-Practice Nexus

Also by S.S. Mazongonda and T. Mandebvu

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘A’ LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS (P3)

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘A’ LEVEL STATISTICS (S1)

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘A’ LEVEL MECHANICS (M1)

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘AS’ LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS (P1)

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘A’ LEVEL STATISTICS: SPECIAL EDITION (S1 & S2)

‘A’ LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS: THEORY-PRACTICE NEXUS

‘A’ LEVEL STATISTICS & MECHANICS: THEORY-PRACTICE NEXUS

‘O’ LEVEL MATHEMATICS: THEORY-PRACTICE NEXUS – with S. Chikuwanyanga

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

AEB Associated Examining Board

AQA Assessment and Qualifications Alliance

(C) Cambridge, ‘A’ Level

(CAFM) Cambridge, ‘A’ Level Further Mathematics

CIE Cambridge International Examinations

(COS) Cambridge, ‘O’ Level Statistics

IB International Baccalaureate

JMB Joint Matriculation Board

(L) University of London Examinations and Assessment Council

(O) Oxford University Delegacy of Local Examinations

UP Unspecified Paper

(Z) Zimsec, ‘A’ Level

ZAFM Zimsec ‘A’ Level Further Mathematics

ZIMSEC Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council

(ZOAM) Zimsec ‘O’ Level Additional Mathematics

(ZSP) Zimsec Specimen Paper

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Tackling Mathematics: The Carnivorous Approach

“Patience, persistence and perspiration make an unbeatable combination for success”

– Napoleon Hill

The study of mathematics can be likened to carnivorism, that is, the practice of being a
carnivore. Let us explain.

With fierce competition for food, territory and shelter, life in the jungle progresses by one
law: the law of natural selection, something Charles Darwin referred to as the ‘survival of the
fittest’. In line with this, mathematicians; should realise and remember that success belongs
to those that are willing to be

 Visionaries
 Strategists
 Communicators
 Adaptors
These are the attributes embodied by all carnivores.

Prey hide themselves from the predator: they do so by camouflage and finding ‘strength’ in
numbers. Big cats such as lions, leopards, tigers and cheetahs use their visionary eyes, and at
times their unique sense of smell to locate their prey in hidden environs. Similarly,
mathematics is about solving a jigsaw puzzle. Examiners do their best to hide the key points
away from students. Only visionary students can see the hidden attributes about a question.
A mathematical eye is different from an ordinary eye; it sees the ‘trick’ in the question.

Once the prey has been located, the next thing is strategy development. Lions do not
haphazardly attack a herd of buffalos, they are cognisant of the fact that these animals can
fight back and maim, even kill a big cat in a ‘do or die’ encounter. Instead, the lions team up
in groups of four or five and use a ‘cow horn’ formation to encircle and attack the herd.
Therefore students are encouraged to work in smaller groups in order to share ideas and
experiences and sharpen each other’s line of thought. The sheer number of beasts in the herd
makes it unwise to attack whole group rather the strategy here is to isolate then attack one
beast from the herd Topics in the syllabus have hidden interrelationships with one topic
cascading down into another. From the pool of topics, isolate, attack, and thoroughly work
on one topic of choice.

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When an animal has been isolated, the next thing is to move with speed and accuracy like a
cheetah. Carnivores attack from behind, tackle the prey and without wasting time, aim for
the throat. This stops the prey from breathing and the carnivore can suck the blood of the
beast. As the animal loses its blood, its life ebbs away and eventually it stops convulsing and
lies dead next to the carnivore. Big cats behave differently at this stage:

 A cheetah pants rapidly, more like a sigh of relief as it rests a little before eating the
animal. It is tired considering it runs at bursts of up to 120 km/hr.
 A leopard takes the prey up a tree and feasts in isolation.
 Lions feed first and then give the remains to the lionesses and cubs

It is against this background that when working on an isolated topic, specific emphasis should
be placed on the key areas to that topic with the view of exposing areas of interest to
examiners. Students are strongly encouraged to take short notes summarising the
development of a topic. Carnivores suck out all the blood and in like manner students should
attempt as many examination questions as possible to cement on the concept. Some
problems in mathematics are offensive in nature and they can easily dilute one’s level of
confidence. Students are strongly encouraged to be aggressive when attempting questions.
If we take a look at animals like zebras, they fight back through their ‘horse-kick’ to the extent
that a predator can feel the pain. Due to their aggressiveness, predators press on till the
animal has been knocked down.

As mathematicians, we don’t just train students to be competent, but also to be patient.

Sometimes it takes time to grasp the gist of a problem. As such, one has to be patient to grasp
a challenging concept. In the jungle, a cheetah can chase an antelope and misses the target,
but it does not lose hope instead it exercises patience to get another prey.

This brings about an important attribute: adaptability. When a predator gets on a hunting toll,
it goes on the hunting ground with an open mind ready to attack a prey that comes its way.
A predator is always flexible to adjust to the demands of the jungle. Without a firmly designed
framework, a predator cannot cope with the demands of the jungle. Examination questions
are like that, they are not predictable, though the concepts are definite. When approaching
an examination question, nobody knows what is in store. One should, therefore, be flexible
enough to adjust to the slant of the question and employ all the necessary skills. That is,
questions should be approached with circumspection and innovation.

The carnivorous approach outlined above is meant to equip students with the four keys to
fruitfulness, herein referred to as 4E’s: Exposure; Experience; Expertise; and Excellence

 Exposure is orienting oneself to as many examination questions as possible.

This enables one to have a feel of the terrain and know what is expected of him
or her by the examiner. It is from this exposure that one consolidates the
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concepts into something tangible. Gaining exposure without experience may

lead to the attainment of grade D.

 Experience refers to the proficiency that develops as a result of doing the same
thing over and over again. Grade C is normally realised by students who have
gained experience adequate enough to get a pass- just a pass.

 Expertise is the ability to know and identify some of the worst mistakes that
can be incurred in a particular topic and be in a position to avoid them. Each
topic has its own pitfalls and these are normally used as a trap by examiners.
Experts will only go as far as B.

 Excellence is the ability to do ordinary things extra-ordinarily well. This is the

highest stage one attains in mathematics leading to ‘A’ grade. This is mainly
seen in students who are extremely accurate, with concepts on their finger tips
and have the capacity to deliver within a short space of time.

“The great heights reached by men and kept were not attained by sudden flight
But they, while their companions slept, were toiling upward through the night”

– Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

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Table of Contents
PREFACE............................................................................................................................................. i
Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................... iii
Tackling Mathematics: The Carnivorous Approach ...........................................................................iv
Section A: Pure Mathematics ............................................................................................................ 1
Chapter One: Matrix Algebra ............................................................................................................ 3
Worked Examination Question on General Matrices ................................................................ 20
Revision Questions on General Matrix ...................................................................................... 21
Transformations .......................................................................................................................... 26
Congruent Transformations ..................................................................................................... 28
Incongruent Transformations................................................................................................... 32
Revision Questions on Transformations .................................................................................... 38
Chapter Two: Further Vector Methods ........................................................................................... 42
Determination of Equations ......................................................................................................... 42
Application of Vectors ................................................................................................................. 49
Worked Examination Questions on Vectors .................................................................................. 61
Revision Questions on Vectors ..................................................................................................... 72
Chapter Three: Complex Numbers .................................................................................................. 82
The Argand Diagram .................................................................................................................... 84
Loci ........................................................................................................................................ 89
Worked Examination Questions on Complex Geometry & Algebra............................................ 92
Revision Questions on Complex Geometry & Algebra ............................................................. 104
Worked Examination Question on Complex Trigonometry ...................................................... 108
Revision Question on Complex Trigonometry.......................................................................... 110
De Moivre’s Theorem ................................................................................................................ 111
The root of a Complex Number ...................................................................................... 116
Worked Examination Question on De Moivre’s Theorem ........................................................ 118
Revision Questions on De Moivre’s Theorem .......................................................................... 120
Chapter Four: Mathematical Induction ......................................................................................... 128
Matrix Algebra ........................................................................................................................... 128
Worked Examination Questions on Matrix Algebra ................................................................ 128
Revision Question on Matrix Algebra ..................................................................................... 132
Sequences and Series ................................................................................................................ 133
Worked Examination Questions on Sequences and Series ....................................................... 134
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Revision Questions on Sequences and Series .......................................................................... 137

Differentiation ........................................................................................................................... 140
Worked Examination Questions on Differentiation ................................................................. 140
Revision Questions on Differentiation..................................................................................... 143
Integration ................................................................................................................................ 145
Factors and Multiples ................................................................................................................ 146
Worked Examination Question on Factors and Multiples........................................................ 146
Revision Questions on Factors and Multiples .......................................................................... 149
Complex Numbers ..................................................................................................................... 151
Worked Examination Question on Complex Numbers ............................................................. 151
Revision Questions on Complex Numbers ............................................................................... 153
Section B: Introduction to Statistics .............................................................................................. 155
Chapter Five: Data Presentation and Analysis .............................................................................. 158
Data Presentation ...................................................................................................................... 159
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 168
Worked Examination Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis ........................................... 175
Revision Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis ............................................................... 188
Chapter Six: Probability ................................................................................................................ 206
Probability Events ...................................................................................................................... 206
Analytical Instruments ............................................................................................................... 210
Worked Examination Questions on Tree Diagrams ................................................................. 214
Revision Questions on Tree Diagrams ..................................................................................... 219
Worked Examination Question on Combinations .................................................................... 224
Revision Questions on Combinations ...................................................................................... 224
Worked Examination Questions on Tabulated Data ............................................................... 225
Revision Questions on Tabulated Data ................................................................................... 229
Worked Examination Questions on Space Diagrams ............................................................... 230
Revision Questions on Space Diagrams .................................................................................. 232
Worked Examination Question on Distribution Tables ............................................................ 233
Revision Questions on Distribution Tables .............................................................................. 234
Chapter Seven: Discrete Probability Distributions ........................................................................ 239
Binomial Distribution ................................................................................................................. 239
Worked Examination Questions on Binomial Distribution ....................................................... 242
Revision Questions on Binomial Distribution........................................................................... 245
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Geometric Distribution .............................................................................................................. 248

Worked Examination Questions on Geometric Distribution .................................................... 251
Revision Questions on Geometric Distribution ........................................................................ 255
Chapter Eight: Continuous Distributions ....................................................................................... 259
Probability Density Function ...................................................................................................... 259
Expectation and Variance ...................................................................................................... 261
Worked Examination Questions involving pdf only ................................................................. 262
Revision Questions involving pdf only ..................................................................................... 271
Cumulative Distribution Function .............................................................................................. 277
Worked Examination Questions involving cdf ......................................................................... 280
Revision Questions involving cdf............................................................................................. 285
Chapter Nine: Normal Distribution ............................................................................................... 293
Standard Results .................................................................................................................... 296
Worked Examination Questions on Normal Distribution ......................................................... 298
Revision Questions on Normal Distribution............................................................................. 303
Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution ........................................................................ 310
Worked Examination Questions on Normal Approximation to Binomial ................................. 312
Revision Questions on Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution .................................. 317
Section C: Introduction to Mechanics ........................................................................................... 320
Chapter Ten: Study of Statics ........................................................................................................ 321
Resolution of Forces .................................................................................................................. 321
Worked Examination Questions on General Resolution .......................................................... 325
Revision Questions on General Resolution .............................................................................. 330
Worked Examination Questions on Rods ................................................................................ 343
Revision Questions on Rods .................................................................................................... 346
Worked Examination Questions on Inclined Planes................................................................. 348
Revision Questions on Inclined Planes .................................................................................... 353
Lami’s Theorem ......................................................................................................................... 357
Worked Examination Questions on Lami’s Theorem ............................................................... 358
Revision Questions on Lami’s Theorem ................................................................................... 361
Chapter Eleven: Study of Kinematics ............................................................................................ 364
Equations of Motion .................................................................................................................. 365
Graphs of Motion ...................................................................................................................... 365
Displacement-time ( , ) graph ............................................................................................ 365
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Velocity-time ( , ) graph ..................................................................................................... 366

Worked Examination Questions on Graphical Analysis and Sketching ..................................... 368
Revision Questions on Graphical Analysis and Sketching ........................................................ 373
Vertical Motion under Gravity ................................................................................................... 381
Worked Examination Questions on Vertical Motion ............................................................... 381
Revision Questions on Vertical Motion ................................................................................... 385
Chapter Twelve: Newton’s Laws of Motion .................................................................................. 386
Motion of Single Bodies ............................................................................................................. 386
Worked Examination Questions on Motion of Single Bodies ................................................... 387
Revision Questions on Motion of Single Bodies ....................................................................... 395
Motion of Connected Particles................................................................................................... 398
Worked Examination Questions on Horizontal Tables ............................................................. 399
Revision Questions on Horizontal Tables ................................................................................ 404
Worked Examination Questions on Inclined Planes................................................................. 408
Revision Questions on Inclined Planes .................................................................................... 412
Worked Examination Questions on Vertical Straight Parts...................................................... 414
Revision Questions on Vertical Straight Parts ......................................................................... 418
Chapter Thirteen: Projectile Motion ............................................................................................. 424
Analysis of Ideal Projectiles ........................................................................................................ 426
Worked Examination Questions on Ideal Projectiles ............................................................... 429
Revision Questions on Ideal Projectiles ................................................................................... 435
Analysis of Non-ideal Projectiles ................................................................................................ 440
Revision Questions on Non-ideal Projectiles ........................................................................... 455
Answers to Revision Questions ..................................................................................................... 464
Section A: Pure Mathematics ..................................................................................................... 464
Chapter One: Matrix Algebra ................................................................................................. 464
Chapter Two: Further Vector Methods ................................................................................... 467
Chapter Three: Complex Numbers .......................................................................................... 468
Chapter Four: Mathematical Induction ................................................................................... 472
Section B: Statistics .................................................................................................................... 474
Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis........................................................................ 474
Chapter Five: Probability ........................................................................................................ 477
Chapter Six: Discrete Probability Distributions ........................................................................ 480
Chapter Seven: Continuous Distributions ................................................................................ 482
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Chapter Eight: Normal Distribution ........................................................................................ 484

Section C: Mechanics ................................................................................................................. 487
Chapter Nine: Study of Statics ................................................................................................ 487
Chapter Ten: Study of Kinematics ........................................................................................... 489
Chapter Eleven: Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................. 490
Chapter Twelve: Projectile Motion ......................................................................................... 492
DIAGRAM ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS ............................................................................ 494
Section A: Pure Mathematics ..................................................................................................... 494
Chapter One: Matrices ........................................................................................................... 494
Chapter Three: Complex Numbers .......................................................................................... 494
Section B: Statistics .................................................................................................................... 502
Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis........................................................................ 502
Chapter Five: Probability ........................................................................................................ 513
Chapter Seven: Continuous Distributions ................................................................................ 515
Section C: Mechanics ................................................................................................................. 516
Chapter Ten: Study of Kinematics ........................................................................................... 516
Chapter Eleven: Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................. 521
Chapter Twelve: Projectile Motion ......................................................................................... 521
Statistical Tables ........................................................................................................................... 522

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Section A: Pure Mathematics

Central to Paper Two is Pure Mathematics as it constitutes 60% of the total weight of this
paper. The Pure Mathematics section tests one’s ability to address problems inclined to any
of the Pure Mathematics concepts examinable in Paper One plus the additional four topics in
this module. Though any Pure Mathematics topic is examinable, much emphasis is placed on
the four topics discussed in this book.

This section covers the following topics:

 Matrix Algebra

 Further Vector Methods

 Complex Numbers, and

 Mathematical Induction.

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Chapter One: Matrix Algebra

“The more I use a matrix, the easier I make it to blame someone else”
– Mark V. Hurd

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers used to record data classified using two factors. It
is more of a table where the cells are invisible. For example, students enrolled with a
particular school can be classified by gender and the subjects they do. A hypothetical example
of this form of grouping can be recorded in a contingency table as follows:

Table 1.1

Gender
Male (M) Female (F)
Physics (P) 13 11
Subject Chemistry (C) 9 15
Mathematics (M) 12 13

Alternatively, rows can be used to represent subjects under study and columns to represent
the classification according to gender. As such, the same information can be shown in a matrix
as shown below:

13 11 MP FP
9 15 ≡ MC FC
12 13 MM FM
It is critical to note that matrices are named after the number of rows and number of columns,
in that order ( × ). This is called the order of the matrix. In the introductory
example above, there are three subjects (rows) and two sexual constructs (columns). As such,
we have a (3 × 2) matrix showing how students have been classified according to gender and
the subjects they study.

2 1 5
(2 × 3)
6 3 4

1
1 (4 × 1)
4
5

2 1
(2 × 2)
3 4
and so on.

It must be emphasised that order is important when analysing and interpreting matrices.
NB: matrix is singular and matrices is plural.

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Mathematical Operations in Context of Matrices

There are four operations in mathematics: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
These four operations, central to study of mathematics, fall loosely into two families as
illustrated by Fig. 1.1 below:
Mathematical
Operations

Associations Attachments

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

Fig. 1.1

(i). Associations
The application of the associative law in the context of matrices is conditional. The
sum or difference of two matrices is only possible if the matrices share the same
order, that is, if they have the same number of rows and columns. In cases where the
matrices are not of the same order, the sum or difference of the matrices is undefined.
When adding or subtracting matrices with the same order, corresponding entries are
added or subtracted.

Example I:
4 −2 4 + ⟦−2⟧
⇒ −3 + 3 = −3 + 3
2 −5 2 + (−5)
4 −2 2
⇒ −3 + 3 = 0
2 −5 −3
Example II:
2 4 7 −6 2 + 7 4 + ⟦−2⟧
⇒ + =
3 −2 0 4 3 + 0 −2 + 4
2 4 7 −6 9 −2
⇒ + =
3 −2 0 4 3 2
Example III:
3 4 6 6 3 −4 3−6 4−3 6 − ⟦−4⟧
⇒ −2 1 0 − 2 1 3 = −2 − 2 1 − 1 0−3
2 −6 3 1 5 6 2 − 1 −6 − 5 3−6
3 4 6 6 3 −4 −3 1 10
⇒ −2 1 0 − 2 1 3 = −4 0 −3
2 −6 3 1 5 6 1 −11 −3

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(ii). Attachments
It must be clearly pronounced from the onset that there is no provision for division in
the realm of matrix algebra. Only multiplication is possible, but it takes two forms:
scalar multiplication; and multiplication of matrices.

a) Scalar Multiplication
Scalar multiplication occurs when a matrix is multiplied by a number. When
multiplying a matrix by a scalar quantity, the multiplier affects all entries to the
matrix. For example,

ℎ ,
2 1 4
⇒3 = ..
3 −2 5
2 1 4
⇒3 =3
3 −2 5
6 3 12
⇒3 =
9 −6 15

b) Multiplication of Matrices
Hinged on the order of matrices, multiplication of matrices uses the principle
( × ). Individual entries are given by sum of products of
corresponding ‘ × ’ entries.

…
…
⎛ ⎞
⎜ … ⎟
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⎝ … ⎠

It must be emphasised that in the multiplier, the focus should be on the entries
in rows, and in the multiplicand the focus should be on the entries in the
columns. This brings two important points to note:

 Multiplication of matrices is only possible if the number of entries in

individual rows of the multiplier is exactly the same as the number
of entries in individual columns of the multiplicand.

 The entries in the multipliers’ row multiply the corresponding entries

in the multiplicands’ columns. For example the first entry in the
multipliers’ row will multiply the first entry in the multiplicands’
column and so on.

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Example I

2 3 −5 7 (2 × −5) + (3 × −3) (2 × 7) + (3 × 4)
⇒ =
1 −4 −3 4 (1 × −5) + (−4 × −3) (1 × 7) + (−4 × 4)
2 3 −5 7 −10 − 9 14 + 12
⇒ =
1 −4 −3 4 −5 + 12 7 − 16
− −
∴ =
− − −

Example II

3 4 0 2 (3 × 2) + (4 × 5) + (0 × −1)
⇒ −2 6 −3 5 = −2 × 2) + (6 × 5) + (−3 × −1)
(
7 −4 1 −1 (7 × 2) + (−4 × 5) + (1 × −1)
3 4 0 2 6 + 20 + 0
⇒ −2 6 −3 5 = −4 + 30 + 3
7 −4 1 −1 14 − 20 + 1

∴ − − =
− − −

Example III

1 0 3 2 2 0
= 2 1 2 = 1 3 2
1 3 1 3 2 0
1 0 3 2 2 0
ℎ = 2 1 2 1 3 2
1 3 1 3 2 0
( 1 × 2) + ( 0 × 1) ( 1 × 2) + ( 0 × 3) (1 × 0) + (0 × 2)
+(3 × 3) +(3 × 2) +(3 × 0)
⎛ ⎞
( )
2×2 + 1×1( ) ( 2 × 2) + ( 1 × 3) (2 × 0) + (1 × 2)
⇒ =⎜ ⎟
⎜ +(2 × 3) +(2 × 2) +(2 × 0) ⎟
( 1 × 2) + ( 3 × 1) ( 1 × 2) + ( 3 × 3) (1 × 0) + (3 × 2)
⎝ +(1 × 3) +(1 × 2) +(1 × 0) ⎠
2+0+9 2+0+6 0+0+0
⇒ = 4+1+6 4+3+4 0+2+0
2+3+3 2+9+2 0+6+0

∴ =

NB: multiplication of matrices is not commutative. That is, ≠ .

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Transpose of a Matrix

A simple interchange of rows and columns denotes transposition. Transposition refers to the
movement that leads to change in position or location. In this case: entries in Row 1 will
assume the position of entries in Column 1; entries in Row 2 will assume the position of entries
in Column 2; and entries in Row will assume the position of entries in Column . As such,
the number of entries in individual rows should be the same as the number of entries in
individual columns. This brings to light the fact that a matrix can only be transposed if it is a
square matrix (for example, (2 × 2); (3 × 3); (4 × 4); …; and ( × ) matrices).

, ℎ :
3 4 −3
2 −1
= = 6 0 1
0 4
−53 2
3 6 −5
2 0
⇒ = = 4 0 3
−1 4
−3 1 2

Where is the transpose of matrix and is the transpose of matrix .

Interestingly, transposition of a matrix retains the major diagonal. This is the diagonal from
the top left entry to the bottom right entry of a square matrix.

Matrix of Cofactors

A cofactor of an entry is the signed determinant of the (2 × 2) matrix formed by covering the
row and column the specific entry lies in. This concept is only valid if relevant signs are
attached to resultant products. The attachment of signs follows the provisions of the ‘sign-
change’ matrix.

Using the ‘sign-change’ matrix, entries to a (3 × 3) matrix are assigned corresponding signs.
The ‘sign-change’ matrix is an alternation of signs starting and ending with a positive sign as
shown below:
+ − +
′ − ℎ ′ = − + −
+ − +

Given that =

where is the term in the 1 row and 2 column,

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Below is a snapshot of cofactors of ,

+ − +
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜− + − ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
+ − +
⎝ ⎠

NB:
 when considering , ignore entries in row 1 and column 1,
 when considering , ignore entries in row 1 and column 2,
 when considering , ignore entries in row 1 and column 3, and so on.

,
4 3 −2
= 1 0 3
−2 6 1
Let be the matrix of cofactors of where the cofactors of are given by:

0 3 1 3 1 0
=+ =− =+
6 1 −2 1 −2 6
⎛ = (0 − 18) = −(1 − ⟦−6⟧) = (6 − 0) ⎞
⎜ = −18 = −7 = 6 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 −2 4 −2 4 3
=− =+ =− ⎟
⎜ 6 1 −2 1 −2 6 ⎟
⎜ = −(3 − ⟦−12⟧) = (4 − 4) = −(24 − ⟦−6⟧) ⎟
⎜ = −15 = 0 = −30 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 −2 4 −2 4 3
=+ =− =+ ⎟
⎜ 0 3 1 3 1 0 ⎟
= −(9 − 0) = −(12 − ⟦−2⟧) = (0 − 3)
⎝ = −9 = −14 = −3 ⎠

− −
∴ = − −
− − −

NB: What you need to remember when determining the matrix of cofactors:
 Attach relevant signs to individual entries based on the provisions of the ‘sign-change’
matrix.
 Correctly determine (2 × 2) matrices for individual entries by way of omitting all
entries in the row and column in which that entry lies.
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Determinant of a Matrix

It is used to describe the size of a matrix. The concept of determinant is only applicable to
square matrices. In this module, specific emphasis is placed on (2 × 2) and (3 × 3) matrices.

(i). Determinant of a ( × ) matrix

The determinant, | |, of a (2 × 2) matrix, , is given by

| |= –

ℎ ,
=

⇒| |=

∴| |=( )−( )

2 −3
, =
4 5
2 −3
⇒| |=
4 5
⇒ | | = (2 × 5) − (4 × −3)
⇒ | | = 10 − (−12)
⇒ | | = 10 + 12
∴| |=

(ii). Determinant of a ( × ) matrix

The determinant of a (3 × 3) matrix is calculated by associating (addition or

subtraction depending on the sign assigned by the sign-change matrix) the products
of entries and their corresponding cofactors in any row or column. In this module we
advocate the use of rows.

ℎ =

⇒| |=

⇒| |=+ − +
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| | = − + −

| | = + − +

Example 1
4 3
−2
= 1 03
−3 61
4 3 −2
ℎ | | = 1 0 3
−3 6 1
0 3 1 3 ( ) 1 0
⇒ | | = +4 −3 + −2
6 1 −3 1 −3 6
⇒ | | = 4[(0 × 1) − (3 × 6)] − 3[(1 × 1) − (3 × −3)] − 2[(1 × 6) − (0 × −3)]
⇒ | | = 4(0 − 18) − 3(1 + 9) − 2(6 − 0)
⇒ | | = 4(−18) − 3(10) − 2(6)
⇒ | | = −72 − 30 − 12
∴| |=−

3 −2 4 −2 4 3
⇒ | | = −1 +0 −3
6 1 −3 1 −3 6
⇒ | | = −1[(3 × 1) − (−2 × 6)] + 0[(4 × 1) − (−2 × −3)]
− 3[(4 × 6) − (3 × −3)]
⇒ | | = −1(3 − ⟦−12⟧) + 0(4 − 6) − 3(24 − ⟦−9⟧)
⇒ | | = −1(15) + 0(−2) − 3(33)
⇒ | | = −15 + 0 − 99
∴| |=−

3 −2 4 −2 4 3
⇒ | | = +(−3) −6 +1
0 3 1 3 1 0
⇒ | | = −3[(3 × 3) − (−2 × 0)] − 6[(4 × 3) − (−2 × 1)] + 1[(4 × 0) − (3 × 1)]
⇒ | | = −3(9 − 0) − 6(12 − ⟦−2⟧) + 1(0 − 3)
⇒ | | = −3(9) − 6(14) + 1(−3)
⇒ | | = −27 − 84 − 3
∴| |=−
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Example 1 above demonstrated that using any row will lead to the same value of the
determinant. Care must be taken when choosing the row to use since the sign-change matrix
still applies. There is no hard and fast rule as to which row to use so under examination
conditions, one can use any of the three rows.

Example 2
5 −2 2
= −3 1 4
2 −1 −3
5 −2 2
ℎ | | = −3 1 4
2 −1 −3
1 4 −3 4 −3 1
⇒| |=5 − (−2) +2
−1 −3 2 −3 2 −1
⇒ | | = 5[(1 × −3) − (4 × −1)] + 2[(−3 × −3) − (4 × 2)]
+ 2[(−3 × −1) − (1 × 2)]
⇒ | | = 5(−3 + 4) + 2(9 − 8) + 2(3 − 2)
⇒ | | = 5(1) + 2(1) + 2(1)
⇒ | | =5+2+2
∴| |=

Inverse of a Matrix

Just like the determinant, inverse can only be determined for square matrices. This is so
because inverse uses determinant as one of its building blocks.

Inverse of a ( × ) Matrix
Inverse is given by using as a multiplier to the original matrix after interchanging
the entries in the major diagonal and changing the signs of the entries in the minor diagonal.

−
ℎ =
| | −

2 −3
, ℎ =
4 5
⇒ | | = 22 (See worked example on page 9)

∴ =
−
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Inverse of a ( × ) Matrix

The inverse of a (3 × 3) matrix, , is given by

= ×
| |

where | | is the determinant of matrix and is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors
of .

, ℎ ,
2 −1 3
= 0 4 2
−1 3 −1

ℎ ℎ ℎ :

4 2 0 2 0 4
=+ =− =+
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
⎛ = (−4 − 6) = −(0 − ⟦−2⟧) = (0 − ⟦−4⟧) ⎞
⎜ = −10 = −2 = 4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
−1 3 2 3 2 −1
⎜ =− =+ =− ⎟
⎜ 3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3 ⎟
⎜ = −(1 − 9) = (−2 − ⟦−3⟧) = −(6 − 1) ⎟
⎜ = 8 = 1 = −5 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 3 2 3 2 −1
=+ =− =+ ⎟
⎜ 4 2 0 2 0 4 ⎟
= (−2 − 12) = −(4 − 0) = (8 − 0)
⎝ = −14 = −4 = 8 ⎠

Since = association the products of ′ :

entries and their corresponding cofactors in When determining the inverse,
row: consider the following sequential
steps:
 | | = 2(−10) + (−1)(−2) + 3(4) Step 1: Evaluate the cofactors of
Step 1: individual entries;
⇒ | | = −20 + 2 + 12
Step 2: Evaluate the determinant
⇒ | | = −6 Step 2: of the matrix;
Step 3: Write down the matrix of
 ℎ , Step 3: cofactors;
−10 −2 4 Step 4: Set-up the transpose of the
⇒ = 8 1 −5 Step 4: matrix of cofactors;
−14 −4 8 Step 5: Write down the inverse of
Step 5: the matrix.

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 ℎ ,
−10 8 −14
⇒ = −2 1 −4
4 −5 8

 ,
1
= ×
| |
− −
∴ =− − −
−

Simultaneous Equations

There is a wide spectrum of methods used to solve a system of simultaneous equations. This
module unveils two methods only: the inverse-matrix method; and Cramer’s rule in the
realm of (2 × 2) and (3 × 3) matrices.

A. ( × ) Matrices (a pair of simultaneous equations)

(i). Using the Inverse-Matrix Method

Consider the following steps:

 Transform the pair of simultaneous equations into matrix form;

 Evaluate the inverse of the resultant (2 × 2) matrix;
 Use the inverse as a multiplier to both sides of the equation.

By considering the application of the aforementioned steps using the following

pair of simultaneous equations,
+ 2 = 10,
−2 = 6
 A (2 × 2) matrix is formed by aligning the coefficients of such that
the process is reversible,
1 2 10
⇒ =
1 −2 6

1 2
 =
1 −2
⇒ | | = (1 × −2) − (2 × 1)
⇒ | | = −2 − 2
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⇒ | | = −4
1 −2 −2
⇒ =−
4 −1 1

 ℎ
5
⇒ × =
6
1 −2 −2 10
⇒ =−
4 −1 1 6
1 (−2 × 10) + (−2 × 6)
⇒ =−
4 (−1 × 10) + (1 × 6)
1 −20 − 12
⇒ −
4 −10 + 6
1 −32
⇒ −
4 −4
32
⇒ = 4
4
4
8
⇒ =
1
∴ = =

(ii). Using Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule, also known as the determinant approach, is based on the
evaluation of the following:
 the determinant of the original matrix, ( )
 the determinant of the matrix formed by substituting the 1st column
with the given result, ( ).
 the determinant of the matrix formed by substituting the 2nd column
with the given result, ( ).

= =
| | | |

By considering the example used to explain the inverse matrix method,

+ 2 = 10,
−2 = 6
1 2 10
⇒ =
1 −2 6

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1 2 1 10
= =
1 −2 1 6
⇒| | = (1 × −2) ⇒| | = (1 × 6) − (10 × 1)
− ( 2 × 1) ⇒| | = 6 − 10
⇒| | = −2 − 2 ⇒| | = −4
⇒| | = −4

10 2 −32
= ⇒ =
6 −2 −4
⇒| | = (10 × −2) ∴ =
− ( 2 × 6)
−4
⇒| | = −20 − 12 ⇒ =
−4
⇒| | = −32
∴ =

B. ( × ) Matrices (a system of equations)

(i). Using the Inverse-Matrix Method

The only difference between the case of (2 × 2) matrices and (3 × 3)
matrices is that the inverse of a (3 × 3) matrix is a little harder to determine,
as expected.

By considering a system of equations,

5 −7 +3 = 0
2 − 3 + 5 = −1
3 −4 +2 = 1
Aligning coefficients of , and such that the process is reversible;

5 −7 3 0
2 −3 5 = −1
3 −4 2 1

5 −7 3
= 2 −3 5
3 −4 2

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−3 5 2 5 2 −3
=+ =− =+
−4 2 3 2 3 −4
⎛ = (−6 − ⟦−20⟧) = −(4 − 15) = (−8 − ⟦−9⟧) ⎞
⎜ = 14 = 11 = 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −7 3 5 3 5 −7
=− =+ =− ⎟
⎜ −4 2 3 2 3 −4 ⎟
 = −(−14 − ⟦−12⟧) = (10 − 9) = −(−20 − ⟦−21⟧) ⎟
⎜
⎜ = 2 = 1 = −1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −7 3 5 3 5 −7
=+ =− =+ ⎟
⎜ −3 5 2 5 2 −3 ⎟
= (−35 − ⟦−9⟧) = −(25 − 6) = (−15 − ⟦−14⟧)
⎝ = −26 = −19 = −1 ⎠

| |=5 −7 +3
⇒ | | = 5(14) − 7(11) + 3(1)
⇒ | | = 70 − 77 + 3
⇒ | | = −4
14 11 1
= 2 1 −1
−26 −19 −1
14 2 −26
= 11 1 −19
1 −1 −1
1 14 2 −26
, = − 11 1 −19
4
1 −1 −1

0
 × =
× −1
1
1 14 2 −26 0
⇒ = − 11 1 −19 −1
4
1 −1 −1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
1 14 × 0 + 2 × −1 + −26 × 1
⇒ = − (11 × 0) + (1 × −1) + (−19 × 1)
4
(1 × 0) + (−1 × −1) + (−1 × 1)

1 0 − 2 − 26
⇒ = − 0 − 1 − 19
4
0+1−1

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1 −28
⇒ =− −20
4
0
7
⇒ = 5
0
∴ = ; = ; =

(ii). Using Cramer’s Rule

To solve the system of equations

5 −7 +3 = 0
2 − 3 + 5 = −1
3 −4 +2 = 1
By aligning coefficients of , and to form a (3 × 3) matrix,
5 −7 3 0
2 −3 5 = −1
3 −4 2 1

5 −7 3 5 0 3
= 2 −3 5 = 2 −1 5
3 −4 2 3 1 2
0 −7 3 5 −7 0
= −1 −3 5 = 2 −3 −1
1 −4 2 3 −4 1
5 −7 3
ℎ | | = 2 −3 5
3 −4 2
−3 5 ( ) 2 5 2 −3
⇒ | | = +5 − −7 +3
−4 2 3 2 3 −4
⇒| | = 5(−6 − ⟦−20⟧) + 7(4 − 15) + 3(−8 − ⟦−9⟧)
⇒| | = 5(14) + 7(−11) + 3(1)
⇒| | = 70 − 77 + 3
∴| |=−
0 −7 3
| | = −1 −3 5
1 −4 2
⇒| | = +0 −3 5 − (−7) −1 5 + 3 −1 −3
−4 2 1 2 1 −4
⇒| | = 0(−6 − ⟦−20⟧) + 7(−2 − 5) + 3(4 − ⟦−3⟧)
⇒| | = 0 + 7(−7) + 3(7)
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⇒| | = 0 − 49 + 21
∴| |=−
5 0 3
| | = 2 −1 5
3 1 2
| = +5 −1 5 2 5 2 −1
⇒| −0 +3
1 2 3 2 3 1
⇒| | = 5(−2 − 5) − 0(4 − 15) + 3(2 − ⟦−3⟧)
⇒| | = 5(−7) − 0(−11) + 3(5)
⇒| | = −35 − 0 + 15
∴| |=−
5 −7 0
| | = 2 −3 −1
3 −4 1
⇒| | = +5 −3 −1 − (−7) 2 −1 + 0 2 −3
−4 1 3 1 3 4
⇒| | = 5(−3 − 4) + 7(2 − ⟦−3⟧) + 0(8 − ⟦−9⟧)
⇒| | = 5(−7) + 7(5) + 0
⇒| | = −35 + 35 + 0
∴| |=

,
| | | | | |
= = =
| | | | | |
−28 −20 0
= = =
−4 −4 −4
∴ = ∴ = ∴ =

Special Square Matrices

1. Zero or null matrix, , is one whose entries are all zero. As such, the result of
multiplying any matrix, , by a zero matrix is the zero matrix.

Table 1.2
(2 × 2) ( 3 × 3)
0 0 0
0 0 = 0 0 0
=
0 0 0 0 0
=
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2. Identity matrix, , is the one whose entries are all zero except for the major diagonal
with entries of 1 throughout.

Table 1.3
(2 × 2) ( 3 × 3)
1 0 0
1 0 = 0 1 0
=
0 1 0 0 1
NB: if you multiply any matrix, , by the identity matrix, you will retain that matrix.
=
, ℎ ,
2 3 1
=
1 4 5
1 0 2 3 1
⇒ =
0 1 1 4 5
(1 × 2) + (0 × 1) (1 × 3) + (0 × 4) ( 1 × 1) + ( 0 × 5)
⇒ =
(0 × 2) + (1 × 1) (0 × 3) + (1 × 4) ( 0 × 1) + ( 1 × 5)
2+0 3+0 1+0
⇒ =
0+1 0+4 0+5
2 3 5
⇒ =
1 4 5
∴ =

This condition is true for all ( × ) matrices.

3. A singular matrix is one whose determinant is zero. It must be noted that that if the
matrix is singular, the inverse is undefined.

,
4 −2
=
6 −3
ℎ | | = (4 × −3) − (6 × −2)
⇒ | | = −12 − −12
⇒ | | = −12 + 12
⇒| |=0
∴ | | | | =
ℎ ,
1 −3 2
=
0 −6 4
ℎ ℎ ℎ
∴ =
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Worked Examination Question on General Matrices

Question (Zimsec Specimen Paper, November 2003 qp.2)

2 3 5
4. Find the determinant of the matrix = 1 0 4 . [3]
2 5 6
Hence find . [6]

Solution

2 3 5
= 1 0 4
2 5 6

ℎ ,

0 4 1 4 1 0
=+ =− =+
5 6 2 6 2 5
⎛ = (0 − 20) = −(6 − 8) = (5 − 0) ⎞
⎜ = −20 = 2 = 5 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 5 2 5 2 3 ⎟
=− =+ =−
⎜ 5 6 2 6 2 5 ⎟
⎜ = −(18 − 25) = (12 − 10) = −(10 − 6) ⎟
⎜ = 7 = 2 = −4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 5 2 5 2 3 ⎟
=+ =− =+
⎜ 0 4 1 4 1 0 ⎟
= (12 − 0) = −(8 − 5) = (0 − 3)
⎝ = 12 = −3 = −3 ⎠

−20 2 5
⇒ = 7 2 −4
12 −3 −3
−20 7 12
⇒ = 2 2 −3
5 −4 −3
2 3 5
| |= 1 0 4
2 5 6
⇒ | | = 2(−20) + 3(2) + 5(5)
⇒ | | = −40 + 6 + 25
∴| |=−
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1
, = ×
| |
−
∴ =− −
− −

Revision Questions on General Matrix

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

1 0 2 1 −1 1
5. Given that = 2 1 0 and = 0 2 1
3 1 1 1 3 0
(i). Find . [3]

−6 −18 15
(ii). Given that 4 8 −7 can be expressed in the form
4 14 −10
0 0
0 0 . Find the value of the constant . [2]
0 0

3
(iii). It is also given than = 1 , find , , . [4]
2

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

2 0 1 −3 1 1
3.. (b). Given that = 4 −1 2 and = 2 −1 0 , evaluate . [3]
3 1 1 7 −2 −2

Hence solve the simultaneous equations

2 + = 9,
4 − + 2 = 8,
3 + + = 4. [3]

November 2009 qp.1 (Zimsec A Level Further Mathematics)

1. Solve the equations

+ 2 − 2 = −2
3 +4 −5 =1
5 +8 −7 =2 [6]
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November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

−1 3 1
5.. (b). Given that = 2 5 0 ,
3 1 −2
Find (i). the determinant of , [2]
(ii). the inverse of . [5]
Hence or otherwise solve the following system of equations.
− + 3 + = 1,
2 + 5 = 3,
3 + − 2 = −2. [3]

November 2007 qp.1 (IB)

November 2006 qp.1 (IB)

June 2009 qp.2 (IB)

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Unknown Source
Solve the following simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule

+ + =4
2 − 3 + 4 = 33
3 −2 −2 = 2

Unknown Source
Solve the system of equations

3 −2 + = 1
+ + =0
2 − +2 = 1

Unknown Source
2 −1 1
Find the inverse of B, if = 2 0 3
1 −1 0

Unknown Source
4 −7 6
Find the matrix of cofactors of −2 4 0
5 7 −4

June 2005 qp.1 (AQA)

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June 2008 qp.1 (AQA)

January 2006 qp.4 (AQA)

January 2007 qp.4 (AQA)

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June 2005 qp.4 (AQA)

June 2008 qp.4 (AQA)

June 2003 qp.1 (IB)

November 2001 qp.1 (IB)

November 2001 qp.1 (IB)

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June 2002 qp.1 (IB)

June 2008 qp.1 (IB)

June 2006 qp.1 (IB)

Transformations

Being a hybrid of the two words, trans- and formation, transformation describes the
movement of an object leading to the formation of a new feature. Reflecting on the two
words: trans- means to change thoroughly, to move through, beyond or across; and formation
means the creation of a new object. Transformations fall loosely into two categories namely
congruent and incongruent. The distinction between the two is as shown by Figure 1.2 below:

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Transformation

Congruent Incongruent

Translation* Reflection Rotation stretch shear

Fig. 1.2

*The translation transformation is not relevant to the Paper 2 syllabus.

The relationship connecting an image and an original is described by a particular

transformation or hybrid of transformations. Transformation has its basis on the unit square
which summarises the identity matrix. A two-dimensional Cartesian plane is made of two
directions: the -direction and the -direction. Unity means one. As such, a unit square is
given by moving one unit along the and -directions, leading to the following matrix:

Table 1.4
− −

=
− • •
−
• •

1 0
=
0 1

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Congruent Transformations

When a shape, an object, a line or a point has been transformed, yet retains its properties
and size, it is said to have undergone a congruent transformation. Paper Two places specific
emphasis on reflection and rotation.

A. Reflection
Also known as the minor effect, reflection accounts for a ‘flip-over’ effect in a
particular mirror line. Standard reflections use the following mirror lines:

i. = 0 ( − )
ii. = 0 ( − )
iii. = (45° − )
iv. = − (135° − )

i. , = ( − )

The -direction remains (1, 0) since it is sitting on the mirror line, and -
direction flips over to (0, −1) after the reflection.

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, 0)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, −1)

=
−

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ii. , = ( − )

The -direction remains on (0, 1) since it is sitting omn the mirror line, and
the -direction flips over to (−1, 0) after the reflection.

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (−1, 0)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, 1)
−
=

iii. , = ( °− )

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Using the mirror line = , for every -value there is a corresponding and
equal value of .

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, 1)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, 0)

NB: This is a mere interchange of and directions.

iv. , = − ( °− )

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, −1)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (−1, 0)

−
=
−

B. Rotation
When an object is revolved about a particular point, all other points change their
location except for the centre of rotation. A unit square will use the origin as the centre
of rotation.
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Rotation can either be clockwise or anticlockwise. Regardless of the direction, the

matrix operator that summarises rotation is:

−
=

The direction only helps in determining whether is positive or negative. Where the
rotation is clockwise, is negative, and where the rotation is the anticlockwise
direction, is positive.

90° ℎ 90° ℎ
cos(−90) − sin(−90) cos(90) − sin(90)
= =
sin(−90) cos(−90) sin(90) cos(90)
−
= =
−

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
: :

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, −1) (1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, 1)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, 0) (0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (−1, 0)

NB: 180° rotation about the origin does not consider the direction because rotating
in either direction leads to the same conclusion. This is so because 180° is half a
complete revolution.

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Incongruent Transformations

Any transformation that alters the properties and/or size of the original shape is dubbed
incongruent. There are two broad categories of incongruent transformation: stretch and
shear.

A. Stretch
Being the elastic effect, stretch accounts for the resonation or reduction in size of an
object as a result of extending the effect of a multiplier to the original shape. Stretch
is either one-way or two-way.

(i). One-way stretch

As the name implies, one-way stretch affects one direction only.

ℎ − , ℎ − ,
− −

1 0 1 0
= =
0 1 0 1
= =

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ − ℎ −

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ( , 0) (1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, 0)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, 1) (0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, )

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(ii). Two-way stretch

Two-way stretch affects both the and -directions. Interestingly, two-way
stretch can use the same scale factor or different scale factors.

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ( , 0) (1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ( , 0)

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, ℎ) (0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, )

1 0
= ℎ
0 1 :

=
1 0
=
0 1
ℎ ℎ ℎ =
ℎ &

ℎ ℎ

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B. Shear
Shear describes a tilting effect affecting one direction only with the other direction
invariant. As such, shear takes two forms as outlined below:

− −
, ℎ ,
ℎ , ℎ ℎ , ℎ
1 . ℎ 1 . ℎ
ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ : ℎ ℎ :

(1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, 0) (1, 0) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (1, )

(0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ( , 1) (0, 1) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (0, 1)

= =

NB: it is critical to note that shear is the only transformation with one zero. Review
other transformations and take note of their behaviour. We are sure you will make an
interesting discovery.

The foregoing section outlined how one can derive a matrix operator, but an operator
does not address a problem unless it has been used as a multiplier to an original,
thereby producing an image. This brings about the important relationship between an
original object and an image object. Mathematically, it is given as,

= ×

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In cases where a hybrid of transformations has been applied with one transformation
following another, the sequence is very important. Refresh your mind and consider
the following:

If an object has been transformed by followed by , the overall effect is given by .

The latter transformation serves as a multiplier to the former transformation.

2 1
For example, when a point (5, 6) has been transformed by followed by
0 1
1 0
,
−1 1

ℎ =
1 0 2 1
ℎ =
−1 1 0 1
[(1 × 2) + (0 × 0)] [(1 × 1) + (0 × 1)]
ℎ =
[(−1 × 2) + (1 × 0)] [(−1 × 1) + (1 × 1)]
2 1
ℎ =
−2 0

ℎ , = × ,

= ×

2 1 5
⇒ =
−2 0 6

[(2 × 5) + (1 × 6)]
⇒ =
[(−2 × 5) + (0 × 6)]

[10 + 6]
⇒ =
[10 + 0]

16
⇒ =
−10

∴ =( , − )

When transforming a line, it is easy to identify any two points on the line, especially the points
where the line crosses the coordinate axes, and transform the two points before determining
the equation of the image line. For example, the image of the line, = + 1, after
2 3
undergoing the transformation :
0 −1

0 1
1 0

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Using the ‘pressure points’, (0, 1) and (−1, 0), where the line meets the and axis
respectively:

2 3 0 2 3 −1
= =
0 −1 1 0 −1 0
[(2 × 0) + (3 × 1)] [(2 × −1) + (3 × 0)]
= =
[(0 × 0) + (−1 × 1)] [(0 × −1) + (−1 × 0)]

3 −2
= =
−1 0

= (3, −1) = (−2, 0)

−1 − 0
=
3 − (−2)

1
⇒ =−
5

= + ,

ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

1
⇒ 0 = − (−2) +
5
2
⇒ =
5
1 2
=− +
5 5
,

In cases where the image line and the matrix operator are known, the original line can be
determined by reversing the process. Let us use a practical example to explain.
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Using a hypothetical question:

Find the equation of the line that gives the image line = − + 2 after undergoing the
0 −1
transformation
−1 0

 ℎ ℎ ℎ ,
det( ) = (0 × 0) − (−1 × −1)
det( ) = 0−1
det( ) = −1
1 0 1
( )=
−1 1 0
( ) = −1 0 1
1 0
( ) = 0 −1
−1 0

 ℎ , ℎ ,
0 2
2 0

(0, 2) (−2, 0) ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ

 = ( )×
0 −1 0
=
−1 0 2
−2
=
0
= (−2, 0)
0 −1 −2
=
−1 0 0
0
=
−2
= (0, − 2)
( )
 ( )=

2
( )=
−2
( ) = −1
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 = + , ℎ ℎ
= −1
⇒ 0 = −1(−2) +
⇒ = −2
 ∴ , =− −

Revision Questions on Transformations

January 2005 qp.1 (AQA)

January 2006 qp.1 (AQA)

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January 2007.qp1 (AQA)

June 2008 qp.1 (AQA)

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January 2008 qp.1 (AQA)

June 2002 qp.1 (IB)

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June 2000 qp.1 (IB)

June 2003 qp.2 (IB)

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

2 3
3. (a). All the points on the line = 2 − 5 are transformed by the matrix .
1 −1
Find the equation of the image line. [5]

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

5. (a). Find the image of line = 2 + 1 under the transformation matrix.

2 0
, giving your answer in the form + + = 0. [3]
1 3

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Chapter Two: Further Vector Methods

“If A is a success in life, then A is three dimensional in nature, that is A equals x plus y plus z.
Work is x; y is play; and z is keeping your mouth shut.”
– Albert Einstein

Further Vector Methods is an extension of Vectors I. This topic places specific emphasis on
the equation of a line and the equation of a plane.

Vector Methods are grouped into two sections:

 Determination of Equations

 Application of Vectors

Determination of Equations

1. Equation of a Line

It is made up of two parts, that is, the position vector and the direction vector. A
position vector describes any point that the line passes through whereas a
displacement (direction) vector is used to describe any direction that is parallel to the
line. The general equation of a line is given as,

= +

Where is a parameter for the direction. One has to bear in mind that other symbols
can be used to denote the parameter for the direction, for instance , , and so on.

Given that point and have position vectors,

3 2
⃗= 2 ⃗ = −3
−1 1

(i) Equation of a line that passes through points and is given by,

= ⃗+ ⃗
3 2 3
⇒ = 2 + −3 − 2
−1 1 −1
3 −1
⇒ = 2 + −5
−1 2
Where ⃗ represents the position vector, and ⃗ represents the direction
vector.
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(ii) Equation of a line that passes through point and is parallel to ⃗ is given

by,

= ⃗+ ⃗
3 2
⇒ = 2 + −3
−1 1

Where ⃗ represents the position vector, and ⃗ represents the direction

vector. In this case ⃗ has been used as a direction vector and not a position
vector because ALL parallel vectors share the same direction. As such, ⃗ is a
displacement vector because it is a direction parallel to the line.

The equation of a line can be expressed in vector, parametric and Cartesian

forms. Using Example (i) above:

3 −1
= 2 + −5 ℎ
−1 2

=3− ℎ . ℎ ℎ
= 2−5
= −1 + 2 ℎ , , .

ℎ . ℎ
−3 −2 +1
( =) = = ℎ ℎ
−1 −5 2
ℎ

2. Equation of a Plane

A plane is any two dimensional figure which is fairly flat or level. It is defined by any
direction perpendicular to the plane where this perpendicular direction is known as
the normal. Fig. 2.1 shows the setup of a plane.

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Fig. 2.1

The normal is given by the cross or vector product of any two directions on the plane.
It is an undisputed fact that some students confuse dot product and cross product. It
is therefore important to distinguish the two before dwelling much on the equation
of the plane.

Dot versus Cross product

Given that,

3 2
⃗= 2 ⃗ = −3
−1 1
a) Dot product: refers to the sum of the products in corresponding directions;
3 2
⃗∙ ⃗= 2 ∙ −3
−1 1

⇒ ⃗∙ ⃗ = (3)(2) + (2)(−3) + (−1)(1)

⇒ ⃗∙ ⃗ = 6−6−1

∴ ⃗∙ ⃗=−

b) Cross product: refers to the sum of magnitudes of (2 × 2) matrices in the

, and directions.

⃗× ⃗ = 3 2 −1
2 −3 1
⃗× ⃗ = 2 −1 3 −1 3 2
⇒ − +
−3 1 2 1 2 −3

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⇒ ⃗× ⃗ = [(2 × 1) − (−1 × −3)] − [(3 × 1) − (−1 × 2)]

+ [(3 × −3) − (2 × 2)]

∴ ⃗× ⃗=− − −

NB:
 To find the (2 × 2) matrix for the −direction, ignore the first row and first column
because lies in the first row and first column.

 The (2 × 2) matrix for the −direction is given by omitting the first row and second
column because lies in the aforesaid row and column.

 The (2 × 2) matrix for the −direction is given by ignoring entries in the first row and
third column because lies in the aforementioned row and column.

 Use the ‘sign-change’ to attach signs to the , and directions. is positive, is

negative and is positive, that is, +, −, + ⋯.

Once the normal has been determined, the equation of the plane is given by,

∙ =
Where is any point on the plane, is the normal to the plane, and is a constant value of
the plane.

Scenarios leading to the equation of a plane are unlimited. The forthcoming section gives a
detailed outline of some of the most widely used scenarios.

Scenarios leading to the equation of a plane

a) , ( , − , ); ( , , − );
( , , − ).

Fig. 2.2

The first step is the determination of any two directions that converge at a
common point or diverge from a common point. In this example, ⃗ and ⃗ are two
directions diverging from point .
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⃗= ⃗− ⃗ ⃗= ⃗− ⃗

1 1 2 1
⇒ ⃗= 1 − −4 ⇒ ⃗= 6 − −4
−1 3 −1 3

0 1
⇒ ⃗= 5 ⇒ ⃗ = 10
−4 −4

= ⃗× ⃗

⇒ = 0 5 −4
1 10 −4

5 −4 0 −4 0 5
⇒ = − +
10 −4 1 −4 1 10

⇒ = [(−20) − (−40)] − [(0) − (−4)] + [(0) − (5)]

⇒ = 20 − 4 − 5

, ℎ ℎ ,

20
∙ −4 =
−5

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
.
(1, −4, 3),

1 20
= −4 ∙ −4
3 −5

⇒ = 20 + 16 − 15

⇒ = 21

∴ ∙ − =
−

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b)
( , − , ) ( , , − ),
⃗ ( , , − ).

Fig. 2.3

Since ⃗ is parallel to the plane, it is regarded as a direction on the plane because

parallel vectors share the same direction. Points and will lead to the second
direction, ⃗ .

= ⃗× ⃗

⇒ = 1 10 −4
1 1 −1

10 −4 1 −4 1 10
⇒ = − +
1 −1 1 −1 1 1

⇒ = [(−10) − (−4)] − [(−1) − (−4)] + [(1) − (10)]

⇒ = −6 − 3 − 9

, ℎ ℎ ,
−6
∙ −3 =
−9
,
1 −6
= −4 ∙ −3
3 −9

⇒ = −6 + 12 − 27

⇒ = −21
−
∴ ∙ − =−
−
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But equation of the plane may be reduced to its lowest terms. In this case, by dividing
both sides by −3 to give,

∙ =

c) .

This is given by considering the following steps:

 Since the two lines lie in the same plane, the normal is given by the cross
product of the two direction vectors of the lines ( = × );

 The value of is given by substituting the position vector of either or in

the general equation of a plane ( ∙ = ).

d) , ,
, .

This is given by considering the following steps:

 Picture the situation diagrammatically;

is ∥ to the plane in question. As such, it

is regarded as a direction on the plane.

Fig. 2.4

 The normal is given by the cross product of the direction vector of the line
and the normal to plane ( = × );
 is given by substituting the position vector of line in the general equation
of the plane.

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e) ,

 Picture the problem diagrammatically;

Fig. 2.5

 Assuming that is a point on the line, ⃗ is regarded as a direction on the

plane. The cross product of ⃗ and the direction vector of the line gives the
normal to the plane ( = ⃗× ).

In summary, the secret behind the determination of an equation of a plane is having

an imaginative picture of the problem at hand. It is from this picture that one can
establish the two directions to use in the cross product formula to find the normal.
The constant value of the plane is given by substituting any point on the plane in the
general equation of the plane irrespective of the given set-up.

NB: The equation of a plane can be expressed in vector form or Cartesian form.

∙ = ℎ

+ + = ℎ

2
For example, ∙ 1 = 7 may be expressed as 2 + + 3 = 7 in Cartesian form.
3

Application of Vectors

‘A’ Level vectors place specific emphasis on three applications: Angles; Distances; and
Intersections. Students are strongly encouraged to take note of the contextual application of
;- is used to represent the direction vector when dealing with a line and to represent the
constant value of a plane when dealing with a plane.

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I. Angles

All angles are given by the scalar or dot product formula which states that:

cos =

(i) Angle between two lines

Fig. 2.6

∙
cos =
| |∙| |

Where and are direction vectors of the two lines.

(ii) Angle between two planes

∙
cos =
| |∙| |

Fig. 2.7

Where and are the normals to the two planes.

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(iii) Angle between a plane and a line

Fig. 2.8

∙
sin =
| |∙| |

NB: When dealing with members of the same family, that is, two lines and two planes, use
cos and for members of different families, that is, a line and plane, use sin .

II. Distances

All questions on distances at this stage test on the ability of the student to calculate
shortest (or perpendicular) distance.

(i) Distance between two points

= ( − ) +( − ) +( − )

, ℎ (3, 2, −1) (2, −3, 1).

⇒ = (3 − 2) + (2 − ⟦−3⟧) + (−1 − 1)

∴ =√

(ii) Distance between a point and a line

Fig. 2.9
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|( − ) × |
=
| |

ℎ : ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ .

, ℎ ℎ (2, 3, 4) ℎ

: = ( + 15 + 11 ) + (4 − 12 − 3 )

2 1
ℎ ( − ) = 3 − 15
4 11

1
⇒ ( − ) = −12
−7

1 4
( − ) × = −12 × −12
−7 −3

⇒( − )× = 1 −12 −7
4 −12 −3

−12 −7 1 −7 1 −12
⇒( − )× = − +
−12 −3 4 −3 4 −12

⇒( − )× = [(36) − (84)] − [(−3) − (−28)] + [(−12) − (−48)]

⇒( − )× = −48 − 25 + 36

⇒ |( − ) × | = (−48) + (−25) + (36)

⇒ |( − ) × | = 65

| | = (4) + (−12) + (−3)

⇒ | | = 13

65
, =
13
∴ =
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(iii) Distance between a point and a plane

Fig. 2.10

∙ −
=
| |

ℎ : ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ .

, ℎ

ℎ (3, −6, 2) ℎ 6 − 3 + 6 = 12

3 6
ℎ ∙ = −6 ∙ −3
2 6

⇒ ∙ = 18 + 18 + 12

⇒ ∙ = 48

| | = (6) + (−3) + (6)

⇒| |=9

48 − 12
, =
9

∴ =

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(iv) Distance between a line and a plane

Fig. 2.11

∙ −
=
| |

ℎ : ℎ ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ .

, ℎ

2 1 2
ℎ = −4 + 0 ℎ ∙ −5 = −3
1 3 −3

2 2
ℎ ∙ = −4 ∙ −5
1 −3

⇒ ∙ = 4 + 20 − 3

⇒ ∙ = 21

| | = (2) + (−5) + (−3)

⇒ | | = √38

21 − (−3)
, =
√38

√
∴ = ≅ .

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(v) Distance between two planes

Fig. 2.11

= −
| | | |

ℎ : ℎ ℎ ℎ ;

ℎ ℎ .

, ℎ

−2
ℎ ∙ 3 = 4 4 − 6 − 2 = 10
1

4 10
= −
(−2) + (3) + (1) (4) + (−6) + (−2)

2√14 5√14
⇒ = −
7 14

√14
⇒ =− , ,
14

√
∴ =

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III. Parallelism and Intersections

a) Parallelism

 Parallel lines travel in the same direction and, therefore, share the
same direction vector.

 Parallel planes have normals that travel in the same direction. As such,
they share the same normal.

 A line is parallel to a plane if the dot product of the normal to the plane
and the direction vector of the line is zero. This is so because the line
meets the normal to the plane at 90° as shown by the diagram below:

Fig. 2.13

b) Intersections

(i) Point of intersection of a line and a plane

Fig. 2.14

At any point of intersection, = . In this case, it is wiser to solve the two

equations simultaneously to determine the value of the parameter at the point
of intersection.
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, ℎ ℎ

3 1
ℎ = −2 + 2 ℎ 3 − +2 = 3
1 2

3+
= −2 + 2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1
1+2

3
∙ −1 = 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
2

(1) (2),

3+ 3
−2 + 2 ∙ −1 = 3
1+2 2

⇒ 9+3 +2−2 +2+4 = 3

⇒ 5 + 13 = 3

⇒ 5 = −10

⇒ = −2 ℎ

ℎ ℎ ,

3−2
⇒ = −2 + 2(−2)
1 + 2(−2)

1
⇒ = −6
−3

∴ ∶ − − .

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(ii) Point of intersection of two lines

Problems of this nature can be addressed by solving the two equations

simultaneously ( = ).

This concept is best explained by a numerical example,

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.31)

Solution

1 1 4 2
: = 1 + −1 : = 6 + 2
1 2 1 1
⇒ =1+ =4+2

=1− =6+2

= 1+2 =1+

,

1 + = 4 + 2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

1 − = 6 + 2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

1 + 2 = 1 + ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3

(1) (2) ,

2 = 10 + 4

⇒ 4 = −8

⇒ = −2

(1) ,

⇒ 1 + = 4 + 2(−2)

⇒ 1+ = 0

⇒ = −1
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, ℎ (3). ℎ ℎ
ℎ (1) (2), ℎ ℎ
(3).

, 1 + 2(−1) = 1 − 2

∴ − = − ( )

NB:

 If the values of the parameters determined using any two equations do not satisfy the
third equation, the lines do not intersect. They are said to be skewed.
 To find the point of intersection, substitute either of the parameters in the relevant
equation and evaluate.

ℎ , = −1 = −2
1 1 4 2
= 1 + (−1) −1 = 6 + (−2) 2
1 2 1 1
1 −1 4 −4
⇒ = 1 + 1 ⇒ = 6 + −4
1 −2 1 −2

∴ = ∴ =
− −
 Where the question is asking for a position vector, express the answer in column form
or vector form; and where the question is asking for the coordinates of the point of
intersection, express the answer in the specified form [in this case, ( , , − )].

(iii) Equation of line of intersection of two planes

Two planes do not meet at a point, but form a line when they intersect as
shown in Fig. 2.15.

The equation of a line is made up of two components. As such problems of this

nature are solved in two parts:

 Position vector
 Its determination is conditional: given a point where the line passes through,
that point serves as the position vector; and if no point is provided, the position
vector is given by solving the equations of the planes simultaneously after
discarding any one of the three directions unless specified otherwise.

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 Direction vector
 It is given by the cross product of the two normals.

Fig. 2.15

, ℎ
ℎ ℎ
7 + 2 − 3 = 4 2 + = 5

 ,
ℎ − ,

2 − 3 = 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

= 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
(1),
⇒ 2( 5) − 3 = 4
⇒ 10 − 3 = 4
⇒ 3 = 10 − 4
⇒ =2
∴ = + +

 ,
= ×

⇒ = 7 2 −3
2 1 0
2 −3 7 −3 7 2
⇒ = − +
1 0 2 0 2 1
⇒ = [(0) − (−3)] − [(0) − (−6)] + [(7) − (4)]
⇒ =3 −6 +3
∴
= + + ( − + )
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Worked Examination Questions on Vectors

Question (Cambridge, June 2007 qp.3)

Solution

(i) ⃗ ⃗ ℎ ℎ ,

⃗= ⃗− ⃗ ⃗= ⃗− ⃗

1 2 1 1
⇒ ⃗= 2 − 0 ⇒ ⃗= 2 − 1
0 0 0 2

−1 0
⇒ ⃗= 2 ⇒ ⃗= 1
0 −2

= ⃗× ⃗

⇒ = −1 2 0
0 1 −2

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2 0 −1 0 −1 2
⇒ = − +
1 −2 0 −2 0 1

⇒ = [(−4) − (0)] − [(2) − (0)] + [(−1) − (0)]

⇒ = −4 − 2 −

−4
∶ ∙ −2 =
−1

⃗ ℎ ℎ ,

2 −4
= 0 ∙ −2
0 −1
= −8

−4
⇒ ∙ −2 = −8
−1
⇒ : −4 − 2 − = −8

∴ ∶ + + =

(ii) ℎ ℎ ,
∙
⇒ cos =
| |∙| |

ℎ = ⃗× ⃗

⇒ = 2 0 0
1 2 0
0 0 2 0 2 0
⇒ = − +
2 0 1 0 1 2
⇒ = [(0) − (0)] − [(0) − (0)] + [(4) − (0)]

⇒ =4

4 0
∙ = 2 ∙ 0
1 4
⇒ ∙ = (4)(0) + (2)(0) + (1)(4)

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⇒ ∙ =4

| |∙| |= (4) + (2) + (1) × (0) + (0) + (4)

⇒ | |∙| | = √21 × √16

⇒ | |∙| | = 4√21

4
, cos =
4√21
1
⇒ = cos
√21

∴ = . °

Question (Cambridge, June 2009 qp.3)

Solution
4 2 2
(i) : = 2 + −1 : ∙ = 1
−1 −2
ℎ ,
4 6
ℎ , = 2 = 1
−1 −3
,
4 2 6 2
2 ∙ = 1 1 ∙ =1
−1 −3

⇒ 8 + 2 − = 1 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

12 + − 3 = 1 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(2), = 3 − 11

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(1),

⇒ 8 + 2(3 − 11) − = 1

⇒ 8 + 6 − 22 − = 1

⇒ 5 = 1 + 22 − 8

⇒ 5 = 15

⇒ = 3

(2),

= 3(3) − 11

= −2

∴ =− =

|( − ) × | 0 4 2
(ii) = ℎ = 2 ; = 2 ; = −1
| |
4 −1 −2
0 4
⇒ ( − ) = 2 − 2
4 −1
−4
⇒( − )= 0
5

⇒( − )× = −4 0 5
2 −1 −2
0 5 −4 5 −4 0
⇒( − )× = − +
−1 −2 2 −2 2 −1
⇒( − )× = [(0) − (−5)] − [(8) − (10)] + [(4) − (0)]

⇒( − )× = 5 +2 +4

, |( − ) × | = (5) + (2) + (4)

⇒ |( − ) × | = √45

| | = (2) + (−1) + (−2)

| |=3

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√45
ℎ, =
3

∴ = √ ( )

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.32)

Solution

(i) ℎ ℎ ,
∙
⇒ cos =
| |∙| |

1 2
ℎ = 2 = 1
−2 3
1 2
⇒ ∙ = 2 ∙ 1
−2 3
⇒ ∙ = (1)(2) + (2)(1) + (−2)(3)

⇒ ∙ =2+2−6

⇒ ∙ = −2,

| |∙| |= (1) + (2) + (−2) × (2) + (1) + (3)

⇒| |∙| | = √9 × √14

⇒| |∙| | = 3√14

2
, cos =−
3√14
2
⇒ = cos −
3√14

⇒ = 100.3°

,
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⇒ = 180 − 100.3

∴ = . °

(ii) ℎ ,

+ 2 − 2 = 7 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

2 + + 3 = 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

ℎ ℎ = 0,

2 − 2 = 7 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

+ 3 = 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(2), = 5−3

(1),

⇒ 2( 5 − 3 ) − 2 = 7

⇒ 10 − 6 − 2 = 7

⇒ −8 = −3

3
⇒ =
8
(2),

3
⇒ =5−3
8
31
⇒ =
8
0
31
⇒ ℎ = 8
3
8

 ,

= ×

⇒ = 1 2 −2
2 1 3
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2 −2 1 −2 1 2
⇒ = − +
1 3 2 3 2 1

⇒ = [(6) − (−2)] − [(3) − (−4)] + [(1) − (4)]

⇒ =8 −7 −3

8
ℎ = −7
−3

∴ : = + −
−

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.33)

Solution

2 1 0 1
(i) : = 0 + −1 : = 2 + 2
1 2 6 −2
,

: = 2 + : =

= − = 2 + 2

= 1 + 2 = 6 − 2

ℎ ,

2+ = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

− = 2+2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

1+2 = 6−2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3

(1) (2) ,

− = 2 + 2( 2 + )
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⇒ − = 2+4+2

⇒ −3 = 6

⇒ = −2,

(1),

⇒ = 2−2

⇒ = 0

ℎ (3),

1 + 2(−2) ≠ 6 − 2(0)

⇒ 1−4 ≠ 6−0

⇒ −3 ≠ 6,

∴ .

(ii) ℎ ,

∙
⇒ cos =
| |∙| |
1 1
ℎ ∙ = −1 ∙ 2
2 −2
⇒ ∙ = (1) + (−2) + (−4)

⇒ ∙ = −5

| |∙| |= (1) + (−1) + (2) × (1) + (2) + (−2)

⇒| |∙| | = √6 × √9

⇒| |∙| | = 3√6
5
, cos =−
3√6
5
⇒ = cos −
3√6
⇒ = 132.9°

,
⇒ = 180 − 132.9
∴ = . °
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(iii) ℎ ℎ ,

Fig. 2.16

= × ,

ℎ , ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
.

⇒ = 1 −1 2
1 2 −2
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
⇒ = − +
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
⇒ = [(2) − (4)] − [(−2) − (2)] + [(2) − (−1)]

⇒ = −2 + 4 + 3

−2
: ∙ 4 =
3
ℎ ,

0 −2
= 2 ∙ 4
6 3
⇒ = (0)(−2) + (2)(4) + (6)(3)

⇒ = 8 + 18

⇒ = 26

−2
, : ∙ 4 = 26
3
∴ :− + + =

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Question (Cambridge, June 2012 qp.32)

Solution

1
(i) : ∙ 2 = 1;
−2
2
: ∙ −2 = 7;
1
1 2
: = 1 + 1
−1 2
Fig. 2.17

ℎ ℎ ℎ .

∙ =0

1 2
⇒ 2 ∙ 1 =0
−2 2
⇒ 2+2−4 = 0

∴ = ( )

(ii) ℎ

Fig. 2.18
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ℎ ℎ ,
1+2 2
1+ ∙ −2 = 7
−1 + 2 1
⇒ 2+4 −2−2 −1+2 = 7
⇒ 4 = 7+1
⇒ = 2

,
1 2
⃗= 1 + 2 1
−1 2
5
⃗= 3
3
∴ ℎ ℎ + +
(iii) , .

1+2
ℎ, ⃗ = 1+
−1 + 2
∙ −
=
| |
 ,

1+2 1
1+ ∙ 2 − 1
= −1 + 2 −2
(1) + (2) + (−2)

1 + 2 + 2 + 2λ + 2 − 4 − 1
⇒ =
3
4
⇒ =
3
4
⇒ =± ℎ ℎ
3
 ,

1+2 2
1+ ∙ −2 − 7
= −1 + 2 1
(2) + (−2) + (1)
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2+4 −2−2 −1+2 − 7

⇒ =
3
4 −8
⇒ =
3
4 −8 4
, =±
3 3
⇒ 4 − 8 = ±4

⇒ 4 = 4 + 8 ⇒ 4 = −4 + 8

⇒ 4 = 12 ⇒4 =4

⇒ = 3 ⇒ =1

ℎ =3 ℎ =1

1 + 2(3) 1 + 2(1)
⃗= 1+3 ⃗= 1+1
−1 + 2(3) −1 + 2(1)
7 3
⇒ ⃗= 4 ⇒ ⃗= 2
5 1
ℎ ℎ ,

= (7 − 3) + (4 − 2) + (5 − 1)

∴ =

Revision Questions on Vectors

November 2007 qp.3 (Cambridge)

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June 2008 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.32 (Cambridge)

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June 2010 qp.31 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.32 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.33 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.31 (Cambridge)

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November 2010 qp.33 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.33 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.31 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.33 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.33 (Cambridge)

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November 1993 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The plane has equation +2 +3 = 6

(i) Calculate the acute angle between and the plane = 0 giving your answer
correct to the nearest 0.1° [4]

(ii) Calculate the coordinates of the point in such that the line joining the origin
to is perpendicular to [4]

Hence or otherwise show that the perpendicular distance from the origin to

is . [2]

(iii) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane which contains the axis and is
perpendicular to . [4]

November 1992 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The equation of the plane is − 6 + 2 = −5, and the point has coordinates
(3, −12, 1). Write down,

(i) A vector perpendicular to [1]

(ii) A vector equation for the straight line which passes through and is
perpendicular to [1]

Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of and , and hence show that the
perpendicular distance from to is √164 [4]

The line has equation

3 −2
= −3 + 0
−13 1
where is a parameter. The point has coordinates (2, 8, 0). Show that lies in
and find the length of the perpendicular from to . [8]

November 1991 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The planes and have equations 3 − − = 2 and + 5 + = 14

respectively. Show that the point (1, 3, −2) lies in both planes. By finding the
coordinates of another point lying in both planes, or otherwise, show that the
intersection, , of and has the equation
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1 1
= 3 + −1
−2 4
[5]

The line has the equation

1 1
= 0 + −3
8 −1
(i) Show that and are perpendicular [2]

(ii) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection, , of and [4]

(iii) Show that the perpendicular distance of from is [3]
√

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

6. (a) The line passes through the points (3, 1, −2) and (2, 7, −4). Find

(i) The Cartesian equation of the line [4]

(ii) The point at which intersects the plane = [3]

(b) The planes , and have equations

2 − 3 − − 5 = 0, −6 + 9 + 3 + 2 = 0 and 3 + 2 − 6 + 10 = 0
respectively

(i) Show that and are parallel to each other [2]

(ii) The plane passes through (5, −2, 4) and is parallel to . Find its
equation [4]

(iii) Find the perpendicular distance of (5, −2, 4) from the plane [3]

June 1991 qp.1 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

7. Find in the form = + , an equation of the straight line through the points
(3, 1, −2) and (4, 0, 2). Find also the acute angle between this line and a line parallel
2
to the vector 1 . [5]
2

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November 1990 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The point has coordinates (3, −1, 5) and the line has the equation

8 −6
= 0 + 1
−1 4
Find the coordinates of the point on such that is perpendicular to . [5]

The plane has equation

1
∙ −1 = 15
3
Find the coordinates of the point where intersects . [3]

Find a vector perpendicular to the plane . Hence show that the acute angle
between and the plane is 68°, correct to the nearest degree. [6]

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

7. (a) The position vectors of points A, B and C are 3 + 2 , + +2 and 2 + 2

respectively.

Find the Cartesian equation of

(i). the plane which bisects the line AB at right angles, [4]

(ii). the plane through the points A, B and C. [4]

7. (b) The equations of two planes are

∙ ( + 2 + ) = 1,

∙ (2 + − ) = 2.

Show that a vector equation of the line of intersection of the two planes is

1 −1
= 0 + 1 , where is a parameter. [5]
0 −1

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

5. The plane and the line have equations

2 1 2
∙ 1 = 29 and = 2 + 3 respectively, where is a parameter.
3 3 1
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Find

(i). The perpendicular distance of the line from the point A, with the position
5
vector −3 , [6]
8

(ii). The position vector of B, the point of intersection of and , [4]

(iii). The angle between the line and the plane . [3]

November 1992 qp.1 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

7. Verify that the point with position vector −2 + 3 lies on each of the lines with
equations

= + + + (3 − 2 + ),

= −2 + 3 + (2 + 3 − ),

where and are parameters. [2]

find the cosine of the acute angle between the lines. [3]

November 1994 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The equation of the plane is + = 0 and the equation of the line is

5 2
= 2 + −1 ,
2 3
where is a parameter. Find

(i). The position vector of the point of intersection of and . [3]

(ii). The length of the perpendicular from the origin to , [4]

(iii). An equation for the plane which contains and the origin, [4]

(iv). The acute angle between the planes and , giving your answer to the
nearest 0.1°. [3]

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November 1996 qp.2 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

15. The planes and have equations

+ − = 0 and 2 − 4 + + 12 = 0

respectively. The point has coordinates (3, 8, 2), and is the origin.

1
(i). Verify that the vector 1 is parallel to both and . [2]
2

(ii). Find the equation of the plane which passes through and is perpendicular
to both and . [2]

(iii). Find the coordinates of any one point common to and , and hence find
the equation of the line of intersection of and , giving your answer in the
form = + . [3]

(iv). Find the coordinates of the point in which the line meets . [3]

(v). Find the length of the projection of on . [4]

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Chapter Three: Complex Numbers

“Be able to analyse statistics, which can be used to support or undercut almost any
argument.”
– Marilyn vos Savant

Mathematics is centered on the analysis and use of number systems. Complex numbers ( )
is one of the number systems that form the basis of Advanced Level mathematics. This is a
hybrid number system made up of real numbers and imaginary numbers.

It is important to highlight on the concept of imaginary numbers before reflecting on complex

numbers.

Imaginary Numbers

In real terms, the square-root of a negative number is undefined. Imaginary numbers

elucidate the mystification that the square-root of a negative number is undefined. It is
believed that,

√− =

, √−25 = √25 × √−1 = 5

= √−1

⇒ = −1

This proposition is the backbone, and is therefore central, to the study of complex numbers.

Complex Numbers

Since is a hybrid of real and imaginary numbers, it implies that is the sum of the two. As
such,

= +

With denoting the real part and denoting the imaginary part, the general rule therefore
states that:

= +

NB: and are real numbers.

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Addition and Subtraction of

This concept follows the same principle as the addition and subtraction of any number
system. For example, given that:

=3−2 = −2 −

⇒ + = (3 − 2 ) + (−2 − ) − = (3 − 2 ) − (−2 − )

⇒ + = (3 − 2) + (−2 − ) ⇒ − = 3 − (−2) − 2 − (− )

∴ + = − ∴ − = −

NB: the idea here is to collect like terms and simplify them.

Multiplication of

Multiplication of complex numbers uses the normal expansion of brackets. For example, using
and from the example above,

× = (3 − 2 )(−2 − )

⇒ × = 3(−2 − ) − 2 (−2 − )

⇒ × = −6 − 3 + 4 + 2

⇒ × = −6 + + 2(−1)

∴ × =− +

Division of

It is an error in principle in the imaginary world to have a complex number in the denominator.
It is therefore imperative that the complex number being used as the divisor be eliminated.
This process of eliminating the complex number in the denominator draws its inspiration from
the ‘difference of two squares’.

ℎ − = ( + )( − ),

( + )( − ) .

ℎ ,
= 3 − 2 (3 + 2 ) = −2 −
(−2 + ).

ℎ ℎ ℎ .
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So when dividing complex numbers, multiply both the numerator and the denominator by
the conjugate of the denominator.

3−2
, =
−2 −

(3 − 2 )(−2 + )
⇒ =
(−2 − )(−2 + )

−6 + 3 + 4 − 2
⇒ =
4−2 +2 −

−6 + 7 − 2(−1)
⇒ =
4 − (−1)

−4 + 7
⇒ =
5

∴ =− +

The Argand Diagram

This is an instrument used to locate complex numbers in space. It is really a disguised
Cartesian plane. The −axis is used to represent the real part and the −axis represents
the imaginary part. For example,

=3−2 = −2 −

Fig. 3.1

NB: complex numbers are analysed using the same set of principles as the one used for vector
analysis. An arrow is incorporated to show the direction of travel.
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Magnitude of a Complex Number

This refers to the length or size of a complex number. It is given by the Pythagoras theorem,
that is = + ,

⇒| |= +

=3−2 = −2 −

⇒| |= (3) + (−2) ⇒| |= (−2) + (−1)

⇒ | | = √9 + 4 ⇒ | | = √4 + 1

⇒ | | = √13 ⇒ | | = √5

Argument of a Complex Number

Argument refers to the size of the angle measured from the positive −axis to the complex
number. Argument is greater than − radians, but less than or equal to radians i.e.

− < arg ≤

The Argand diagram is used in the determination of both the size and sign of the argument in
relation to its location in space.

Fig. 3.2

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( )= ,

but one has to ignore the signs of and when calculating the argument. The actual value of
the arg( ) is given by making relevant adjustments to the answer using the sketch of an
Argand diagram. For example,

=3−2 = −2 −

2
⇒ arg( ) = tan
3

⇒ arg( ) = 0.588

∴ ( )=− .
1
arg( ) =
2
1
⇒ arg( ) = tan
2

⇒ arg( ) = 0.464

⇒ arg( ) = −( − 0.464)

∴ ( ) = − .
Fig. 3.3

Forms of Complex Numbers Presentation

1. Standard form

This is the most widely used form in complex analysis

= +

2. Polar form

= (cos + sin )

3. Exponential forms

ℎ ℎ ℎ .

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Polar and exponential forms are used to simplify the multiplication and division of
complex numbers.

Multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar and exponential forms

Table 3.1

Polar form Exponential form

= (cos + sin ) =
= (cos + sin ) =
× = ∙ [cos( + ) + sin( + )] × = ∙ ( )

= [cos( − ) + sin( − )] = ( )

NB: in both cases;

 When multiplying and , add the angles and multiply the moduli.

 When dividing and , subtract the angles and divide the moduli.

Quadratic Equations

This is a true reflection of real quadratic equations. The only difference is on the treatment of
the square root of a negative number. For example, in solving the equation:

−2 +5= 0

ℎ ,

− ±√ −4
=
2

−(−2) ± (−2) − 4(1)(5)

⇒ =
2(1)

2 ± √4 − 20
⇒ =
2

2 ± √−16
⇒ =
2

2 ± √16 × √−1
⇒ =
2

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2±4
⇒ =
2

∴ = + = −

Square-root of a Complex Number

This concept is best explained by a numerical example.

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.31)

Solution

1 − 2√6 = +

⇒ 1 − 2√6 =( + )

⇒ 1 − 2√6 = +2 +

⇒ 1 − 2√6 =( − )+2

ℎ ℎ ,

1= − ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

−2√6 = 2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

ℎ ℎ (2),

√6
⇒ =−

(1),

√6
1= − −

6
⇒1= −

⇒ = −6

⇒ − −6 = 0
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ℎ ℎ ,
=

⇒ − −6 = 0

⇒ = 3 −2

⇒ =3 = −2

⇒ = ±√3 = ±√−2 ( )

(2),

ℎ = √3 ℎ = −√3

√6 −√6
⇒ =− ⇒ =
√3 −√3

⇒ = −√2 ⇒ = √2

∴ − √ = √ − √ − √ + √

Loci
Locus refers to a wide range of geometrical constructions. ‘A’ Level loci places specific
emphasis on three types of loci: locus of a circle; line bisector and locus of argument.

NB: When answering questions on loci, one has to pull out a minus sign to establish the centre
of action.

1. Locus of a Circle
It is denoted by the existence of a modulus sign to one side of the equation or
inequality and a real number to the other side.

,| − 2 + | = 2
⇒ | − (2 − )| = 2, ℎ (2 ; −1) 2
ℎ . :

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Fig. 3.4

2. Locus of Points Equidistant From Two Points (Line Bisector)

It is denoted by the existence of a modulus sign on both sides of the equation or

inequality.

, ℎ ,
| + 2 + 3 | = | − 3|

⇒ | − (−2 − 3 )| = | − (3)|

Fig. 3.5

NB: locate the centres of action and draw an imaginary line joining the points. The line
bisector divides the imaginary line into two halves at 90° (see diagram).
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3. Locus of an Argument

As the name implies, this locus is easy to identify because it bears an angle
representing the argument. It follows the principle of argument outlined earlier in this
chapter. The only special attribute about locus of argument is that the angle does not
always emanate from the origin. An imaginary Cartesian plane is constructed at the
centre of action and the argument is, therefore, measured from the ‘positive
imaginary −axis’.

, ℎ ,

arg( + 3 − 2 ) = −
4

⇒ arg[ − (−3 + 2 )] = −
4

Fig. 3.6

Questions in complex numbers are grouped into three:

I. Complex geometry;
II. Complex algebra;
III. Complex trigonometry or a combination of some sort.

 Complex geometry questions are hinged to the concept of loci. They test the ability of
the student to construct, analyse and interpret geometrical constructions.

 Complex algebra revolves around the concept of polynomials; that is, the factor
theorem, the remainder theorem, long division, quadratic equations and square root
of a complex number.

 Complex trigonometry deals with problems inclined to trig identities.

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Worked Examination Questions on Complex Geometry & Algebra

Question (Cambridge, June 2012 qp.32)

Solution

1+2
(i) =
1−3

(1 + 2 ) (1 + 3 )
⇒ =
(1 − 3 ) (1 + 3 )
1+3 +2 +6
⇒ =
1−9
1−6+5
⇒ =
1 − 9(−1)
−5 + 5
⇒ =
10

∴ =− +

(ii)

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(iii) ℎ ℎ :

arg = arg( ) − arg( )

1+2
ℎ , arg = arg(1 + 2 ) − arg(1 − 3 )
1−3
1+2 1 1
ℎ arg = arg − +
1−3 2 2
1+2 1
⇒ arg = tan 2
1−3 1
2
1+2
⇒ arg =
1−3 4
1+2
arg = −
1−3 4
1+2 3
⇒ arg = ,
1−3 4
2
arg(1 + 2 ) = tan
1
⇒ arg(1 + 2 ) = tan (2)
3
arg(1 − 3 ) = tan
1
⇒ arg(1 − 3 ) = − tan (3)
3
= tan (2) − − tan (3)
4

∴ ( )+ ( )=

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.33)

Solution

(i) = −1 +

ℎ = (−1 + )(−1 + )

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⇒ =1− − + , ℎ :
⇒ = 1−1−2

⇒ = −2

= −2 (−1 + )

⇒ =2 −2

⇒ = −2(−1) + 2

⇒ = 2+2

, | |= (−2)

∴ =

( )=− ℎ − ℎ −
2
| | = ( 2) + ( 2)

∴ = √

2
arg( ) = tan
2

∴ ( )=

(ii) ℎ , ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ .

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ℎ ,

| −( + )| =

ℎ ( ; ) .

, ℎ ℎ .

(−1 + 0) 1 + (−2) 1 1
ℎ, = ; = − ; −
2 2 2 2

(−1 − 0) + 1 − (−2)
ℎ ℎ , ℎ, =
2

√10
⇒ = =
2

√
∴ , − − − =

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.33)

Solution
(a) = (2 − 2 )

⇒ = 4−8 +4

⇒ = 4−4−8

⇒ = −8

⇒ = −8

⇒ = √−8

∴ = √

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(b) (i) | − 4 − 4 | ≤ 2

⇒ | − (4 + 4 )| ≤ 2

(ii) ≤| | ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ .

NB: The least or greatest distance is given by a line joining the origin and centre. In
this case, the least distance is given by the distance from the origin to the first point
of intersection with the circle, and the greatest distance is the distance from the origin
to the second point of intersection with the circle. See the sketch below:

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|4 + 4 | = ( 4) + ( 4)

|4 + 4 | = 4√2 ( ℎ ℎ )

⇒ = 4√2 − 2

∴ = .

= 4√2 + 2

∴ = .

≤ arg( ) ≤ ℎ ℎ − ℎ
.

NB: The least and greatest values of arg( ) are given by the angle between the
positive − and the tangents to the circle, where the least is given by the first
tangent and the greatest is given by the second tangent.

= arg(4 + 4 ) − = arg(4 + 4 ) +

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ −
.
|4 + 4 | = 4√2 ( ℎ ℎ ),

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− ,

2
sin =
4√2
2
⇒ = sin
4√2

⇒ = 20.7° 0.361

4
arg(4 + 4 ) = tan
4

⇒ arg(4 + 4 ) = 45°
4

⇒ = − 0.361
4
⇒ = .

= + 0.361
4
⇒ = .

∴ = . ; = . ; = . = .

Question (Cambridge, November 2007 qp.3)

Solution

4−3
(a) (i) =
1−2
(4 − 3 ) (1 + 2 )
=
(1 − 2 ) (1 + 2 )

4+8 −3 −6
⇒ =
1−4

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4+6+5
⇒ =
1 − 4(−1)

10 + 5
⇒ =
5
∴ = +

(ii) | | = (2) + (1)

∴| |=√

1
arg( ) = tan
2

∴ = . . °

( b) √5 − 12 = +

⇒ 5 − 12 = ( + )

⇒ 5 − 12 = +2 +

⇒ 5 − 12 = ( − )+2

,

− = 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

2 = −12 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

ℎ ℎ (2),
6
= −

(1),
6
− − =5

36
⇒ − =5

⇒ − 36 = 5

⇒ −5 − 36 = 0 ( )
=

⇒ −5 − 36 = 0

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⇒ = 9 −4

⇒ =9 = −4

⇒ = ±3 = √−4

ℎ = 3; ℎ = −3;

6 6
= − =−
3 −3
⇒ = −2 ⇒ =2

∴ − :( − ) (− + )

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.33)

Solution

(i) + 2√3 + 4 = 0

− 2√3 ± 2√3 − 4(1)(4)

=
2( 1)

−2√3 ± √−4
⇒ =
2

−2√3 ± 2
⇒ =
2

∴ = −√ + −√ −

(ii) = −√3 + = −√3 −

| |= −√3 + ( 1) | |= −√3 + (−1)

∴| |= ∴| |=
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1
arg( ) = tan
√3

⇒ arg ( ) = 30°
6

∴ ( )= °

( )=− ° − ℎ .

(iii) = −64

5 5 5 5
= 2 cos + sin = 2 cos − + sin −
6 6 6 6

5 5
ℎ ( ) = 2 cos + sin
6 6
5 5
⇒ ( ) = 2 cos × 6 + sin ×6
6 6

⇒ ( ) = 64(−1 + 0)

∴( ) =− ( )

5 5
( ) = 2 cos − + sin −
6 6
5 5
⇒ ( ) = 2 cos − × 6 + sin − ×6
6 6

⇒ ( ) = 64(−1 + 0)

∴( ) =− ( )

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.31)

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Solution

(i) ℎ ,

( )= + + 2 + 6,

= 1 + √2 ℎ ( )

( ) = 0 ℎ ( )=0

1 + √2 + 1 + √2 + 2 1 + √2 + 6 = 0

ℎ 1 + √2 = 1 + 2√2 +2

⇒ 1 + √2 = 1 + 2√2 −2

⇒ 1 + √2 = −1 + 2√2

1 + √2 = −1 + 2√2

⇒ 1 + √2 = 1 − 4√2 +8

⇒ 1 + √2 = 1 − 8 − 4√2

⇒ 1 + √2 = −7 − 4√2

, −7 − 4√2 + −1 + 2√2 + 2 1 + √2 +6=0

⇒ −7 − 4√2 − 1 + 2√2 + 2 + 2 √2 +6=0

⇒ −7 − 1 + 2 + 6 − 4√2 + 2√2 + 2√2 =0

⇒ −8 + 8 − 4√2 + 4√2 =0

∴ = ( )

, ℎ ℎ , 1 − √2 .

(ii) ℎ ,

= 1 + √2 = 1 − √2

⇒ − 1 − √2 − 1 + √2 ( ).

NB: The product of two complex factors gives a real factor that can be used to
determine the other two roots.

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− 1 − √2 − 1 + √2 =

− + √2 − + 1 − √2 − √2 + √2 −2

⇒ − 1 − √2 − 1 + √2 = − 2 + 1 + (−2)(−1)

⇒ − 1 − √2 − 1 + √2 = −2 +3

, ( )=( − 2 + 3)( + 2 + 2),

ℎ ℎ ℎ + 2 + 2,

⇒ − 2 + 3 = 0

+ 2 + 2 = 0

ℎ ,

−2 ± (2) − 4(1)(2)
=
2(1)

−2 ± √−4
=
2
−2 ± 2
⇒ =
2

⇒ = −1 + −1−

∴ : − + − − .

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Revision Questions on Complex Geometry & Algebra

June 2007 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.32 (Cambridge)

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June 2010 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.31 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.33 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.31 (Cambridge)

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June 2011 qp.32 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.31 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.31 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.33 (Cambridge)

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June 2009 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.31 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.33 (Cambridge)

June 2004 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2002 qp.3 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.3 (Cambridge)

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

4. Given that ( ) = − 3 − 16 + 48,

(i). Show that 2 is a root of ( ) = 0. [2]
(ii). State another complex root of ( ) = 0. [2]
(iii). Find the quadratic factor of ( ). [2]
(iv). Factorise ( ) completely and hence solve the equation ( ) = 0. [1]

Worked Examination Question on Complex Trigonometry

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.32)

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Solution

(i) = 1 + cos 2 + sin 2

ℎ (1 + cos 2 ) ℎ , (sin 2 ) ℎ .

| | = (1 + cos 2 ) + (sin 2 )

⇒| |= 1 + 2 cos 2 + {cos 2 + sin 2 }

⇒ | | = √1 + 2 cos 2 + 1

⇒ | | = √2 + 2 cos 2

⇒| |= 2 + 2[2cos − 1]

⇒ | | = √2 + 4cos −2

⇒ | | = √4cos

∴| |= ( )

sin 2
arg = tan
1 + cos 2

2 sin cos
⇒ arg = tan
1 + 2cos − 1

2 sin cos
⇒ arg = tan
2cos

sin
⇒ arg = tan
cos

⇒ arg = tan (tan )

∴ = ( )
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1 1 [(1 + cos 2 ) − (sin 2 )]

(ii) =
[(1 + cos 2 ) + (sin 2 )] [(1 + cos 2 ) − (sin 2 )]

1 (1 + cos 2 ) − (sin 2 )
⇒ =
(1 + cos 2 ) − sin 2

1 (1 + cos 2 ) − sin 2
⇒ =
1 + 2 cos 2 + {cos 2 + sin 2 }

1 (1 + cos 2 ) − sin 2
⇒ =
1 + 2 cos 2 + 1

1 (1 + cos 2 ) − sin 2
⇒ =
(2 + 2 cos 2 )

1 (1 + cos 2 )
ℎ =
2(1 + cos 2 )

∴ = ( )

Revision Question on Complex Trigonometry

June 2008 qp.3 (Cambridge)

When writing a complex number in polar and exponential forms, keep a watchful eye on the
modulus, , and the argument, . and are the building blocks to the expression of complex
numbers in either polar or exponential forms.

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= (cos + sin ) = (cos + sin )

It is important to remember the following results:

| × |=

arg( × ) = arg( ) + arg( )

arg = arg ( ) − arg( )

The results outlined immediately above for the basis of multiplication and division of complex
numbers in polar form.

, = [cos( + ) + sin( + )]

= [cos( − ) + sin( − )]

= [cos( + ) + sin( + )]

= [cos(2 ) + sin(2 )]

ℎ ℎ ,

= [ (cos + sin )]

= (cos + sin )

= (cos 2 + sin 2 )

This deduction, proposed by French mathematician, Abraham De Moivre, is known as the De

Moivre’s Theorem and is valid for all real values of ,

[ (cos + sin )] = (cos + sin )

De Moivre’s Theorem

[ ( + )] = ( + )

Since the theorem is valid for all real values on , it must be noted that:

= cos + sin

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1
ℎ =

1
⇒ = (cos + sin )

1
⇒ = cos(− ) + sin(− )

1
⇒ = cos − sin cos(− ) = cos sin(− ) = − sin

1
= ̅, ℎ

De Moivre’s Theorem is mainly used in:

 Transforming multiples of cosines, sines and tangents into powers of cosines, sines
and tangents. That is, cos( ) ; sin( ) and tan( ) into cos ; sin and tan .
 Expressing powers of cosines, sines and tangents in terms of the cosines, sines and
tangents of multiples of . That is, expressing cos ; sin or tan in terms of
cos( ) ; sin( ) and tan( ).

[ ( ) ; ( ) ( )] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ [ ; ]

Using a numerical example, cos 3 can be expressed as follows:

ℎ
cos 3 = (cos 3 + sin 3 )
cos 3

⇒ cos 3 = (cos + sin )

cos = sin = ,

⇒ cos 3 = ( + )

⇒ cos 3 = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

⇒ cos 3 = [ +3 +3 + ]

cos 3 = [ +3 −3 − ]

ℎ ,

⇒ cos 3 = −3

∴ = −

In cases where the question is asking for sin 3 , the setup is basically the same. The only
difference is that only the imaginary terms are considered since sin 3 is an imaginary part.
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As such,

sin 3 = (cos 3 + sin 3 )

⇒ sin 3 = (cos + sin )

⇒ sin 3 = [ +3 −3 − ] ℎ

ℎ , ℎ

⇒ sin 3 = 3 − ℎ

∴ = − ℎ

Where the question is asking for tan 3 , evaluate sin 3 and cos 3 and use the identity,

sin 3
tan 3 =
cos 3
In this case,

3 cos sin − sin

tan 3 =
cos − 3 cos sin
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

ℎ , cos :

3 cos sin sin

−
cos cos
⇒ tan 3 =
cos 3 cos sin
−
cos cos

−
∴ =
−

The difference between and brings meaningful results. Using the fact that,

1
= cos + sin = cos − sin

1
ℎ − = (cos + sin ) − (cos − sin )

1
− = 2 sin

1
+ = (cos + sin ) − (cos − sin )

1
+ = 2 cos
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Following the provisions of De Moivres Theorem,

− = ( ) + = ( )

These results are central to the expression of cos and sin in terms of cosines and sines
of multiples of .

[ ; ] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ [ ( ) ; ( ) ( )]

Let us illustrate the main development of each case using practical examples. For example,
express cos in terms of cosines of multiples of .

ℎ ,
1
2 cos = +

1
⇒ (2 cos ) = +

1 1 1 1
⇒ 2 cos = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
1 1
+ ( ) + ( )

1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 32 cos = +5 + 10 + 10 +5 +

10 5 1
⇒ 32 cos = +5 + 10 + + +

1 5 10 ℎ
⇒ 32 cos = + +5 + + 10 +

1 1 1
⇒ 32 cos = + +5 + + 10 +

1
2 cos( ) = +

⇒ 32 cos = 2 cos 5 + 5(2 cos 3 ) + 10(2 cos )

1
⇒ cos = [2 cos 5 + 10 cos 3 + 20 cos ]
32

cos
∴ = ( + + )
ℎ
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Another illustrative example reads:

Express sin in terms of multiples of .

ℎ ,

1
2 sin = −

1
⇒ (2 sin ) = −

1 1 1
⇒2 sin = ( ) − + ( ) − + ( ) −
1 1
+ ( ) − + ( ) −

1 1 1 1
⇒ 16 sin = + − +6 +4 − +

: ℎ , ℎ

, ℎ ℎ .

4 1
⇒ 16 sin = −4 +6− +

1 4
⇒ 16 sin = + −4 − +6

1 1
⇒ 16 sin = + −4 + + 6

1
2 cos( ) = + ,

⇒ 16 sin = 2 cos 4 − 4(2 cos 2 ) + 6

1
⇒ sin = (2 cos 4 − 8 cos 2 + 6)
16

∴ = ( − + )

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The root of a Complex Number

Expression of a complex number in polar form serves as a sanctuary for the determination of
the root. For example,

ℎ = −1, ℎ ℎ

 by first expressing as a complex number in polar form,

| | = 1 arg =
⇒ = 1(cos + sin )
 it must be noted that the root of is complex in nature,

⇒ √ = (cos + sin )

⇒ 1(cos + sin ) = (cos + sin )

⇒ [1(cos + sin )] = [ (cos + sin )]
⇒ 1(cos + sin ) = (cos 7 + sin 7 )
 by comparing the terms,
=1
⇒ = √1
⇒ = 1
cos
7 = +2
ℎ 7
+2
= ℎ
7
3 5 7 9 11 13 15
= ; ; ; ; ; ;
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
3 3
, √ = cos + sin
7 7
5 5
, √ = cos + sin
7 7
, √ = cos + sin = −1
′ :
9 9 −5 −5
, √ = cos + sin = cos + sin ,
7 7 7 7 − < arg ≤
11 11 −3 −3 ,
, √ = cos + sin = cos + sin
7 7 7 7 ℎ
13 13 2 −
, √ = cos + sin = cos + sin 2
7 7 7 7

15 15 − −
, √ = cos + sin cos + sin
7 7 7 7
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NB: the sum of the complex roots of any number is zero.

ℎ , + + + + + + = 0

⇒ ( + + + + + + )=0

( + + + + + + ) = 0

3 5 −5 −3 −
, cos + cos + (−1) + cos + cos + cos + cos = 0
7 7 7 7 7 7
,

− 3 −3 5 −5
cos = cos ; cos = cos ; cos = cos
7 7 7 7 7 7
3 5
⇒ 2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos −1=0
7 7 7
3 5
⇒ 2 cos + cos + cos =1
7 7 7

∴ + + =

3 5 −5 −3 −
sin + sin + (−1) + sin + sin + sin + sin = 0
7 7 7 7 7 7
,

− 3 −3 5 −5
sin = sin ; sin = sin ; sin = sin
7 7 7 7 7 7
3 5
⇒ 2 sin + 2 sin + 2 sin −1=0
7 7 7
3 5
⇒ 2 sin + sin + sin =1
7 7 7
3 5 1
⇒ sin + sin + sin =
7 7 7 2
3 5 1
⇒ sin + sin + sin = × ℎ
7 7 7 2
3 5
⇒ sin + sin + sin =
7 7 7 2

∴ + + =−

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Worked Examination Question on De Moivre’s Theorem

Question (Zimsec Specimen Paper, November 2003 qp.2)

7. (i). Use De Moivre’s Theorem to express cos 4 in terms of cos . [4]

7. (ii). Find all the roots of = −16 in the form + , where and are real.

Represent these roots on an Argand diagram. [8]

Solution

(i). ℎ ,

cos 4 = (cos 4 + sin 4 )

⇒ cos 4 = (cos + sin )
⇒ cos 4 = ( + ) { ℎ : = cos = sin }
⇒ cos 4 = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

+ ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )
⇒ cos 4 = [ +4 +6 +4 + ]
⇒ cos 4 = [ +4 −6 −4 + ]
⇒ cos 4 = −6 +
+ = 1,
⇒ =1−
⇒ = (1 − )
⇒ =1−2 +
⇒ cos 4 = − 6 (1 − )+1−2 +
⇒ cos 4 = −6 +6 +1−2 +
⇒ cos 4 = 8 −8 +1
∴ = − +

(ii). − 16 ,

|−16| = 16 arg(−16) =
⇒ −16 = 16(cos + sin )
= (cos + sin )
, = [16(cos + sin )]
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⇒ [16(cos + sin )] = [ (cos + sin )]

⇒ [16(cos + sin )] = (cos 4 + sin 4 )
,
= 16 4 = +2
⇒ = √16 +2
⇒ =
4
⇒ = 2
3 5 7 9
, = ; ; ;
4 4 4 4
3 3
, = 2 cos + sin
4 4
5 5 −3 −3
= 2 cos + sin = 2 cos + sin
4 4 4 4
7 7
= 2 cos + sin = 2 cos + sin
4 4 4 4
9 9 − −
= 2 cos + sin = 2 cos + sin
4 4 4 4
−√ √
∴ = + = −√ + √

−√ √
∴ = − = −√ − √

√ √
∴ = − =√ − √

√ √
∴ = + =√ + √

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Revision Questions on De Moivre’s Theorem

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

2. Given that = cos + sin . Show that

1
− = 2 sin
[3]

Hence express sin in terms of cos 4 and cos 2 using De Moivre’s theorem. [4]

June 2013 qp.13 (Cambridge Further Mathematics)

November 2014 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2003 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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June 2004 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2006 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2007 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2010 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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June 2012 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2012 qp.12 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2011 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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November 2003 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2004 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2006 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2008 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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November 2009 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2010 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

January 2006 qp.2 (AQA)

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June 2008 qp.2 (AQA)

January 2008 qp.2 (AQA)

January 2008 qp.2 (AQA)

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June 2003 qp.2 (IB)

November 2009 qp.2 (ZImsec)

7. (a). Express 4 √3 − in the form where > 0 and – < ≤ . [3]

7. (b). Given that = 1 + 2 is a root of the equation

−4 −6 + 20 − 75 = 0, find the other three roots. [5]

Express sin 5 in terms of powers of sin and hence show that

sin 5 − 5 sin = 16 sin − 20 sin

Find

(16 sin − 20 sin ) ,

giving your answer in exact form. [9]

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November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

6. (a). Sketch the following locus on an Argand diagram:

−1
arg =
−4 3
[4]

6. (b). Express cos in terms of cosines of multiple angles. [7]

6. (c). Show that 2 + 3 is the root of the equation z − 3z + 9 + 13 = 0.

Hence find the other two roots. [6]

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Chapter Four: Mathematical Induction

“Absence of proof is not proof of absence.”

– Michael Crichton

Being a subject that teaches not just what but how to think, mathematics aims to systemize
processes. The body of mathematical knowledge is procedural in nature, that is, it is logic-
centered. Procedural techniques in mathematics attempt to compress large volumes of data
into a few summary indicators called formulae. A formula, by its nature, is a framework that
generalizes the relationship connecting two or more variables.

Each substantive area in mathematics has its own set of procedural techniques. To confirm
the authenticity of formulae, verification may take several forms. This includes, but not
limited to: proof by contradiction; proof by induction; direct proof; and use of counter
examples.

Mathematical induction, though based on the same procedural techniques, can be

contextually applied to suit the character of different substantive areas. This chapter breaks
down how the proof frameworks in the following substantive areas:

 Matrix Algebra  Integration

 Series and Sequences  Factors and Multiples
 Differentiation  Complex Numbers

Matrix Algebra

Proof of mathematical statements in the realm of matrix algebra revolves around

multiplication of matrices. A full appreciation of how to multiply matrices is a prerequisite.
Numerical examples with supporting hints help to develop the skill of verifying the validity of
formulae.

Worked Examination Questions on Matrix Algebra

Unspecified Paper (JMB)

2
If = , prove by induction that every positive integer
0 1
2 ( 2 − 1)
=
0 1
Determine whether this relation holds for = −1.

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Solution

= ,

(2 − 1)
⇒ = 2
0 1

ℎ = + 1,

⇒ = × , ( )

( 2 − 1) 2
⇒ = 2
0 1 0 1

[2 × 2] + [(2 − 1) × 0] [2 × ] + [(2 − 1) × 1]
⇒ =
[0 × 2] + [1 × 0] [0 × ] + [1 × 1]

⇒ = 2 ×2 2 + [ 2 − 1]
0 1

⟦ ⟧ [2 + 2 − 1]
⇒ = 2
0 1

⟦ ⟧ [2(2 ) − 1]
⇒ = 2
0 1

⟦ ⟧ [2 (2 ) − 1]
⇒ = 2
0 1

⟦ ⟧
⇒ = 2 2⟦ ⟧
−1
0 1

ℎ ℎ = + 1,

⇒ ℎ = 1,

2 ℎ 1
⇒ =
0 1

2
⇒ =
0 1

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[2 − 1]
= 2
0 1

2 (2 − 1)
⇒ =
0 1

2
⇒ =
0 1

⇒ =

ℎ = , = ( + 1) = 1, ℎ

Question (IB, June 2009, qp.2)

Solution

= ,

( + 1)
1
⇒ = 2
0 1
0 0 1

= + 1,

⇒ = × ,

( + 1)
1 1 1 1
⇒ = 2 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1

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[1 × 1] + [ × 0] [1 × 1] + [ × 1] [1 × 1] + [ × 1]
( + 1) ( + 1) ( + 1)
⎛ + ×0 + ×0 + ×1 ⎞
⎜ 2 2 2 ⎟
⇒ =⎜ [0 × 1] + [1 × 0] [0 × 1] + [1 × 1] [0 × 1] + [1 × 1] ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ +[ × 0] +[ × 0] +[ × 1] ⎟
[0 × 1] + [0 × 0] [0 × 1] + [0 × 1] [0 × 1] + [0 × 1]
⎝ +[1 × 0] +[1 × 0] +[1 × 1] ⎠

( + 1)
1 1+ 1+ +
⇒ = 2
0 1 1+
0 0 1

2 + 2 + ( + 1)
1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ =⎛ 2 ⎞
0 1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⎝0 0 1 ⎠

2+2 + +
1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ =⎛ 2 ⎞
0 1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⎝0 0 1 ⎠

+3 +2
1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ =⎛ 2 ⎞
0 1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⎝0 0 1 ⎠

( + 1)( + 2)
1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ =⎛ 2 ⎞
0 1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⎝0 0 1 ⎠

⟦ + 1⟧(⟦ + 1⟧ + 1)
1 ⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ = 2
0 1 ⟦ + 1⟧
0 0 1

ℎ ℎ = + 1,

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ℎ = 1,

1 1 1 1(1 + 1)
1 1
= = 0 1 1 = 2
0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
⇒ = 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 ⇒ = 0 1 1
0 0 1
⇒ =

ℎ = , = ( + 1) = 1, ℎ
.

Revision Question on Matrix Algebra

Unknown Source

1. Given that
0 0
Λ= 0 0
0 0
Prove by induction that

0 0
Λ = 0 0
0 0

June 2011 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2002 qp.2 (IB)

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June 2002 qp.2 (IB)

Sequences and Series

Proof to progressions (AP or GP) summed up by the sigma notation, (Σ), is based on the sum
of the 1st terms. It must be noted that,

= (1 + 2 +3 + ⋯ + 10 )

= (1 + 2 + 3 )

=1

ℎ, = + 4

ℎ, = + 10

ℎ, = +
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For example, given a set of even numbers,

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …

= 2+4+6+8

⇒ = 20

⇒ = + 5

⇒ = 20 + 10

∴ = {2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 30}

The idea of shortening the addition process forms the basis of proof by induction of
summation series. Clarity of the concept is enhanced by exposure to practical examples.

Worked Examination Questions on Sequences and Series

Question (Unknown Source)

Use proof by induction to verify the following statement

= ( + 1)
2

Solution

= ,

⇒ = ( + 1)
2

ℎ = + 1,

⇒ = + ( + 1)

⇒ = ( + 1) + ( + 1)
2

( + 1 )
⇒ = ( + 1) +1
2

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+2
⇒ = ( + 1)
2

( + 1)
⇒ = [ + 2]
2

⟦ + 1⟧
⇒ = [⟦ + 1⟧ + 1]
2

ℎ = + 1,

ℎ = 1,

= = ( + 1)
2
⇒ = 1
1
⇒ = (1 + 1 )
2

⇒ =1
⇒ =

= ( + 1) ℎ = , = + 1 = 1, ℎ
2
.

Question (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics, June 2003 qp.1)

Solution

= ,

+2 1
=1−
( + 1)2 ( + 1)2

ℎ = + 1,

+2 +2
⇒ = + ( + 1)
( + 1) 2 ( + 1) 2

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+2 1 ⟦ + 1⟧ + 2
⇒ = 1 − +
( + 1) 2 ( + 1 )2 ⟦ + 1⟧(⟦ + 1⟧ + 1)2⟦ ⟧

+2 1 +3
⇒ = 1− −
( + 1) 2 ( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2)2

+2 1( + 2)(2 ) − ( + 3)(1)
⇒ = 1−
( + 1)2 ( + 1)( + 2)2

+2 2 +4− −3
⇒ = 1−
( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2)2

+2 2 − +4−3
⇒ = 1−
( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2)2

+2 ( + 1)
⇒ = 1−
( + 1) 2 ( + 1)( + 2)2

+2 1
⇒ = 1−
( + 1) 2 ( + 2) 2

+2 1
⇒ = 1− ⟧
( + 1) 2 (⟦ + 1⟧ + 1)2⟦

+2
⇒ ℎ = + 1,
( + 1)2

ℎ = 1,

+2 1
= =1−
( + 1)2 ( + 1)2

1+2 1
⇒ = ⇒ =1−
1(1 + 1)2 1( 1 + 1) 2

3 1
⇒ = ⇒ =1−
1 2)(2)
( (2)(2)

3 3
⇒ = ⇒ =
4 4
⇒ =

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+2
ℎ = , = + 1 = 1, ℎ
( + 1)2

Revision Questions on Sequences and Series

November 1996 qp.1 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

19. (a) Show by induction that, for every positive integer ,

1
( + 1 ) ( + 3) = ( + 1)( + 2)(3 + 13)
12

[5]

June 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2007 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2008 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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June 2010 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2012 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2004 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2005 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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November 2008 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2009 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2012 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2011 qp.2 (IB)

November 2014 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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January 2008 qp.2 (AQA)

June 1991 qp.1 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

17. (a). Prove by induction or otherwise, that

1
= ( + 1)
4
Hence show that
1
= (3 + 1)(5 + 3)
4
[7]

17. (b). A sequence of positive integers , , , …is defined by = 1 and =3 +

2 for ≥ 1; thus the first few terms of the sequence are 1, 5, 17, 53, …. Prove by
induction that

= 2( 3 )−1 [5]

Differentiation
Based on the conceptual framework of differential calculus, proof of statements in
differentiation is provided for as illustrated in the two examples below:

Worked Examination Questions on Differentiation

Question (Zimsec Specimen Paper, November 2003 qp.2)

3. (a). Deduce that the derivative of is given by

= ( + )
[2]
3. (b). Prove by induction that

= ( + )
[4]
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Solution

(a). =

⇒ =( )(1) + ( )( )(1)

⇒ = +

⇒ = (1 + )

= (1 + )( )(1) + ( )(1)

⇒ = (1 + ) +

⇒ = [(1 + ) + 1]

⇒ = (2 + )

∴ = ( + )

(b). = ,

= ( + )

ℎ = + 1,

⇒ = ( + )( )(1) + ( )(1)

⇒ =( + ) +

⇒ = [( + ) + 1]

⇒ = [⟦ + 1⟧ + ]

ℎ = 1, = 2, = , = + 1, ℎ

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Question (Cambridge, November 1992 qp.1)

19. (ii). Prove by induction that, for all values of the positive integer ,

= 2( + 1) +2

[5]

Solution

(ii). = ,

⇒ = 2( + 1) +2

ℎ = + 1,
ℎ
⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ( )
⇒ ⟦ ⟧
= 2( + 1) + × (0) + ⟦ ⟧
×2+2 ( )

⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧
⇒ ⟦ ⟧ = 2 ( + 1) +2 ⟦ ⟧ +2

⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧
⇒ ⟦ ⟧
=2 ⟦ ⟧
[( + 1) + 1] + 2 ⟦ ⟧

⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧
⇒ ⟦ ⟧
= 2(⟦ + 1⟧ + 1) ⟦ ⟧
+2 ⟦ ⟧

⇒ ℎ = + 1

ℎ = , ℎ = + 1, ℎ

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Revision Questions on Differentiation

June 2004 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2003 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2007 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2011 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2011 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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June 2013 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2001 qp.2 (IB)

November 1995 qp.2 (IB)

November 1993 qp.1 (Cambridge Syllabus C)

9. Show by induction that, for all positive integers ,

1 (−2) !
=
2 +1 ( 2 + 1)

[4]

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Integration
Problems demanding proof of integration by mathematical induction remain scarce for the
Paper 2 syllabus. Based on the conceptual framework of integral calculus, proof of statements
in integration is provided for as best illustrated in the example below:

Question

Prove by induction that

= +
+1

for all positive integer values of .

(Hint: use integration by parts)

Solution

= ,

= +
+1

ℎ = + 1,

= ∙

=
=

=1
=
+1

⇒ = −
+1 +1

⇒ = − +
+1 ( + 1)( + 2)

1
⇒ = 1− +
+1 +2

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+2−1
⇒ = +
+1 +2

+1
⇒ = +
+1 +2

⇒ = +
+2

⟦ ⟧
⇒ = +
⟦ + 1⟧ + 1

ℎ = + 1,

ℎ = 1,

= +
2

⟦ ⟧
= +
⟦ 1 + 1⟧

ℎ = , = + 1 = 1, ℎ

Factors and Multiples

Proof is in showing that a number is a multiple of a certain factor, or is a factor of a certain
multiple. In both cases, the framework is hinged on expressing the statement as a product of
that factor in an algebraic expression.

Worked Examination Question on Factors and Multiples

Question (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics, June 2013 qp.11)

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Solution

5 − 1 8 ℎ ,

5 −1 =8 ℎ ℎ

= ,

: 5 − 1 = 8

ℎ ,

= + 1,
( )
⇒ : 5 − 1 8
( )
⇒5 −1 = 5 −1
( )
⇒5 − 1 = 5 (5 ) − 1

: 5 =8 + 1,
( )
⇒5 − 1 = 25(8 + 1) − 1
( )
⇒5 − 1 = 200 + 25 − 1
( )
⇒5 − 1 = 200 + 24
( )
⇒5 − 1 = 8(25 + 3)

= 1,
( )
⇒ =5 − 1 = 8

⇒ = 24 = 8

⇒ = 8(3)

∴ 5 − 1 8 ℎ = 1, = = + 1,

Unknown Source

Prove that − has − as a factor for all positive integers .

Solution

( − ) − ℎ ,
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: − = ( − ) ℎ

= ,

: − = ( − )

ℎ ,

= + 1,

⇒ : − ( − )

⇒ − = − + − ℎ ℎ

⇒ − = ( − )+ ( − )

: − ℎ − ℎ ℎ ( − )

= 1, − ℎ −

⇒ − = −

∴ − ℎ − ℎ = 1, = = + 1,

Unspecified Paper

Prove Bernoulli’s inequality (1 + ) > 1 + for ≥ 2, > −1, ≠ 0.

Solution

: (1 + ) > 1 +

= ,

: (1 + ) > 1 +

ℎ ,

= + 1,

⇒ : (1 + ) > 1 + ( + 1)

⇒ (1 + )(1 + ) > 1 + ( + 1)

(1 + ) > 1 +

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⇒ (1 + )(1 + ) > (1 + )(1 + )

⇒ (1 + )(1 + ) > 1 + + +

⇒ (1 + )(1 + ) > 1 + ( + 1) +

: (1 + )(1 + ) = (1 + )

⇒ (1 + ) > 1 + ( + 1) + > 1 + ( + 1)

= 2,

= (1 + ) =1+2

⇒ = 1+2 +

1+2 + > 1+2

>

∴ (1 + ) > 1 + ℎ = 2, = = + 1,

≥ 2 > −1 ≠ 0.

Revision Questions on Factors and Multiples

June 2006 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2012 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2011 qp.11 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

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November 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2006 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2010 qp.1 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2006 qp.2 (AQA)

June 2008 qp.2 (AQA)

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June 2007 qp.2 (AQA)

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

1. Prove by induction that 5 −3 is a multiple of 8 for ∈Z . [7]

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

1. The function is defined by

( )= + 1, ∈ ℝ
(i). Write expressions for the compound functions ( ) and ( ). [2]

(ii). Using the results from part (i), write down an identity for ( ). Prove by
induction that this is true for all positive integers . [5]

Complex Numbers
Proof of complex numbers is predominantly focused on De Moivres Theorem and the
binomial expansion. As such, a thorough appreciation of these two concepts is essential to
successfully answer problems in this section.

Worked Examination Question on Complex Numbers

November 2013 qp.13 (Cambridge A Level Further Mathematics)

Solution

: (cos + sin ) = cos + sin

= ,

: (cos + sin ) = cos + sin

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ℎ ,

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos( + 1) + sin( + 1)

⇒ (cos + sin ) = (cos + sin )(cos + sin )

⇒ (cos + sin ) = (cos + sin )(cos + sin )

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos cos + cos sin + cos sin + sin sin

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos cos − sin sin + sin cos + cos sin

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos cos − sin sin + (sin cos + cos sin )

ℎ ′ :

cos( ± ) = cos cos ∓ sin sin
sin( ± ) = sin cos ± cos sin

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos( + ) + sin( + )

⇒ (cos + sin ) = cos( + 1) + sin( + 1)

= 1,

= (cos + sin ) = cos[1( )] + sin[1 ( )]

⇒ = cos + sin ⇒ = cos + sin

⇒ =

∴ (cos + sin ) = cos + sin ℎ = 1, =

= + 1 ℎ .

1
⇒ (2 sin ) = −

1 1 1
⇒2 sin = ( ) − + ( ) − + ( ) −
1 1 1
+ ( ) − + ( ) − + ( ) −

1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 32 sin = +5 − + 10 + 10 − +5 + −

10 5 1
⇒ 32 sin = −5 + 10 − + −

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1 5 10
⇒ 32 sin = − −5 + + 10 −

1 1 1
⇒ 32 sin = − −5 − + 10 −

1
2 sin( ) = − ,

⇒ 32 sin = 2 sin 5 − 5(2 sin 3 ) + 10(2 sin )

1
⇒ sin = (2 sin 5 − 10 sin 3 + 20 sin )
32

∴ = − +

Revision Questions on Complex Numbers

January 2007 qp.2 (AQA)

November 1999 qp.2 (IB)

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June 2003 qp.2 (IB)

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Section B: Introduction to Statistics

“Be able to analyse statistics, which can be used to support or undercut almost any
argument.”
– Marilyn vos Savant

Statistics refers to the collection, collation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of

(mainly quantitative) data. The framework of statistics revolves around these pillars:

 Collection refers to the gathering of data suitable to address particular research

objectives.

 Collation involves the classification or categorisation of given data. For example,

classification according to gender, income, age and so on.

 Presentation studies a wide array of instruments used as visual aids to illustrate

particular observations. Some of the prominent instruments include pie charts, bar
graphs, histograms and ogives.

 Analysis refers to the breakdown of existing data sets so as to draw-up meanings and
make decisions.

 Interpretation refers to the act of explaining or translating numerical results into

familiar language.

The history of statistics can be traced back to biblical times. Jesus fed five thousand men
with five loaves of bread and two fish, King David conducted a census of Israel, and three
thousand people repented following Peter’s sermon after Pentecost; all these are
examples with a statistical tone in the bible.

It is important to note that statistics is not just a mathematical tool but a decision support
tool which is applicable to all disciplines including but not limited to science, psychology,
engineering, planning, education and economics. In the field of law we cite the number of
rape cases by religious leaders, in the medical fraternity we talk about number of people
suffering from HIV/AIDS, in business we are concerned about the number of customers
visiting a service centre and so on. Statistics is, therefore, a versatile tool applicable in
most, if not all disciplines.

The general purpose of statistical analysis is to provide meaning of what otherwise would
be a collection of facts, numbers or values. Statistical procedures fall loosely into three
general groups, namely descriptive, associative and inferential. Descriptive statistics
represent individuals or events in terms of some predetermined characteristics. On one

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hand, to identify meaningful interrelationships between or among data, associative

statistics apply. On the other hand, to assess the characteristics of a sample in order to
make general statements about the ‘parent’ population or relationship between different
samples or populations, inferential statistics is applied.

This module analyses all the first branch with specific emphasis on the topics that
constitute the Zimsec Paper Two syllabus. Fig. B1 is an executive summary of ‘A’ Level
Statistics.

Statistics

Descriptive Associative Inferential

Statistics Statistics Statistics

●Data Presentation
●Sampling
and analysis ● Regression and Distribution
Correlation
●Probability
●Confidence
● Linear Intervals
Combination of
●Discrete Probability Random Variables
Distributions
●Hypothesis Testing

●Continuous
●Chi-square tests
Distribution

●Normal Distribution

Fig. B1

Of concern to Paper Two (2) is descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics compresses large
volumes of data into a few summary measures. After data has been collected, it is essential
to organise, analyse, summarise, present and interpret the results for the benefit of relevant
stakeholders. The spirit and purpose of descriptive statistics is to provide a profile of the data
attributes, convey meaning and make well-informed decisions based on empirical evidence.

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This section analyses the following topics:

 Data Presentation and Analysis

 Probability

 Discrete Probability Distributions (Specifically, Binomial and Geometric Distributions)

 Continuous Distribution

 Normal Distribution

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Chapter Five: Data Presentation and Analysis

“Analysis is the art of creation through destruction.”

– P.S. Baber

Data refers to a wide range of raw (or unprocessed) facts, symbols or ideas. Data can be
classified into:

 Qualitative versus Quantitative

 Discrete versus Continuous
 Grouped versus Ungrouped

Qualitative versus Quantitative Data

Theoretical facts devoid of numbers are referred to as qualitative data. Since qualitative data
is non-numeric, codes can be assigned to individual observations for ease of analysis. For
example, in response to the proposition that mathematics is a science, the following response
categories can be given:

Table 5.1

Proposition Response categories Code

Strongly disagree 1
Disagree 2
Mathematics is a science
Agree 3
Strongly agree 4

Quantitative data describes observations that attract numerical responses. For example, ages
of students in a class and height of trees in an orchard.

Discrete versus Continuous Data

Discrete data takes exact observations, that is, it attracts definite responses without room for
an overlap. For example, a person can either roll a tongue or cannot. Gender, eye colour and
having earlobes are also examples of discrete data. Continuous data refers to measurable that
do not take exact values but lie on a continuum scale. For example, height, mass and weight.

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Grouped versus Ungrouped Data

Ungrouped data describes fresh data which has not been manipulated into any form. For
example, individual shoe sizes of students in a class.

Grouped data refers to the data that has been sorted into classes. For example, shoe sizes of
students in a class put into categories like sizes 4 – 6, sizes 7 – 9 and so on.

NB: These classifications are abstract because some observations overlap. For example, an
observation can be discrete and qualitative, grouped and continuous, and ungrouped and
quantitative.

The interface between types of data is best illustrated by the following practical example.

November 2003 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

Proposed solution

(i).
(ii).
(iii).

Data Presentation
This section analyses a wide spectrum of presentation instruments with specific emphasis on:
 Pie Chart  Histogram
 Bar Graph  Frequency Polygon
 Stem and Leaf Diagram  Cumulative Frequency Curve
 Box and Whisker Plot

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1. Pie Chart
It is a circle divided into sectors. The angle size of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of an observation regarding the total number of observations on a subject.
The angles size is numerically given by the formula

= × 360°

For example Table 5.2 shows the colour of cars in a car park and their corresponding
frequencies

Table 5.2
Colour of car Number of cars Angle size
7
Red 7 × 360 = 114.5°
22
5
Blue 5 × 360 = 81.8°
22
10
White 10 × 360 = 163.6°
22
Total 22 359.9 ≃ 360

This data can be presented on a pie chart as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Pie Chart Showing Colour of Cars

7
Key
Red
10
Blue
White

Fig. 5.1
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2. Bar Graph

This is used to present discrete data using bars where the observations are detached
from each other. A simple bar graph can be used to analyse the average rainfall of
three provinces in Zimbabwe in a particular season.

Bar Graph Showing Average Rainfall

1200
1000
Rainfall/mm

800
600
400
200
0
Manicaland Mashonaland Matebeleland

Fig. 5.2

To make a comparative assessment of two or more observations of the same subject

we employ a multiple bar graph or a component bar graph. Considering the average
rainfall in Manicaland, Mashonaland and Matebeleland provinces for two different
seasons we can use either a multiple or a component bar graph. These two bar graphs
can be used to present the same set of observations in a different way. A multiple bar
graph juxtaposes (puts side by side) observations of the same category whereas a
component bar graph, also known as a compound bar graph, superposes (puts one
observation on top of the other) observation of the same family.

Multiple Bar Graph Showing Average Rainfall

1200

1000
Rrainfall/mm

800 Key
600 2012

400 2013

200

0
Manicaland Mashonaland Matebeleland

Fig. 5.3
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Component Bar Graph Showing Average Rainfall

2000
1800
1600

Rainfall/mm
1400 Key
1200
1000 2013
800
600
2012
400
200
0
Manicaland Mashonaland Matebeleland

Fig. 5.4

3. Stem and Leaf Diagram

A stem and leaf plot is used to classify data while at the same time retaining the
original data. It is made up of two parts;
(i). Stem
(ii). Leaf
On one hand, the stem assumes the position of a ‘prefix’, that is, one or more digits at
the beginning of a number. On the other hand, the leaf is more of a ‘suffix’, that is,
one or more digits combined with a stem to make it a full number. A stem and leaf
diagram is valid if there is a key to interpret the results, and when the data is in
ascending order. This raises the question: What does the diagram look like?

Example: Given that the daily ticket sales at a private bar during three weeks are;
50, 34, 71, 85, 63, 78, 89, 51, 45, 83, 84, 91, 85, 84, 44, 86, 32, 35,
72, 80, 99

To enhance on accuracy and speed, it is best to come up with a draft which is not in
ascending order before constructing the final diagram.

Draft stem and leaf diagram:

stem Leaf
3 4, 2, 5
4 5, 4
5 0, 1
6 3,
7 1, 8, 2
8 5, 9, 3, 4, 5, 4, 6, 0
9 1, 9

Fig. 5.5
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Final stem and leaf diagram:

Stem leaf
3 2, 4, 5
4 4, 5
5 0, 1
6 3,
7 1, 2, 8
8 0, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 9
9 1, 9

Key: 7|2 means 72 tickets

Fig. 5.6

NB: A stem and leaf plot can be a back-to-back one (see worked examples on page
177).

4. Box and Whisker Plot

This instrument is used to show the variability of data. It uses the following results
from data analysis:
 Median
 Lower quartile
 Upper quartile
As such, this instrument is outlined in detail in a later section in this chapter (see
worked examples on pages 176 and 184).

A standard template of the Box and Whisker Plot is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7

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5. Histogram
This is used to present grouped data where the classes are in continuous form. If the
classes are not in continuous form, adjustment for continuity has to be done first. The
classes are said to be continuous if the upper limit of the preceding class is exactly the
same as the lower limit of the proceeding class. Once the data has been adjusted for
continuity, a histogram is given by plotting the classes of the variable under study
against the frequency density. Frequency density is the value given when frequency is
divided by the class width,

=
ℎ

Continuity Correction
To adjust for continuity we consider the following steps:
 Determining the size of the gap between any pair of successive classes;
 Dividing the size of the gap by 2;
 Adding the result to all the upper limits and subtracting the result from all the
lower limits.

Example:
The heights of 300 flowers on a particular botanical garden were recorded to the
nearest centimetre. The results are summarised in the following table.

Table 5.3
Height (cm) 26 − 30 31 − 35 36 − 40 41 − 45 46 − 50
Number of plants 71 36 70 59 64

An analysis of the classes exposes the fact that there are gaps between successive
classes:
(26 − 30) (31 − 35) (36 − 40) …

1 1
Fig. 5.8
By dividing the size of the gap by two (2) and adding the result to every upper limit
and subtracting the result from every lower limit, this gives birth to the following table:

Table 5.4
height (cm) number or plants ( ) frequency density
25.5 − 30.5 71 14.2
30.5 − 35.5 36 7.2
35.5 − 40.5 70 14
40.5 − 45.5 59 11.8
45.5 − 50.5 64 12.8
∑ = 300

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=
=
ℎ
71 ⇒ . . =
. . =
5 59
⇒ = . . . =
. . 5
⇒ . . = .
36
. . =
5 64
⇒ = . . . =
. . 5
⇒ . . = .
70
. . =
5

Since the first observation is in the class with a lower limit of 25.5, it is wise to distort
the -axis as shown below:

Histogram Showing the Height of Plants

16

14

12
Frequency Density

10

0
25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5
25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5
Height of Plants

Fig. 5.9

NB: A histogram is guided and upholds the following conditions:

 The classes are continuous in nature;
 As such, the bars are attached to each other;
 The class width may be the same or different;
 The frequency density denotes the height of the bars.

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6. Frequency Polygon
This is a special type of a line graph given by plotting the midpoints of classes of the
variable under study against the frequency density and subsequently joining them.
Using the example on height of plants with the results summarised in Table 5.5, an
extra column is added to incorporate the midpoint of classes:

Table 5.5
height (cm) midpoint number or plants ( ) frequency density
25.5 − 30.5 28 71 14.2
30.5 − 35.5 33 36 7.2
35.5 − 40.5 38 70 14
40.5 − 45.5 43 59 11.8
45.5 − 50.5 48 64 12.8

Fig. 5.10 is a frequency polygon that presents this data.

Frequency Polygon Showing Height of Plants

16

14
Frequency Density

12

10

0
0 25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5
28 33 38 43 48 53
Height of Plants

Fig. 5.10

NB: The dotted lines should not be shown on a frequency polygon. They only serve to
show the relationship between a histogram and a frequency polygon since the points
on the polygon are the midpoints of the class widths of a histogram.

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7. Cumulative Frequency Graph

This instrument is used to present grouped data in continuous form. It is also known
as an Ogive. There are two types of Ogives:

 ‘Less than’ Ogive

 ‘More than’ Ogive
‘A’ level statistics tests the ability of students to construct, analyse and interpret a ‘less
than’ cumulative frequency graph only. To construct an Ogive, one has to plot the
upper limit of the variable under study against the cumulative frequency. Cumulative
frequency is the total of frequency below a given upper limit, hence the name ‘less
than’ cumulative frequency. An Ogive gives an S-shaped curve.

A cumulative frequency graph can either be a curve or a polygon depending on the

question at hand. In case of a curve, the points are joined using freehand and in case
of a polygon, the points are joined using lines. If the question is silent on the nature of
the Ogive, both a curve and a polygon are marked correct.

Using the example on the height of 300 plants in a particular botanical garden, the
following table summarises the results after adjusting for continuity.

Table 5.6
height (cm) number or plants ( ) cumulative frequency
25.5 − 30.5 71 71
30.5 − 35.5 36 107
35.5 − 40.5 70 177
40.5 − 45.5 59 236
45.5 − 50.5 64 300
∑ = 300

This data is presented by the Ogive in Fig. 5.11.

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Fig. 5.11

NB: The cumulative frequency curve should be grounded on the -axis. To ground it
on the -axis, consider the number of observations below the lower limit of the first
class. In any given case, it is zero. So in the example above it is (25.5; 0).

Data Analysis

This refers to a wide range of instruments used to breakdown data for ease of
interpretation. These instruments are grouped into two:

I. Measures of average (central tendency); and

II. Measures of dispersion (spread).

There are three measures of average: mean; mode; and median. There are a host of
measures of spread, including but not limited to: variance; standard deviation;
quartiles; and percentiles. The formulae for data analysis tools differ depending on
whether the data is grouped or ungrouped. As such, the forthcoming section gives the
formulae for all the measures followed by two ‘catch-all’ examples, one for grouped
data and the other for ungrouped data.

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Measures of Average (central tendency)

Table 5.7

∑ ∑
̅= ̅=
∑
Where: Where:
( )
is the variable under study is the midpoint of a specific
is the number of class
observations is the frequency
C − ∑ (<)
Median = L + 2

Where:
L is the lower limit of the
Median observation is
median class
+1
term C is the class width of the
2
NB: Arrange the data in ascending median class
or descending order before locating is the total frequency
the median observation ∑ (<) is the sum of the
frequencies below median
class
is the frequency of the
median class
[ − ]
Mode = L +
2 − −
Where:
L is the lower limit of the
modal class
C is the class width of the
Mode is the observation with the modal class
highest frequency. It is determined is the frequency of the
by mere inspection. modal class
is the frequency of the
class preceding the modal
class
is the frequency of the
class proceeding the modal
class

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Measures of Spread (dispersion)

Table 5.8

∑ ∑
Var( ) = − ( ̅) Var( ) = − ( ̅)
∑
Where: Where:
is the variable is the midpoint of a
under study specific class
is the number of is the corresponding
observations frequency
∑ ∑
S. D = − ( ̅) S. D = − ( ̅)
( ) ∑
. =
C − ∑ (<)
=L + 4

Where:
L is the lower limit of the
lower quartile class
+1
term C is the class width of the
4
( ) lower quartile class
gives the observation is the total frequency
∑ (<) is the sum of the
frequencies below lower
quartile class
is the frequency of the
lower quartile class
3
C 4 − ∑ (<)
=L +

Where:
L is the lower limit of the
upper quartile class
3( + 1)
term C is the class width of the
4
( ) upper quartile class
gives the observation is the total frequency
∑ (<) is the sum of the
frequencies below the
upper quartile class
is the frequency of the
upper quartile class

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Example 1: Question for ungrouped data

Rachel measured the lengths in millimetres of some of the leaves of a tree. Her results
are recorded below:
32 ; 35 ; 45 ; 37 ; 38 ; 44 ; 33 ; 39 ; 36 ; 45
Find the measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion of the lengths of
these leaves.

Solution

By first arranging the data in ascending order:

32 ; 33 ; 35 ; 36 ; 37 ; 38 ; 39 ; 44 ; 45 ; 45
∑
∗ , ̅ =

⇒ ̅=

∴ = .
( + 1)
∗ = Table 5.9
2
(10 + 1)
⇒ =
2 32 1 024
⇒ = 5.5 33 1 089
5.5 ℎ 5 6 35 1 225
37 + 38
ℎ , = 36 1 296
2
37 1 369
∴ = .
38 1 444
∗ = ( ) 39 1 521
44 1 936
∑
∗ = −( ̅ ) 45 2 025
14 954 45 2 025
⇒ ( )= − (38.4)
10 ∑ = 384. ∑ = 14 954.
⇒ ( ) = 20.84
∴ ( )= .

∗ = Var( )
⇒ . = √20.84
∴ . = .
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+1
∗ =
4

(10 + 1)
⇒ =
4

⇒ = 2.75

ℎ , ℎ ℎ

33 + 35
⇒ =
2

∴ =

3 ( + 1)
∗ =
4

3(10 + 1)
⇒ =
4

⇒ = 8.25

ℎ , ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ

44 + 45
⇒ =
2

∴ = .

Example 2: Question for grouped data

During January the number of people entering a store during the first hour after
opening was as follows:

Table 5.10
Time after opening minutes Number of people
0 < ≤ 10 210
10 < ≤ 20 134
20 < ≤ 30 78
30 < ≤ 40 72
40 < ≤ 60 46
∑ = 540

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Solution

By extending the table to incorporate ; ; ; and

Table 5.11
Class (midpoint)
0 < ≤ 10 5 25 210 1050 5 250
10 < ≤ 20 15 225 134 2010 30 150
20 < ≤ 30 25 625 78 1950 48 750
30 < ≤ 40 35 1225 72 2520 88 200
40 < ≤ 60 50 2500 46 2300 115 000
∑ = 540 ∑ = 9 830 ∑ = 287 350
∑
∗ , ̅ =
∑

9 830
⇒ ̅=
540

∴ = .

C − ∑ (< )
∗ =L + 2

NB: The median covers the lower 50% of the distribution, in this case, 50% of 540 is
270 which lies in the 10 < ≤ 20 class

ℎ L = 10; C = 10; = 540; = 134; (<) = 210

1
(10) (540) − 210
⇒ = 10 + 2
134
∴ = .

[ − ]
∗ =L +
2 − −
NB: the modal class is the one with the highest frequency, in this case, 0 < ≤ 10

ℎ L = 0; C = 10; = 210; = 0; = 134

(10)[210 − 0]
⇒ =0+
2(210) − 0 − 134
∴ = .

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∑
∗ = − ( ̅)
∑
287 350 9 830
⇒ Var( ) = −
540 540
⇒ Var( ) = 200.755

∴ ( )=

∗ = ( )

⇒ . . = √200.755

∴ . = .

C 4 − ∑ (<)
∗ =L +

NB: the lower quartile class takes the lower 25% of the distribution, in this case, 25%
of 540 is 135 which lies in the 0 < ≤ 10 class.

ℎ L = 0; C = 10; = 540; = 210; (<) = 0

540
(10)
⇒ =0+ 4 −0
210

∴ = .

3
C 4 − ∑ (<)
∗ =L +

NB: The upper quartile covers the lower 75% of the distribution, in this case, 75% of
540 is 405 which lies in the 20 < ≤ 30 class.

ℎ L = 20; C = 10; = 540; = 78; (<) = 344

3
(10) (540) − 344
⇒ = 20 + 4
78

∴ = .

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Worked Examination Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis

NB: It is critical to note that concepts on data presentation and analysis are co-examined. As
such, it is very difficult to draw a demarcating line between the two. Examination questions
test the student’s ability to present, analyse and interpret data at the same time. This section,
therefore, gives a detailed breakdown on how these concepts are integrated in practice.

Question (Cambridge, November 2008 qp.6)

Solution

(i). Draft stem and leaf plot:

Stem Leaf
10 4 ; 4 ; 9
11 5 ; 7
12 0 ; 5
13 2 ; 4
14 2 ; 5 ; 4
15 8
16 0 ; 2

Final stem and leaf diagram:

Stem Leaf
10 4 ; 4 ; 9
11 5 ; 7
12 0 ; 5
13 2 ; 4
14 2 ; 4 ; 5
15 8
16 0 ; 2

Key: 13|4 means 134 beats per minute

( + 1)
(ii) ∗ =
2
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(15 + 1)
⇒ =
2
⇒ =8
∴ =

+1
∗ =
4
(15 + 1)
⇒ =
4
⇒ =4
∴ =

3( + 1)
∗ =
4
3(15 + 1)
⇒ =
4
⇒ = 12
∴ =

(iii)

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Question (Cambridge, November 2010 qp.62)

Solution

(i). Draft stem and leaf diagram:

left leaf (sugar) Stem right leaf (flour)

8 ; 1 196 2 ; 4
7 197 7
9 ; 4 ; 3 198
4 199
8 200
7 ; 1 ; 4 201
194 5 ; 9 ; 1
195 3

Final stem and leaf diagram:

left leaf (sugar) Stem right leaf (flour)

194 1 ; 5 ; 9
195 3
8 ; 1 196 2 ; 4
7 197 7
9 ; 4 ; 3 198
4 199
8 200
7 ; 4; 1 201

Key: 1|196|4 means 1.961 kg of sugar and 1.964 kg of flour.

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( + 1)
(ii) ∗ =
2

(11 + 1)
⇒ =
2

⇒ =6

∴ = .

+1
∗ =
4

(11 + 1)
⇒ =
4

⇒ =3

∴ = .

3 ( + 1)
∗ =
4

3(11 + 1)
⇒ =
4

⇒ =9

∴ = .

∗ ℎ = −

⇒ = 2.011 − 1.977

∴ = .

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Question (Cambridge, June 2008 qp.6)

Solution

(i). A histogram is built on the premise that the bars are in continuous form. In this case,
the classes are disjointed with a gap of 0.1. As such, the data has to be adjusted for
. .
continuity by way of adding to every upper limit and subtracting from every
lower limit.

Time spent (hrs) Frequency Frequency density

0.05 − 0.55 11 22

0.55 − 1.05 15 30

1.05 − 2.05 18 18

2.05 − 3.05 30 30

3.05 − 4.55 21 14

Using 2cm to represent 0.5hrs on the -axis and 2cm to represent 3units on the -
axis;

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(ii). Let be the midpoint of classes,

Time spent (hrs)

0.05 − 0.55 0.3 11 3.3
0.55 − 1.05 0.8 15 12
1.05 − 2.05 1.55 18 27.9
2.05 − 3.05 2.55 30 76.5
3.05 − 4.55 3.8 21 79.8
∑ = 95 ∑ = 199.5

∑
̅=
∑

199.5
⇒ ̅=
95

∴ = .

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Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.62)

Solution

( + 1)
(i) ∗ =
2
(112 + 1)
⇒ =
2
⇒ = 56.5
∴ < ≤

+1
∗ =
4
(112 + 1)
⇒ =
4
⇒ = 84.75
∴ < ≤

(ii) let be the midpoint of class

Time (min)
0 < ≤ 10 5 19 95 1.9
10 < ≤ 15 12.5 12 150 2.4
15 < ≤ 20 17.5 28 490 5.6
20 < ≤ 25 22.5 22 495 4.4
25 < ≤ 40 32.5 18 585 1.2
40 < ≤ 60 50 13 650 0.65
∑ = 112 ∑ = 2 465

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Using 2 cm to represent 10 minutes on the -axis and 2 cm to represent 0.5 units on

the -axis;

∑
(iii) ̅ =
∑

2 465
⇒ ̅=
112

∴ = .

Question (Cambridge, June 2009 qp.6)

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Solution

Since part (iv) is asking for the mean and standard deviation, it is important to extend the
table setting the stage for part (iv).

Time ( ) Midpoint ( ) Frequency ( )

0 − 10 5 210 210 1 050 5 250
10 − 20 15 134 344 2 010 30 150
20 − 30 25 78 422 1 950 48 750
30 − 40 35 72 494 2 520 88 200
40 − 60 50 46 540 2 300 115 000
∑ = 540 ∑ = 9 830 ∑ = 287 350

(i) = 422 + 72 = 540 − 494

∴ = ∴ =
(ii)

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540
(iii) =
2

= 270

∴ =

(iv) ℎ ℎ ,

∑
= ∑
∑ = − ( ̅)
∑
9 830
⇒ =
540 287 350
∴ = . ⇒s= − 18.2
540
∴ = .
1 1
(v) − = 18.2 − (14.2)
2 2
1
⇒ − = 11.1
2
1 1
+ = 18.2 + (14.2)
2 2
1
⇒ + = 25.3
2
⇒ 390 − 225
∴

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.61)

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Solution

(i). By first arranging the History marks in ascending order;

27 ; 28 ; 33 ; 33 ; 37 ; 38 ; 39 ; 42 ; 48 ; 49 ; 51 ; 55 ; 57

∗ ℎ 27

∗ ℎ ℎ ℎ 57

( + 1)
∗ =
4
13 + 1
⇒ =
4
⇒ = 3.5

⇒ ℎ 3 4 ,

33 + 33
⇒ =
2

∴ =

+1
∗ =
2

13 + 1
⇒ =
2

⇒ =7

∴ =

3( + 1)
∗ =
4
3
⇒ = (13 + 1)
4

⇒ = 10.5

ℎ 10 11

49 + 51
⇒ =
2

∴ =

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(ii). The variability of physics marks is more pronounced as compared to that of the
history marks.

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.62)

Solution

∑
̅=

48.3 + 55.2 + 59.9 + 67.7 + 60.5 + 75.6 + 62.5 + 57.4 + 53.4 + 49.2 + 64.1
⇒ ̅=
11
⇒ ̅ = 59.44818182

∴ = .

∑
= − ( ̅)

ℎ ∑ = [48.3 + 55.2 + 59.9 + 67.7 + 60.5 + 75.6 + 62.5 + 57.4 + 53.4

+ 49.2 + 64.1 ]

⇒∑ = 39 508.86

39 508.86
⇒ = − 59.44818182
11

∴ = .
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Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.61)

Solution

(i). Standard deviation measures the extent to which data deviates from the mean. In this
case, standard deviation is zero implying that the cost per ride is exactly the same as
the mean, that is, $2.50. As such, the roller coaster and the water slide cost $2.50 each
per ride.

(ii). Since the costs of the roller coaster and the water slide are known, that information
can be used to calculate the cost of the revolving drum.
∑
ℎ ̅=
∑
ℎ ℎ ,
(2.50 × 1) + (2.50 × 3) + ( × 6)
⇒ 3.76 =
10
⇒ 37.6 = 2.50 + 7.50 + 6
⇒ 6 = 27.6
∴ = .

∑
, = − ( ̅)
∑

ℎ ∑ = (2.50 × 1) + (2.50 × 3) + (4.60 × 6)

⇒ ∑ = 151.96

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151.96
⇒ = − (3.76)
10

∴ =$ .

Revision Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis

November 2001 qp.1 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

12. Twenty-three people in a random sample were asked to record the number of
kilometres they travelled by bus in a given week. The distances to the nearest
kilometre are shown below.

67 76 85 42 93 48 93 46 52 63 70 72 44 66

87 78 47 66 50 72 82 56 58

(a) Construct a stem and leaf diagram to represent these data. [2]

(b) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 10 km, draw a box and whisker plot to
represent these data. [4]
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(c) Give one advantage of using

(i). A stem and leaf diagram, [1]

(ii). A box and whisker plot. [1]

June 2008 qp.6 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

12. (a) (i) Give two advantages of using stem and leaf diagrams in analysing data. [2]

(ii) Describe with an example a statistical situation in which it would be

appropriate to use the mode as measure of central tendency. [1]

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June 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

1. The stem and leaf diagram below shows the pocket money received by a group of girls
in the year 1980.

Stem leaf
0 50 50 50 75
1 00 00 00 50 75
2 00 00 00 50 50
3 00 25 30 75
4 50
5 50

KEY: 3|30 = $3.30

Find the mean and the standard deviation of the distribution of the pocket money
received by the girls. [3]

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November 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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November 2008 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec)

1. The following table gives the daily sales for a shop in the central business district in
Harare.

Daily sales ($ 000) Number of days

Under 800 4
800 − 900 9
900 − 1000 14
1000 − 1100 21
1100 − 1200 18
1200 − 1300 16
1300 − 1400 10
1400 − 1500 8

Construct a histogram and estimate the mode. [5]

November 2007 qp.1 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2007 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

June 2006 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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November 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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June 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

4. The performance of a group of 24 students who sat for their final ‘O’ level
examinations in Biology and Integrated Science are shown below.

Biology Integrated Science

36 45 40 60 71 66 88 89 30 34 48 49
53 42 35 54 35 43 59 65 67 78 41 70
72 37 39 34 49 43 54 66 39 49 37 59
75 58 67 59 36 67 45 63 52 75 38 38

(a) Construct a back to back stem and leaf diagram to represent these two sets of
data. [3]

(b) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 10 marks, draw a pair of box and whisker
plots to represent these two sets of data. [4]

(c) Comment briefly on the performance of the students in the tests. [1]

June 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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November 2001 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

November 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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June 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

3. The times to the nearest second, taken by 200 students to solve a Maths problem are
summarised in the table below.

Time(seconds) 41–50 51–55 56–60 61–65 66–70 71–75

Frequency 20 60 56 35 19 10

(a) Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the distribution using a horizontal scale
of 2 cm to represent 5 seconds and 2 cm to represent 20 students on the
horizontal axis and vertical respectively. [3]

(b) The time taken by the slowest and the fastest student to solve the problem
were 72 and 46 seconds respectively. Using this information and your answer
in (a), draw a box and whisker plot of the data. [4]

November 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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June 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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November 2009 qp.61 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

3. The frequency distribution below gives the lengths, in cm, of 250 pieces of wire
produced from a particular machine.

Length 48 – 49 50 – 51 52 – 53 54 – 55 56 – 57 58 – 59
(cm)
Number of 12 36 106 58 30 8
pieces

(i). Using a scale of 2 cm to 40 units vertically and 2 cm to 2 units horizontally,

draw a cumulative frequency curve for the lengths of the pieces of wire. [4]

(ii). Using the curve, estimate

(a) The median, [1]
(b) The interquartile range. [3]

(iii). Find the percentage of pieces of wire having a length below 53 cm. [2]

November 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

4. (a) The ages of 1 000 members of a political party were as shown in the table below

Age (years) 20 – 25 25 – 30 30 – 35 35 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 70
Number 120 230 240 223 112 75

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Plot a histogram to illustrate these figures. [6]

(b) The values in the table below show the mean and standard deviation of the marks
obtained by two classes in a test.

Mean Standard deviation Class size

Class A 67 5 20
Class B 58 8 25

Calculate the mean of the two classes combined. [4]

November 2004 qp.1 q.11 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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November 2005 qp.2 (Cambridge, O level Statistics)

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Chapter Six: Probability

“Statement: A girl and a boy jump into a river. The boys swims over to the girl and says,
‘God, it’s cold.’ Question: What’s the probability that they will kiss? ”

– Jenny Downham

In layman’s terms, probability means chance. It measures the likelihood of occurrence of an

event.

The experimental approach to probability states that:

For example, if a 4 edged spinner with edges numbered 1, 2, 2, and 3 is spun once, the
probability that it lands on an edge numbered 2 is = . Problems in probability are
modelled in terms of events for ease of analysis. As such, the section below takes a closer
look at probability events.

Probability Events
(i). Mutually Exclusive Events
This is used to describe two events that cannot occur at the same time. For example,
the events of getting a head and getting a tail when a fair coin is tossed once are said
to be mutually exclusive. This is so because a head and a tail cannot occur at the same
time. Diagrammatically, this scenario leads to the following setup:

Fig. 6.1
ℎ ℎ :
( ⋂ )=
( ⋃ ) = ( ) + ( )
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(ii). Non-mutually Exclusive Events

This describes a scenario where two events can occur at the same time. For example,
a student can study mathematics and chemistry at the same time. Since the two
events can happen simultaneously, much of the analysis is centred on the common
region. The diagrammatic setup of non-mutually exclusive is as shown below:

Fig. 6.2

− ℎ ℎ :
( ⋃ ) = ( )+ ( )− ( ⋂ )

(iii). Independent Events

Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of an
event does not affect or depend on the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other
event. For example, gender and age are two independent events. Being male or
female does not influence age. If two events A and B are independent then,

( ⋂ ) = ( )× ( )

(iv). Dependent Events (Conditional Probability)

Conditional probability is concerned with the probability of an event occurring, given
that another event has already occurred. Mathematically, conditional probability is
accounted for by the following formula:
( ⋂ )
( / )=
( )

ℎ ( / ) ′ ′.

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Probability events are best explained by the example below:

Question: A school monitored the number of students registering for different subjects during
the course of one year. For three of these subjects, the records are summarised in the
following table:

Table 6.1

Mathematics 10 21
Accounting 7 3
Physics 5 0

One of these students was chosen at random. Find the probability that the student:

(i). Registered for mathematics and is male

(ii). Registered for accounting or the student is female
(iii). Is male
(iv). Is registered for physics, given that the student is male
(v). Is female and registered for physics
(vi). Verify whether the events ‘the student is male’ and ‘the student registered for
mathematics’ are independent

Proposed solution:

When using tabulated data, students are strongly encouraged to extend the table in an
attempt to incorporate row, column and grand totals.

Table 6.2

Mathematics 10 21 31
Accounting 7 3 10
Physics 5 0 5
22 24

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10
(i) = ( ℎ ,′ ′ ℎ . ℎ
46
, ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ .)

(ii) P( ) = P( ) + P( ) − P( ∩ )

10 24 3
⇒ P( )= + −
46 46 46
∴ ( )=

: ℎ − , ℎ ℎ

ℎ .
22
(iii) P( )=
46

∴ ( )= ( , )

P( ℎ )
(iv) P( ℎ / )=
P( )

5
⇒ P( ℎ / )= 46
11
23

∴ ( / )=

, ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ .
0
(v) P( ℎ )=
46
∴ ( )=
ℎ , ℎ , ℎ ℎ
.

(vi) ℎ :

P( ℎ ) = P( ) × P( ℎ )
10
ℎ P( ℎ )= = 0.217
46
22 31
P( ) × P( ℎ )= × = 0.322
46 46
:
( )≠ ( )× ( )
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Analytical Instruments

1. Probability Space Diagram

This instrument borrows its inspiration from a Cartesian plane. It is used to analyse
problems concerning two variables where one variable is assigned to the -axis and
the other to the -axis. A space diagram best exposes all the available options if the
question is asking for the sum, difference and/or product of the two variables in
question as outlined in the following example:

Question: Terry has three cards numbered 2; 3; 3 and Joe has four cards numbered 2;
3; 4 and 5. Two cards are selected at random, one from each pack. Find the probability
that:
(i). The sum of the two numbers is 6
(ii). The difference between the two cards is less than 3
(iii). The product of the two cards is greater than 12

Solution
(i).

3 5 7 8
Terry

3 5 7 8
2 4 5 7
2 3 4 5
Joe
Fig. 6.3
3
P( = 6) =
12
∴ ( = )=

(ii).

3
Terry

3
2 3
2 3 4 5
Joe
Fig. 6.4
NB: Find the absolute difference

∴ ( < )=

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(iii).

3 6 9 12

Terry
3 6 9 12
2 4 6 8 10
2 3 4 5
Joe
Fig. 6.5
2
P( > 12) =
12
∴ ( > )=

2. Probability Tree Diagram

This tool can be likened to a real tree as it taps from the ‘OR rule’ and the ‘AND rule’
in probability. The ‘OR rule’ is used to analyse the available options. Optional branches
are a reflection of this rule. The number of attempts or trials denote the ‘AND rule’. As
such, when moving from one layer (trial) to another, multiply relevant combinations
and when considering different scenarios addressing the same problem, add the
relevant combinations. For example, when a fair coin is tossed three times, the
probability of getting at least 2 heads is given by the following analysis:

first toss second toss third toss

Fig. 6.6

The combinations in bold address the problem:

⇒ P( 2 ℎ ) = P( ) + P( ) + P( ) + P( )
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ P( 2 ℎ )= × × + × × + × × + × ×
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
⇒ P( 2 ℎ )= + + +
8 8 8 8

∴ ( )=

3. Combinations

This instrument can only be used in problems inclined to picking without replacement.
For example, if a bag contains 7 red and 5 green balls, the probability of picking 5 balls
where 2 are red and 3 are green is given by:

C × C 35
=
C 132

NB: This approach is centred on the experimental approach,

Where:
 The number of favourable outcomes accounts for choosing 2 red balls from a
total of seven red balls and choosing 3 green balls from an available 5, thus
C × C .

 The number of total outcomes accounts for choosing 5 balls from a pool of 12
balls regardless of their assortment, thus C .

4. Probability Distribution Table

Results of probability can be presented in a distribution table showing all the available
options and their corresponding probabilities. For example if a tetrahedron die is
biased such that the probability of getting a one, two, three and four is , , and

respectively. Table 6.3 is a snapshot of the probability distribution table summarising

the results.

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Table 6.3
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
P( = )
2 4 8 8

A probability distribution table is guided and upholds the following conditions:

 Total probability is one [∑ P( = ) = 1]

 Expectation of , (E( ), mean) is given by ∑ ∙ P( = )
 Variance of (Var( )) is given by ∑ ∙ P( = ) − [E( )]
In this case;

 P( = ) = + + +

∴ ( = ) = ( )

 E( ) = 1 × + 2 × + 3 × + 4 ×

∴ ( )= .

 Var( ) = 1 × + 2 × + 3 × + 4 × − (1.875)
37
⇒ Var( ) = − (1.875)
8
∴ ( )= .

The contextual application of ‘and’/intersection

One of the common mistakes incurred in probability is the misinterpretation of the ‘AND’
rule:
 ∩/and denotes the common region when using tabulated data or a Venn diagram.
 ∩/and is used in context of a product if and only if the two events have been clearly
expressed as independent or when moving from one layer to another in a tree
diagram.

Scenario 1: ‘AND’ in context of tabulated data

Table 6.4
∩
which can also
be expressed as

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Scenario 2: ‘AND’ in context of a Venn diagram

Fig. 6.7

Scenario 3: ‘AND’ in context of independent events

Given that events and are independent, probability of and which can also be written
as ( ∩ ) is given by

( )= ( )× ( )

Scenario 4: ‘AND’ in context of a tree diagram

chance of obtaining a head (H) first

and then a tail (T) is given by
(HT) = (H) × (T)

Worked Examination Questions on Tree Diagrams

Question (Cambridge, June 2008 qp.6)

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Solution

(i). ℎ ℎ,
3
P( )=
15

∴ ( )=

(ii). ℎ ,
country A/B sugar/not sugar

P(S) = P(AS) + P(BS)

⇒ P(S) = 3 15 × 0.7 + 12 15 × 0.35

∴ ( )= .

P(B ∩ S)
(iii) P(B/S) =
P(S)

12
× 0.35
⇒ P(B/S) = 15
0.42

∴ ( / )=

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Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.61)

Solution

(i). P( ℎ ) = 0.7 + (0.2 × 0.95)

∴ ( )= . ( )

(ii). This question is centred on:

 The construction and analysis of a stylish tree diagram;

 The distinction between the first and second occasions of asking for help. The
proceeding figure is a stylish tree diagram factoring in the second occasion of
asking for help.

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P( ℎ ) = P(CC) + P[C(HA)C] + P[(HA)CC] + P[(HA)C(HF)C]

ℎ :
P(CC) = 0.7 × 0.7

⇒ P(CC) = 0.49 ;

P[C(HA)C] = 0.7 × 0.2 × 0.95

⇒ P[C(HA)C] = 0.133 ;

P[(HA)CC] = 0.2 × 0.95 × 0.7

⇒ P[(HA)CC] = 0.133

P[(HA)C(HF)C] = 0.2 × 0.95 × 0.2 × 0.65

⇒ P[(HA)C(HF)C] = 0.0247

⇒ P( ℎ ) = 0.49 + 0.133 + 0.133 + 0.0247

∴ ( )= .

P[(HA) ∩ 2 ]
(iii) P[(HA)/2 ]=
P(2 )

P[C(HA)C] + P[(HA)CC] + P[(HA)C(HF)C]

⇒ P[(HA)/2 ]=
0.7807
0.133 + 0.133 + 0.0247
⇒ P[(HA)/2 ]=
0.7807
∴ [( )/ ]= .
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Question (Cambridge, November 2008 qp.6)

Solution

(i).

(ii). P(SSS) = 0.4 × 0.8 × 0.7

∴ ( )= .

(iii). P( ℎ ) = P(SSS) + P(SSS) + P(SSS)

⇒ P( ℎ )

= (0.4 × 0.8 × 0.7) + (0.4 × 0.2 × 0.3) + (0.6 × 0.8 × 0.3)

∴ ( )= .

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P( ∩ )
(iv). P( / )=
P( )

P(SSS) + P(SSS)
⇒ P( / )=
0.392

(0.4 × 0.8 × 0.7) + (0.4 × 0.2 × 0.3)

⇒ P( / )=
0.392

∴ ( / )= .

Revision Questions on Tree Diagrams

November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec)

2. Chipo, Tendai and Ruvimbo are candidates for the post of sales manager. The
managing director is expected to submit recommendations to the board of
administrators for ratification. The probability that the managing director
recommends Chipo is 50%, with 30% for Tendai and 20% for Ruvimbo. The
probabilities that the board ratifies are 45% for Chipo, 40% for Tendai and 15% for
Ruvimbo. Given that the board has ratified the managing director’s recommendations,
find the probability that Tendai is appointed. [5]

June 2009 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

3. In a certain court, there are two verdicts on passing judgement, namely “convicted”
or “discharged”. Of all the cases that have been tried by this court, 80% of the verdicts
were convictions. Suppose that when the court’s verdict is “convicted’ or
“discharged”, the respective probabilities of the accused person being innocent are
0.07 and 0.4 respectively.

By use of a tree diagram, find

(a) The probability that a person tried by this court is innocent, [3]

(b) The conditional probability that an innocent person tried by this court is
convicted. [3]

November 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

2. A school selects 55% of its lower sixth pupils from its own O-level pupils and the
remainder comes from other schools. It is established that 90% of the accepted A-level
students who did their O-level outside the school pass their A-level studies, and that
70% of those who did their O-level at the school pass their A-level studies.

A pupil is selected at random from the recent A-level graduates of the school.

Find the probability that the pupil

(i). Passed A-level studies, [4]

(ii). Did O-level outside the school, given that the pupil passed A-level studies
[2]
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November 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.1 q.11 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

2. In a certain factory, there are two machines producing the same brand of fuses. The
first machine produces 10% and the second machine produces 90% of the fuses. It is
known that the probability that the first produces a defective fuse is 1% and the
probability that the second machine produces a defective fuse is 5%.

(i). Find the probability that a fuse drawn at random from the production line is
defective, [2]

(ii). Given that a fuse is defective, find the probability that it was produced by the
first machine. [3]
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November 2009 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

1. A roulette wheel contains 38 numbers of which 18 are red, 18 are black and 2 are
green. When the roulette wheel is spun, it is equally likely to land on any of the 38
numbers. In two plays at the wheel, find the probability that

(a) The ball lands on red both times, [2]

(b) The ball lands on green on the first time and on black the second time. [2]

November 2005 qp.1 q.11 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

November 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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Worked Examination Question on Combinations

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.63)

Solution

= 13 × 4

⇒ = 52

3 , ℎ ℎ ℎ 4 . ℎ , 3

ℎ ℎ ℎ 13 ℎ ℎ ℎ 4 ℎ

ℎ 39 ℎ .

C × C
P(3 )=
C

∴ ( )= .

Revision Questions on Combinations

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

17. (b) A ‘lucky dip’ tub contains 12 identical packets. Four of the packets contain sweets,
three contain marbles and the rest contain crayons. Three packets are drawn at
random without replacement from the tub. Calculate the probability of obtaining

(i). One packet of each item, [3]

(ii). Three packets of which exactly two are marbles, [3]
(iii). Three packets of the same item. [2]

November 1990 qp.2 (Cambridge)

6. A bag contains 4 red counters and 6 green counters. Four counters are drawn at
random from the bag, without replacement. Calculate the probability that

(i). All counters drawn are green, [2]

(ii). At least one counter of each colour is drawn, [3]
(iii). At least two green counters are drawn, [3]
(iv). At least two green counters are drawn, given that at least one of each colour
is drawn. [4]
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State with a reason whether or not the events ‘at least two green counters are drawn’
and ‘at least one counter of each colour is drawn’ are independent. [2]

November 2002 qp.1 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

Worked Examination Questions on Tabulated Data

Question (Cambridge, June 2012 qp.62)

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Solution

(i).

7 10 17
5 8 13
12 18 30

= 30 − 12

⇒ =

ℎ = 30 − 17

⇒ =

, ℎ = 12 − 7

⇒ , =

ℎ = 17 − 7

⇒ =

ℎ = 13 − 5

⇒ =

12
(ii) P( )=
30

⇒ ( )=

10
(iii) P( ℎ )=
18

∴ ( )=
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P( ∩ ℎ )
(iv) P( / ℎ )=
P( ℎ )

10
⇒ P( / ℎ )= 30
17
30
∴ ( / )=

(v) , , ℎ ℎ
(v) .

ℎ 2 ℎ ℎ .
C × C
P( 3 )=
C
10 098
⇒ P( 3 )=
27 405

∴ ( )= .

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.63)

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Solution

In cases where a table has no totals, it is important to incorporate the row and column totals.
See Table 6.5 below:

3 5 45 53
20 42 12 74
35 8 0 43
58 55 57 170

74
(i) P( )=
170

∴ ( )=

(ii) P( ℎ / )
P( ℎ )
=
P( )

38
⇒ P( ℎ / )= 170
96
170

∴ ( / )=

(iii) ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ P(ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ) = 0

ℎ , ℎ ,
P(ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ )=0

(iv) P( ℎ )
= P( ) × P( ℎ )

42 41
⇒ P( ℎ )= ×
74 54
∴ ( )= .

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Revision Questions on Tabulated Data

November 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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Worked Examination Questions on Space Diagrams

Question (Cambridge, November 2009 qp.62)

Solution

A probability space diagram is the most appropriate tool for analysing questions on sums,
products and differences of two independent observations. In this case, the first die is on the
-axis and second die on the -axis.
4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7
Die 2
2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
Die 1
7 .
3
P( ≥ 7 ) =
16
3
E( ) = × 200
16
∴ ( )= .

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.62)

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Solution

(i) Q : ℎ ℎ 24
. ,

12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144

11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

6
P(Q) =
144

∴ ( )=

(ii) R ∶ ′ ℎ ℎ ℎ 8′

,
16
P(R) =
144

∴ ( )=

(iii) P(Q ∩ R) = 0
0
ℎ , P(Q ∩ R) =
144
∴ ( ∩ )=

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(iv) P(Q ∩ R) = P(Q) × P(R)

0
ℎ P(Q ∩ R) =
144
⇒ P(Q ∩ R) = 0
1 1
P(Q) × P(R) = ×
24 9
1
P(Q) × P(R) =
216
∴ ( ∩ ) ≠ ( ) × ( )

Revision Questions on Space Diagrams

June 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

10. (a) Two fair 6 sided dice are thrown. Find the probability that the sum of the scores
obtained is

(i). A multiple of 4, [2]

(ii). Less than 5, [2]

(iii). A multiple of 4 or is less than 5. [3]

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November 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

Worked Examination Question on Distribution Tables

Question (Cambridge, November 2009 qp.61)

Solution

(i). ℎ ℎ , ,

⇒ 0.08 + + 0.12 + 0.16 + + 0.22 = 1

⇒ + + 0.58 = 1

⇒ + = 0.42 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

ℎ E( ) = 1.05

⇒ (−2)(0.08) + (−1)( ) + (0)(0.12) + (1)(0.16) + (2)( ) + (3)(0.22) = 1.05

⇒ − + 2 + 0.66 = 1.05

⇒ − + 2 = 0.39 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(1) (2) ,
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+ = 0.42
+[− + 2 = 0.39]
3 = 0.81
⇒ = 0.27
(1)
⇒ + 0.27 = 0.42
⇒ = 0.15
∴ = . = .

(ii). Var( ) = ∑ ∙ P( = ) − [E( )]

ℎ ∑ ∙ P( = ) = (−2) (0.08) + (−1) (0.15) + (0) (0.12) + (1) (0.16)

+(2) (0.27) + (3) (0.22)

⇒ ∑ ∙ P( = ) = 3.69

⇒ Var( ) = 3.69 − 1.05

∴ ( )= .

Revision Questions on Distribution Tables

June 2008 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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June 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

3. A fairly constructed die has three of its sides numbered 0 each, two sides numbered 3
and one side numbered 6. A boy pays $5 in order to toss the die twice and win an
amount equal to the product of the two scores shown in the die.

Let Y be the random variable “the product of the two scores shown.”

(i). Construct a probability distribution table for Y. [3]

(ii). Find the expected value of Y and hence write down the expected profit or loss
in a single game. Comment on the fairness of the game. [4]

June 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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June 2007 qp.6 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

7. An unbiased tetrahedral die has the number 1 written on one face, the number 2 on
the other face and the number 3 on the two remaining faces. The die is thrown twice
and X is the product of the scores obtained from the two throws.

(a) Find the probability of the distribution of X. [4]

(b) Find ( ) and Var( ). [4]

June 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

11. (b) Two discs are drawn randomly without replacement from a bag containing four red
and three white discs. Define the random variable X as, “the number of white discs
drawn”.

Construct a probability distribution table. [3]

Find

(i). (X). [2]

(ii). Var(X). [2]

November 2003 qp.2 (Cambridge, O Level Statistics)

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Chapter Seven: Discrete Probability Distributions

“In large organisations there are discrete functions. I do this; you do that. I swim in my lane;
you swim in your own lane. That can be very effective for certain processes and in certain
stable conditions. But it doesn’t work in unstable conditions.”
– Daniel H. Pink

All discrete random variables share a common attribute, that is, they assume exact values.
These include but not limited to: the number of tails obtained when a coin is tossed three
times; the number of times a candidate sits for a provisional driver’s licence test before the
first success; and the average number of blue cars passing through an intersection in an
interval of one hour.

Any probabilistic situation can be modelled as discrete if it takes definite values as outlined
immediately above. This module covers two special discrete probability distributions, namely

 Binomial distribution
 Geometric distribution

Binomial Distribution

This is a tool used to analyse problems in probability where there are two key parameters
and among a host of other conditions. A problem is modelled using binomial distribution if:
 There is an existence of a fixed number of trials or attempts ( );
 There are two possible outcomes, and , where is the probability of success and
is the probability of failure;
 The values of and are constant throughout the study;
 Each trial is independent of any other trial;
 The problem is discrete in nature, that is, the trials take exact values only.

If all the conditions outlined above are fully satisfied, the random variable, , is said to follow
a binomial distribution with parameters and .

This can be expressed mathematically as follows:

~ ( , ) ≥

Questions on binomial distribution test the students’ ability to calculate probability,

expectation and variance where:
( = )= ∙ ∙

, ( ) =

, ( )=

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For example, an ordinary die with faces coloured green, red, blue, orange, pink and white is
thrown 3 times with the colour on the upper face being noted. If is the random variable
‘the number of times the upper face is blue’,
1
~Bin 3,
6
This is so because the following conditions have been met:

 = 3, denoting the fixed number of trials;

 = , assuming the die is fair implying that all the faces have an equal chance of
appearing on the top face;
 = , that is, the chance of getting any other face which is not blue irrespective of
its colour
NB: Total probability is one ( + = 1)
 All the three trials are independent of each other. None of the throws influences the
other.
 The problem is discrete in the sense that = 0, 1, 2 or 3 implying that the blue face
appears exactly zero, one, two or three times.

As such,
1 5
P( = 0) = C
6 6

⇒ P( = 0) = 0.579

1 5
P ( = 1) = C
6 6

⇒ P( = 1) = 0.347

1 5
P ( = 2) = C
6 6

⇒ P( = 2) = 0.0694

1 5
P ( = 3) = C
6 6

⇒ P( = 3) = 0.00463

These results can be presented using a probability distribution table as shown in Table 7.1:

Table 7.1
0 1 2 3
( = ) 0.579 0.347 0.0694 0.00463

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( )= Var( ) =

1 1 5
⇒ ( )=3 ⇒ Var( ) = 3
6 6 6

∴ ( )= .
∴ ( )=

NB: It is important that students familiarise themselves with the interpretation of inequalities.
For example,

 Probability that the blue face appears more than two times:

⇒ P ( > 2) = P ( = 3)

∴ ( > )= .

 Probability that the blue face appears at least two times:

⇒ P ( ≥ 2) = P ( = 2) + P ( = 3)

⇒ P( ≥ 2) = 0.0694 + 0.00463

∴ ( ≥ )= .

 Probability that the blue face appears less than two times:

⇒ P ( < 2) = P ( = 0) + P ( = 1)

⇒ P( < 2) = 0.579 + 0.347

∴ ( < )= .

 Probability that the blue face appears at most two times:

⇒ P( ≤ 2) = P( = 0) + P( = 1) + P( = 2)

⇒ P( ≤ 2) = 0.579 + 0.347 + 0.0694

∴ ( ≤ )= .

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Worked Examination Questions on Binomial Distribution

Question (Cambridge, November 2009 qp.61)

Solution

ℎ , ~Bin(20, )

ℎ E( ) = = 1 −

⇒ 1.6 = 20 ⇒ = 1 − 0.08

⇒ = 0.08 ⇒ = 0.92

P( > 2) = 1 − P( = 0, 1, 2)

ℎ P( = 0) = C (0.08) (0.92)

P( = 0) = 0.18869

P( = 1 ) = C (0.08) (0.92)

⇒ P( = 1) = 0.32816

P( = 2 ) = C (0.08) (0.92)

⇒ P( = 2) = 0.27109

, P( > 2) = 1 − [0.18869 + 0.32816 + 0.27109]

∴ ( > )= .

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.61)

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Solution

ℎ , ~Bin(18, )

ℎ E( ) = =1−

⇒ 2.7 = 18 ⇒ = 1 − 0.15

⇒ = 0.15 ⇒ = 0.85
ℎ, ~Bin(18, 0.15)

P( 2 ≤ ≤ 4) = P( = 2, 3, 4)

ℎ P( = 2) = C (0.15) (0.85)

P( = 2) = 0.25561

P( = 3) = C (0.15) (0.85)

⇒ P( = 3) = 0.24057

P( = 4) = C (0.15) (0.85)

⇒ P( = 4) = 0.15920

, P(2 ≤ ≤ 4) = 0.25561 + 0.24057 + 0.15920

∴ ( ≤ ≤ )= .

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.61)

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Solution

(i). ℎ ′ ℎ

~Bin(20, 0.05)

P( > 1) = 1 − ( = 0, 1)

ℎ P( = 0) = C (0.05) (0.95)

⇒ P( = 0) = 0.35849

P( = 1) = C (0.05) (0.95)

⇒ P( = 1) = 0.37735

, P( > 1) = 1 − (0.35849 + 0.37735)

∴ ( > )= .

(ii). ( ) = 450 × 10

⇒ = 4500

= 480

: $480 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ .
ℎ
ℎ, P( ≤ 1) = P( = 0, 1)

P ( ≤ 1) = 1 − P ( > 1 )

⇒ P( ≤ 1) = 1 − 0.264

⇒ P( ≤ 1) = 0.736

⇒ = 4500 × 0.736 − 480

∴ =$

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Revision Questions on Binomial Distribution

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

14. The probability of success of an experiment is 0.6. The experiment is repeated 8 times.
Given that the random variable X denotes the number of successes, show that the
smallest value of for which

P( > ) < 0.15 is 6. [6]

June 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

6. Let be the number of claims for severe medical conditions requiring hospitalisation
received by a medical insurance company in a year. Such medical conditions are
estimated to affect 1 in 1 000 of the population in a year.

(a) Given that the medical insurance company receives claims in a year, state
the distribution of . [1]
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(b) This medical insurance company deals with two manufacturing companies A
and B with 500 and 750 employees respectively. Find the probability that the
number of claims received from

(i). Company A is 2 or more, [5]

(ii). Both companies is 2. [3]

June 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

11. The owners of a motel in Mutare have noticed that in the long run 40% of the people
who stop and inquire about a room for the night, actually book a room.

How many inquiries must the owners answer to be 99% sure at least one bookings?
[5]

June 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2005 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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June 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

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Geometric Distribution

The ultimate goal of undertaking an experiment is to achieve success. If success has not been
realised, an experiment is repeated up to and including the first success. Such a case typifies
geometric distribution. In layman’s terms geometric distribution describes a scenario where
an experiment stops only when success has been realised.

The distribution upholds the following conditions:

 The experiment stops when success ‘knocks’.

 There are two possible outcomes, and , where is the probability of success and
is the probability of failure;
 The values of and are constant throughout the experiment;
 The trials are independent of each other;
 The problem is discrete in nature, that is, the trials take exact values only.

Geometric distribution is expressed as,

~ ( ) ≥
which is read as, ‘ follows a geometric distribution with parameter ’

where is the event under study and is the probability of success.

Mathematical deliberations can be done to determine the chance of having success on the
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th trial and so on. The determination of this chance is given by

( = )=( ) ( )

For example, if the probability of passing an examination in any attempt is 0.75. In such a
case, a question can be modelled as:

Find the probability of passing

a) On the second attempt

b) Before the fourth attempt.
c) After the fourth attempt.
d) Before the third attempt.

Solution

(a) Since one can only stop writing after passing, it implies that,

~ Geo(0.75)
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ℎ , = 0.75 = 0.25

( = 2) = ( ) ( )

⇒ ( = 2) = (0.25) (0.75)

∴ ( = )=

(b) ( < 4) = ( = 1, 2, 3)

ℎ ( = 1) = (0.25) (0.75)

3
⇒ ( = 1) =
4

3
( = 2) = (a)
16

( = 3) = (0.25) (0.75)

3
⇒ ( = 3) =
64

3 3 3
, ( < 4) = + +
4 16 64

∴ ( < )=

(c) By taking a snapshot of the possible successful trials,

1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 …

It implies that success will never be realised before the fifth trial. As such,

( > 4) = 1 − ( < 5)

⇒ ( > 4) = 1 − ( = 1, 2, 3, 4)

3 3 3
ℎ ( = 1) = ; ( = 2) = ; ( = 3) = (b)
4 16 64

( = 4) = (0.25) (0.75)

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3
⇒ ( = 4) =
256
3 3 3 3
⇒ ( > 4) = 1 − + + +
4 16 64 256

∴ ( > )=

Critical to note is the fact that the standard result for the probability of having success
after a particular trial is quotable. The result states that:

( > )=
where is a particular trial.

In this case,

( > 4) = (0.25)

∴ ( > )=

(d) ( ≤ 2) = ( = 1, 2)

3 3
ℎ ( = 1) = ( = 2) = (b)
4 16

3 3
⇒ ( ≤ 2) = +
4 16

∴ ( ≤ )=

Alternatively, passing in two or fewer attempts means that success will never realised
in more than two attempts as illustrated below,

1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 …

( ≤ 2) = 1 − ( > 2)

⇒ ( ≤ 2) = 1 −

⇒ ( ≤ 2) = 1 − (0.25)

∴ ( ≤ )=

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NB: Students are strongly encouraged to remember the following standard results and quote
them where necessary.

( > )=

( ≤ )= −

Expectation and Variance

Expectation and variance in context of geometric distribution given by:

( )= ( )=

Using the example in the above section where ~ Geo(0.75)

1 0.25
( )= Var( ) =
0.75 (0.75)

∴ ( )= ∴ ( )=

Worked Examination Questions on Geometric Distribution

Question (Zimsec, November 2003 qp.2)

11. Two players A and B take turns to toss a tetrahedral die until a 4 appears. A person
who first throws a 4 wins the game. Assuming that A throws first, find

(i). The average number of tosses required before the game is decided, [2]

(ii). The probability that A wins the game. [5]

Solution

Let be the random variable ‘obtaining a four when a tetrahedron die is thrown’

1
~ Geo
4

(i). ( )=

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1
⇒ ( )=
1
4
( )=

(ii). A can only win on an odd number of attempt, that is the first, third, fifth…attempt
1
ℎ ( = 1) = =
4
9
( = 3) = =
64
81
( = 5) = =
1 024
729
( = 7) = =
16 384
By taking a closer look at the probable trials that can lead to A winning the game,

1 9 9 81 729
2 ; 2 ; ; ; ;
4 24 64 1 024 17 16 384

9 9 9 9 9
= ×2 = = = ×2
16 16 16 16 16

The probable winning probabilities are following a geometric progression with a

common ration of and the first term of . The progression has a sum to infinity since
it has no definite end. As such, the problem can be solved using

= { ℎ }
1−

1 9
ℎ = ; =
4 16

1
⇒ = 4
9
1−
16
4
⇒ =
7

∴ ( )=

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Question (Oxford, Unspecified paper)

In many board games it is necessary to ‘throw a six with an ordinary die’ before a
player can start the game. Write down, as a fraction, the probability of a player

(a) Starting on his first attempt

(b) Not starting until his third attempt

(c) Requiring more than three attempts before starting

What is

(d) The most common number of throws required to obtain a six,

(e) The mean number of throws required to obtain a six?

Prove that the probability of a player requiring more than attempts before starting
is .

(f) What is the smallest value of if there is to be at least 95% chance of starting
on or before the th attempt?
Solution

Let be the random variable ‘obtaining a six when an ordinary die is thrown’
1
~ Geo
6
(a) ( = 1) =
∴ ( = )=

(b) ( = 3) =
5 1
⇒ ( = 3) =
6 6
∴ ( = )=

(c) ( > )=

⇒ ( > 3) =
5
⇒ ( > 3) =
6

∴ ( > )=

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(d) The first trial denotes the modal throw because the chance of being successful is very
high in the first attempt.

(e) ( )=

1
⇒ ( )=
1
6

∴ ( )=

( > )=1− ( ≤ )

⇒ ( > )=1− ( ℎ )

⇒ ( > ) = 1 − [1 − ( ℎ )]

⇒ ( > )= ( ℎ )

⇒ ( > )=

∴ ( > )= ( )

(f) ( ≤ ) ≥ 0.95

( ≤ ) = 1 −

⇒ ( ≤ )=1−

⇒ 1− ≥ 0.95

5
⇒ 1 − 0.95 ≥
6

5
⇒ 0.05 ≥
6

ℎ ℎ ,

5
⇒ log 0.05 ≥ log
6

5
⇒ log 0.05 ≥ log
6

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log 0.05
⇒ ≤
5
log 6

5
log ℎ
6

⇒ ≥ 16.43103715

∴ =

Revision Questions on Geometric Distribution

June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

1. Given that ~ Geo( ) and Var( ) = 30,

Find E( ). [4]

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

3. In a chemical industry workmen had 20% chance of an occupational disease.

Find the number of workmen who could have been selected at random before the
probability that at least one of them contracted the disease, became greater than 0.9.
[5]

Unspecified paper (London)

During the winter in Glen Shee, the probability that snow will fall in any given day is
0.1. taking 1 November as the first day of winter and assuming independence from
day to day, find to two significant figures, the probability that the first snow of winter
will fall in Glen Shee on the last day of November (30th).

Given that no snow has fallen at Glen Shee during the whole of November, a teacher
decides not to wait any longer to book a skiing holiday. The teacher decides to book
for the earliest date for which the probability that snow will have fallen on or before
that date is at least 0.9. Find the date of the booking.

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Unspecified paper (London)

The probability that a telephone box is occupied is 0.2. Find, to two significant figures,
the probability that a person wishing to make a telephone call will find a telephone
box which is not occupied only at the sixth box tried.

June 2003 qp.2 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2004 qp.2 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2004 qp.2 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

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Unspecified paper (Oxford)

The random variable X follows the geometric distribution with probability = 0.3.

(a) Write down the probability ( = 4).

(b) Carefully explain why ( = ) is 0.7 0.3.

(c) Describe in words a situation that has probability 0.7 .

June 2005 qp.2 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

Unspecified paper (London)

A darts player practices throwing a dart at the bull’s eye on a dart board.
Independently for each throw, her probability of hitting the bull’s eye is 0.2. Let X be
the number of throws she makes, up to and including her first success.

(a) Find the probability that she is successful for the first time on the third throw.
(b) Write down the distribution of X and give the name of the distribution.
(c) Write down the probability that she will have at least three failures before her
first success.

November 2012 qp.21 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

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Unspecified paper (Oxford)

A sixth former is waiting for a bus to take him to town. He passes the time by counting
the number of buses up to and including the one that he wants, that come along his
side of the road.

If 30% of the buses travelling on that side of the road go to town, what is

(a) The most likely count he makes to the arrival of one that will take him into
town,
(b) The probability that he will count, at most four buses?

June 2011 qp.23 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

June 2012 qp.21 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

November 2010 qp.2 (Cambridge, A Level Further Mathematics)

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Chapter Eight: Continuous Distributions

“The self is not something ready-made, but something in continuous formation through
choice of action.”

– John Devey

Probability Density Function

Continuous variables such as height, length, age and weight can be expressed as functions
for a particular set of values. This function is known as a probability density function (pdf). A
pdf can be presented graphically to show its nature/shape for a defined set of values. If the
pdf gives a regular shape such as triangle, rectangle, square and trapezium, the area bound
by the pdf can be calculated geometrically using properties of shapes. In cases where the
shape is not regular, calculus (integration) is used to find area under the pdf graph. It must be
emphasised that the area under a pdf graph is a measure of probability. Since total probability
is one, the area under a pdf graph is always equal to one.

For example, if the food consumed by a dog is a continuous random variable defined by a
probability density function given by:

( ) = 2 − 2 0≤ ≤1

0 otherwise
Graphically, = ( ) is a straight line as shown below

Fig. 8.1
Table 8.1
Using geometry Using calculus
1
= ℎ ( ) = 2−2
2
1
⇒ = (1)(2)
2 ⇒ ( ) = [2 − ]
∴ =
⇒ ( ) = [2(1) − (1) ] − [0]

∴ ( ) =

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Using the pdf above, questions can be set as follows:

Find the probability that the food consumed is

(a) Less than 0.5 kg,

(b) Greater than 0.7 kg,
(c) Lies between 0.2 kg and 0.4 kg.

Solution

(a) ( < 0.5) = (0 < < 0.5)

.
⇒ ( < 0.5) = 2−2

.
⇒ ( < 0.5) = [2 − ]

⇒ ( < 0.5) = [2 (0.5) − (0.5) ] − [0]

∴ ( < . )=

(b) ( > 0.7) = 2−2

.

⇒ ( > 0.7) = [2 − ] .

⇒ ( > 0.7) = [2 (1) − (1) ]

− [2(0.7) − (0.7) ]

∴ ( > . )=

.
(c) (0.2 < < 0.4) = 2−2
.

.
`⇒ (0.2 < < 0.4) = [2 − ] .

⇒ (0.2 < < 0.4) = [2(0.4) − (0.4) ] − [2(0.2) − (0.2) ]

∴ ( . < < . )=

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Expectation and Variance

( )= ( ) − [ ( )]
( )= ( )

( )= ( ) − [ ( )]

Using the example on dog food,

2−2 0≤ ≤1
ℎ ( ) =
0 otherwise
ℎ ,

Var( ) = ( ) − [ ( )]
( )= (2 − 2 )

ℎ ( )= ( )
⇒ ( )= 2 −2

⇒ ( )= (2 − 2 )
2
⇒ ( )= −
3
⇒ ( )= 2 −2
2
⇒ ( ) = ( 1) − ( 1) − [0]
3
2
⇒ ( )= −
∴ ( )= 3 2

2(1) (1)
⇒ ( )= − − [0]
3 2

1
⇒ ( )=
6

1 1
⇒ Var( ) = −
6 3

∴ ( )=

This topic manly tests one’s ability to play around with integration techniques in the realm of
probability. As such, students are encouraged to perfect on integration skills first and be
flexible enough to apply these concepts according to the slant of the question.

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Worked Examination Questions involving pdf only

Question (Cambridge, June 2005 qp.7)

Solution

ℎ ,
( − 18)
( )= 0≤ ≤ 24
0, otherwise
(i). 1,

( ) =1

( − 18)
⇒ =1

1
⇒ − 36 + 324 =1

1
⇒ − 18 + 324 =1
3

1 (24)
⇒ − 18(24) + 324(24) − [0] = 1
3

2016
⇒ =1

∴ = ( )
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(ii). Since a sample of 365 days has to be chosen, the problem can be modelled using
binomial distribution,
~ Bin(365, )

Where is the probability of having less than 2 hours of cloud cover.

In the context of binomial distribution,

( )=

Since (probability of success) is unknown, the given pdf can be used to calculate .

( < 2) = ( 0 < < 2)

( − 18)
⇒ ( < 2) =
2016

1
⇒ ( < 2) = − 36 + 324
2016

1
⇒ ( < 2) = − 18 + 324
2016 3

1 ( 2)
⇒ ( < 2) = − 18(2) + 324(2) − {0}
2016 3

31
⇒ ( < 2) =
108

31
, ( ) = 365 ×
108

⇒ ( ) = 104.7685

∴ ( )=

(iii) ( ) = ( )

( − 18)
⇒ ( )=
2016

1
⇒ ( )= ( − 36 + 324)
2016

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1
⇒ ( )= ( − 36 + 324 )
2016

1
⇒ ( )= − 12 + 162
2016 4

1 (24)
⇒ ( )= − 12(24) + 162(24) − {0}
2016 4

∴ ( )=

NB: parts (ii) and (iii) are centred on the distinction between expectation in context of
binomial distribution and expectation in the context of continuous distribution. Binomial
distribution is the study of samples. It must be emphasised that when a question raises the
issue of a sample in the form of sample size, binomial distribution is applied.

Question (Zimsec, November 2013 qp.4)

4. The probability density function of the lifespan, months, of a bulb is given by

( )= , 1≤ ≤3
(4 − )
0, otherwise
(a) Find the exact value of . [3]

(b) Given that E( ) = 2, show that Var( ) = 4 − . [3]

(c) Find the probability that a bulb chosen at random will have a lifespan
exceeding 2 months. [2]
Solution

ℎ ,

1≤ ≤3
( )= (4 − )
0, otherwise

(a) 1,

( ) =1

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⇒ =1
(4 − )

ℎ = + { }
(4 − ) (4 − )

= (4 − ) + ( )

=4 =0

=4 =4

⇒ = ⇒ =
4 4
⇒ = +
(4 − ) 4 4( 4 − )

,
, + = 1
4 4( 4 − ) ℎ

1 1
⇒ + =1
4 4 (4 − )

⇒ ln − ln(4 − ) =1
4 4

⇒ [ln − ln(4 − )] = 1
4

⇒ ln =1
4 4−

3 1
⇒ ln − ln =1
4 1 3

1
⇒ ln 3 − ln =1
4 3

⇒ ln 9 = 1
4

∴ =

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(b) Var( ) = ( ) − [ ( )]

:
ℎ ( )= ( ) 4
=
ln 9
4 4
⇒ ( )= ⇒ ( )=
ln 9 (4 − ) ln 9(4 − )

:
4
⇒ ( )=
ln 9 (4 − )

4 4
⇒ ( )= −1 +
ln 9 (4 − )

4
⇒ ( )= [− − 4 ln(4 − )]
ln 9

4
⇒ ( )= [{−3 − 4 ln 1} − {−1 − 4 ln 3}]
ln 9

4
⇒ ( )= [−3 + 1 + 4 ln 3]
ln 9

4
⇒ ( )= [−2 + 4 ln 3]
ln 9

−8 16 ln 3
⇒ ( )= +
ln 9 ln 9

−8 16 ln 3
⇒ ( )= +
ln 3 ln 3

−8 16 ln 3
⇒ ( )= +
2 ln 3 2 ln 3

−4
⇒ ( )= + 8
ln 3

, Var( ) = ( ) − [ ( )]

−4
⇒ Var( ) = + 8 − ( 2)
ln 3

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−4
⇒ Var( ) = +4
ln 3

∴ ( )= − ( )

(c) ( > 2) = (2 < < 3)

4
( > 2) =
ln 9 (4 − )

1 4
⇒ ( > 2) =
ln 9 (4 − )

= ln (a)
(4 − ) 4 4−

4 4
⇒ = ln
(4 − ) 4 4−

1 3 2
, ( > 2) = ln − ln
ln 9 1 2

1
⇒ ( > 2) = [ln 3]
ln 9

ln 3
⇒ ( > 2) =
ln 3

ln 3
⇒ ( > 2) =
2 ln 3

∴ ( > )=

Question (Unknown Source)

A continuous random variable has pdf ( ) = where

0≤ ≤1
( )= (2 − ) 1 ≤ ≤ 2
0 otherwise

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Find

(a) The value of the constant ,

(b) ( ),
(c) Var( ),

(d) ≤ ≤1 ,

(e) Sketch the pdf and hence state the mode.

Solution

(a) Since the total probability is 1 and the pdf is defined piecewise,

( ) =1

⇒ + (2 − ) =1

⇒ + 2 − =1
2 2

( 1) ⟦2⟧ ⟦ 1⟧
⇒ − {0} + 2⟦2⟧ − − 2⟦ 1⟧ − =1
2 2 2

3
⇒ + 2 − =1
2 2

∴ =

(b) ,
0≤ ≤1
( ) = (2 − ) 1 ≤ ≤ 2
0 otherwise

ℎ ( )= ( )

⇒ ( )= ( ) + (2 − )

⇒ ( )= + 2 −

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⇒ ( )= + −
3 3

( 1) ( 2) ( 1)
⇒ ( )= − {0} + ( 2) − − ( 1) −
3 3 3

1 4 2
⇒ ( )= + −
3 3 3

∴ ( )=

(c) Var( ) = ( ) − [ ( )]

ℎ ( )= ( )

⇒ ( )= ( )( ) + ( )(2 − )

⇒ ( )= + 2 −

2
⇒ ( )= + −
4 3 4

( 1) 2( 2) ( 2) 2( 1) ( 1)
⇒ ( )= − {0} + − − −
4 3 4 3 4

1 4 5
⇒ ( )= + −
4 3 12

7
⇒ ( )=
6
7
, Var( ) = − (1)
6

∴ ( )=

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3 3
(d) ≤ ≤ = + (2 − )
4 2
This is so because the pdf is defined piecewise where the first piece lies between 0
and 1, and the second piece lies between 1 and 2 as shown by the continuum scale
below:

.
3 3
, ≤ ≤ = + 2 −
4 2 2 .
2

3 3 (1 ) (0.75) (1.5) (1)

⇒ ≤ ≤ = − + 2(1.5) − − 2( 1) −
4 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 1 9 15 3
⇒ ≤ ≤ = − + −
4 2 2 32 8 2

∴ ≤ ≤ =

(e)

(f) 1
NB: mode denotes the highest value of ( ), in this case the pdf is maximum when
= 1.
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Revision Questions involving pdf only

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

14. The duration minutes of a telephone call by a school head to the Provincial
Education Director, is a continuous random variable with a probability density
function defined by

( )= , ≥ 1,

0, otherwise,

Given that a call has already lasted 5 minutes, find the conditional probability that its
total duration will be less than 7 minutes. [7]

June 2004 qp.7 (Cambridge)

June 2007 qp.7 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

4. After some rain the depth of moisture, X metres, in Arda Gardens can be taken as a
continuous random variable with a probability density function.

12
( )= 5 ( − ) 0≤ ≤1
0, otherwise

(a) Find the value of . [3]

(b) Calculate the probability that the depth of moisture exceeds 0.9. [3]

June 2010 qp.71 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.73 (Cambridge)

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June 2011 qp.72 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.72 (Cambridge)

June 2013 qp.71 (Cambridge)

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June 2011 qp.73 (Cambridge)

June 2013 qp.73 (Cambridge)

November 2004 qp.7 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.7 (Cambridge)

November 2006 qp.7 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.73 (Cambridge)

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November 2007 qp.7 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.73 (Cambridge)

The theoretical breakdown and pool of examples above have made it clear that the pdf can
be used to calculate probability; the mean [ ( )]; the variance [Var( )]; and mode. This
leaves a gap in the field of descriptive statistics and raises the question: how does one
determine other measures such as median, upper quartile, lower quartile, interquartile range,
and percentiles? Cumulative distribution function (cdf) provides a permanent solution to this
question.

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Cumulative Distribution Function

A cumulative distribution function (cdf) is formed by accumulation of successive additions.

In layman’s terms, a cdf is given by incorporating all data from the first observation to the
present. Since a cdf is a result of ‘building up’ it is found by integrating a pdf from the lower
limit up to an unspecified limit to cater for all possible limits. In that regard, is normally used
to denote the upper limit.

Using the example of dog food consumed where pdf is given by

( ) = 2 − 2 0≤ ≤1

0 otherwise
A cdf is given by,
( )= 2 − 2
⇒ ( ) = [2 − ]

⇒ ( ) = [2 − ] − [0]

≤
∴ ( )= − ≤ ≤
≥
NB:

 The upper limit is used as so as to avoid the use of a definite upper limit. A definite
upper limit will lead to the evaluation of the integral and subsequent loss of the
variable.
 Since probability ranges between 0 and 1 inclusive (0 ≤ ( ) ≤ 1) in any given case,
it implies that for all values below the lower limit there is nothing to account for. In
this case, for ≤ 0, there is nothing to account for.
 When the cdf reaches the upper limit, it implies that it has exhausted the entire
working space bringing the probability to one (1). As such, for all values greater than
or equal to the upper limit, the cdf is always equal to one.
The relationship between a pdf and a cdf is shown below:

Fig. 8.2
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A cdf is also used to calculate probability. To illustrate this let us recite the questions:

Find the probability that food consumed is

(a) Less than 0.5 kg

(b) Greater than 0.7 kg
(c) Lie between 0.2 kg and 0.4 kg

Solution

(a) ( < 0.5) = (0.5)

⇒ ( < 0.5) = 2(0.5) − (0.5)

∴ ( < . )=

(b) ( > 0.7) = 1 − (0.7)

⇒ ( > 0.7) = 1 − [2(0.7) − (0.7) ]

∴ ( > . )=

(c) (0.2 < < 0.4) = (0.4) − (0.2)

⇒ (0.2 < < 0.4) = [2(0.4) − (0.4) ] − [2(0.2) − (0.2) ]

16 9
⇒ (0.2 < < 0.4) = −
25 25

∴ ( . < < . )=

In summary ( ) means the probability from a specified upper limit, , down to the lower
limit. In cognisance of this fact, all other percentiles can be determined using the same

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strategy. For example, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and ninetieth quartile denote
25%; 50%; 75% and 90% of the distribution respectively (see example below).

 ( )= ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.25

⇒ 2( )−( ) = 0.25

⇒− +2 − 0.25 = 0

ℎ ,

⇒ = 0.1339745962 1.866025404

∴ = . 1.87 ℎ 0 ≤ ≤ 1

 ( ) = ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.5

⇒2 − = 0.5

⇒− +2 − 0.5 = 0

ℎ ,

⇒ = 1.707106781 0.2928932188

∴ = . 1.71

 ( )= ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.75

⇒ 2( )−( ) = 0.75

⇒− +2 − 0.75 = 0

ℎ ,

⇒ = 0.5 1.5

∴ = . 1.5

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 ℎ ( ) = ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.9

⇒ 2( ) − ( ) = 0.9

⇒− + 2 − 0.9 = 0

ℎ ,

⇒ = 0.683772234 1.316227766

∴ = . 1.32

Worked Examination Questions involving cdf

Question (Zimsec, November 2005 qp.4)

4. The distance travelled by a bus on a full tank of diesel has a probability density
function given by

0 ≤ ≤ 1,
( )= 1 < ≤ 3,
0 otherwise,

where is a constant

(i). Find the value of . [2]

(ii). Show that the median of is 1.75. [2]

Hence find P | − |< . [3]

Solution

(i). = 1,

( ) =1

⇒ + =1

⇒ +[ ] =1
2

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(1) ( 0)
⇒ − + [ (3) − (1)] = 1
2 2

⇒ +2 =1
2
5
⇒ =1
2

∴ =

(ii). ℎ ,
2 0≤ ≤ 1,
5
( )= 2 1 < ≤ 3,
5
0 otherwise,
ℎ ,

( )= ( )

Since the pdf is defined piecewise the translation process must be done in a piecemeal
fashion.

:
2
( )=
5

⇒ ( )=
5

⇒ ( )= −0
5

⇒ ( )= , ≤ ≤

Since the 1st piece feeds into the 2nd piece, we are interested in the amount of
probability the 1st piece takes away from the total probability.

, 0 ≤ ≤ 1
(0 < < 1) = ( 1) − ( 0)
1
⇒ (0 < < 1) = −0
5
1
⇒ (0 < < 1) =
5
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:
1 2
, ( ) = +
5 5

1 2
⇒ ( )= +
5 5

1 2 2
⇒ ( )= + ( ) − ( 1)
5 5 5

2 1
⇒ ( )= + −
5 5

⇒ ( )= − , ≤ ≤

, = ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.5

Since there are two pieces where the 1 st piece only accounts for of the total
probability, it implies that the median (0.5) lies in the 2nd piece.

2 1
⇒ − = 0.5
5 5
2 7
⇒ =
5 10

∴ = . ( )

1 1 1 ℎ ,
| − |< = − <( − )<
2 2 2
1 1 1
⇒ | − |< = − + 1.75 < < + 1.75
2 2 2
1
⇒ | − |< = (1.25 < < 2.25)
2
1 ℎ 2 2.25
⇒ | − |< = (2.25) − (1.25)
2 1.25 ℎ 2 (1 ≤ ≤ 3)
1 2 1 2 1
⇒ | − |< = (2.25) − − (1.25) −
2 5 5 5 5
1 7 3
⇒ | − |< = −
2 10 10

∴ | − |< =
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Question (Cambridge, November 2009 qp.71)

Solution

(i). ∫
( ) =1

⇒ cos =1

⇒ [ sin ] =1

⇒ sin − ( sin 0) = 1
4
√2
⇒ = 1
2
⇒ √2 = 2
2
⇒ =
√2
∴ = √ ( )

(ii). ( > 0.4) = 0.4 < <

⇒ ( > 0.4) = √2 cos

.

⇒ ( > 0.4) = √2 sin .

⇒ ( > 0.4) = √2 sin − √2 sin 0.4

4
∴ ( > . )= .
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(iii). ℎ ,

( )= √2 cos

⇒ ( ) = √2 sin

⇒ ( ) = √2 sin − √2 sin 0

⇒ ( ) = √2 sin , 0 ≤ ≤
4

, = ( )

ℎ ( ) = 0.75

⇒ √2 sin = 0.75

0.75
⇒ sin =
√2

0.75
⇒ = sin
√2

∴ = .

(iv). A random sample of size 5 has been chosen signifying binomial distribution, such
that
~ Bin(5, )
ℎ ℎ ℎ >

: ( > )= < <

4
⇒ ( > )= − ( )
4
0.75
⇒ ( > ) = √2 sin − √2 sin sin
4 √2

∴ ( > )=

ℎ ,
1
~ Bin 5,
4
1 3
( = 3) =
4 4

∴ ( = )=

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Revision Questions involving cdf

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

2. The continuous random variable has a probability density function given by

, 0≤ ≤1
( )= , 1 < ≤ 2
0, otherwise

where is a constant.

Find

(i). The value of ,

(ii). The median, , of [5]

June 2003 qp.7 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

2. is a continuous random variable with probability density function ( ) where

( )= 2−2 0≤ ≤1
0 otherwise
(i). Find the cumulative distribution function F( ). [2]
(ii). Show that P > = . [2]
(iii). Find the value of such that P( < ) = . [2]

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June 2009 qp.71 (Cambridge)

June 2006 qp.7 (Cambridge)

June 2008 qp.7 (Cambridge)

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November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

15. The time, in minutes that commuters in a certain city will have to wait for a train can
be modelled by a continuous random variable with probability density function given
by

( ) = (2 + ) ≥ 0,

0 otherwise,

where is a constant.

Find

(i). The value of and sketch the graph of ( ), [5]

(ii). The median value of T. [3]

June 2011 qp.71 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.71 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.73 (Cambridge)

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June 2013 qp.72 (Cambridge)

November 2002 qp.7 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.7 (Cambridge)

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November 2008 qp.7 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.71 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.72 (Cambridge)

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November 2010 qp.71 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.73 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.71 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.71 (Cambridge)

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Chapter Nine: Normal Distribution

“Normal…What the majority of people look, act, and talk and like. So what if the majority
became what we see as weird now? Would our normal, become our new weird? ”

– Catherine of Genoa

This tool is used to analyse problems concerning continuous variables such as height, mass,
length and weight using the two parameters, mean and variance, of the population of the
variable under study. Normal distribution is centred on the belief that all real world problems
are raw (non-standard). As such, they must be standardised (normalised) using the normal
distribution. Non-standard variables are denoted by and standard variables are denoted by
. The relationship between the two is such that:

−
=

ℎ : ℎ ;

ℎ − ;

ℎ ;

ℎ .

Once everything has been brought to the ‘normal sense’, the following steps have to be
considered:

 Formation of a probability statement in terms of

 Standardisation of the problem using =
 Construction of a normal bell
 Consultation of the standard results
 Use of the normal tables

In raw form: the random variable, , is said to follow a normal distribution with parameters
mean and variance. This is given mathematically as,

~ ( , )

In standard form: the random variable, , is said to follow a normal distribution with mean 0
and variance 1. This is given mathematically as,

~ ( , )

Normal distribution is bell-shaped with mean of zero and variance of one where the area
under the bell is equal to one and represents the total probability.

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Fig. 9.1

 Shaded region is equal to one

 -axis represents the location of the critical value

The normal bell forms the basis for the relationship between -values and their probabilities.
The normal bell and normal tables cannot be separated. The two are used hand-in-hand when
solving questions. Below is a snapshot of the normal tables:

Table 9.1 (main table)

0 1 2 . . . 8 9 1 2 3 . . . 8 9
0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 . 0.5319 0.5359 4 8 12add difference 32 36
0.1
0.2 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 . 0.5714 0.5753 4 8 12 32 36
0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 . 0.6103 0.6141 4 8 12 31 35

1
column

2 column 3 column
2.8
2.9

0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 . 0.9980 0.9981 0 0 0 . . 1 1

0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 . 0.9986 0.9886 0 0 0 . . 0 0

Table 9.2 (critical values)

0.75 0.90 . . . . 0.999 0.995
0.674 1.282 . . . . 3.090 3.291

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NB:

 The first row and first column of the main table represent the -values.

 The main table uses values of to 3 decimal places (d.p). In cases where is of a high
degree, rounding accuracy must be reduced to 3 d.p. The first, second and third digits
after the comma are given by the first, second and third columns respectively.

For example,

P( < 2.828) is given by the value corresponding to the 2.8 under 2 added to a
corresponding difference of 8.

⇒ P( < 2.828) = 0.9976 + 0.0001

∴ ( < . )= .

 The supporting table has two rows, where the first row gives the probabilities and the
second row shows the corresponding values of . This supporting table gives selected
values of from the main table.

Normal tables have two major weaknesses:

1) They only account for positive values of ;

2) They only give the probability from a particular positive value of to the extreme left
of the bell.

Fig 9.2
To compensate for the weaknesses of the normal table, standard results can be used. The
section below gives a detailed outline of standard results.

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Standard Results

1) P( < ) =

Fig 9.3
⇒ ( < )= ( )

2) P( > ) =

Fig 9.4
⇒ ( > )= − ( )

3) P( < − ) =

Fig 9.5
⇒ ( <− )= − ( )

4) P( > − ) =

Fig 9.6
⇒ ( >− )= ( )

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5) P( < < )=

Fig 9.7

⇒ ( < < )= ( )− ( )

6) P(− < <− )=

Fig 9.8
⇒ (− < <− )= ( )− ( )

7) P(− < < )=

Fig 9.9

⇒ (− < < )= ( )+ ( )−

8) P(| | < ) = (− < < )

⇒ P(| | < ) =

Fig 9.10
⇒ P(| | < ) = Φ( ) + Φ( ) − 1

⇒ (| | < ) = ( )−
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9) P(| | > ) = (− > > )

⇒ P(| | > ) =

Fig 9.11

⇒ P(| | > ) = [1 − Φ( )] + [1 − Φ( )]

⇒ (| | > ) = − ( )

NB:

 If is negative, one has to use the mirror line = 0 to reflect the region to make it
positive.
 If the question is asking for the probability that is greater than a particular value,
one has to calculate the probability that is less than that value and reduce the
answer from one (1) since total area under the bell is one.

Worked Examination Questions on Normal Distribution

Question (Cambridge, June 2008 qp.6)

Solution

(i). ~ ( , 2.6 )

ℎ , ( < 7) = 25%

7−
⇒P < = 0.25
2.6
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⇒ = 0.25

7−
⇒ 1−Φ = 0.25
2.6

7−
⇒Φ = 0.75
2.6

7−
⇒ = Φ (0.75)
2.6
7−
⇒ = −0.674
2.6

⇒ 7− = −1.7524

⇒ = 7 + 1.754

⇒ = 8.754

∴ = .

(ii). ~ (6.5, 2.6 )

6.2 − 6.5
P( > 6.2) = P >
2.6
⇒ P( > 6.2) = P( > −0.115)

⇒ P( > 6.2) =

⇒ P( > 6.2) = Φ(0.115)

⇒ P( > 6.2) = 0.5438 + 0.0020

⇒ P( > 6.2) = 0.5458

∴ ( > . )= .
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Question (Cambridge, June 2009 qp.6)

Solution

(i). ~ ( , 8 )

225
P( > 1002) =
900
1002 −
⇒ P > = 0.25
8

⇒ = 0.25

1002 −
⇒ 1−Φ = 0.25
8

1002 −
⇒ Φ = 0.75
8

1002 −
⇒ = Φ (0.75)
8

1002 −
⇒ = 0.674
8

⇒ 1002 − = 5.392

⇒ = 1002 − 5.392

⇒ = 996.608

∴ =

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(ii). A sample denotes binomial distribution. In this case,

~Bin(3, 0.25)

P( = 2) = C (0.25) (0.75)

∴ ( = )=

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.61)

Solution

(i). ~ (75, )

P( < 73) = 0.15

73 − 75
⇒ P < = 0.15

−2
⇒ P < = 0.15

⇒ = 0.15

−2
⇒ 1−Φ = 0.15

2
⇒ Φ − = 0.85

2
⇒− =Φ (0.85)

2
⇒− = −1.036
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⇒ −2 = −1.036
2
⇒ =
1.036

∴ = .

(ii). 8 denotes sample size implying that,

~Bin(8, )
77 − 75
ℎ P( > 77) = P >
1.93
⇒ P( > 77) = P( > 1.036)

⇒ P( > 77) =

⇒ P( > 77) = 1 − Φ(1.036)

⇒ P( > 77) = 1 − 0.8499

⇒ P( > 77) = 0.1501

~Bin(8, 0.1501)

= 1 − 0.1501

= 0.8499

, P( < 3) = P( = 0, 1, 2)

ℎ P( = 0) = C (0.1501) (0.8499)

⇒ P( = 0) = 0.27223

P( = 1) = C (0.1501) (0.8499)

⇒ P( = 1) = 0.38463

P( = 2) = C (0.1501) (0.8499)

⇒ P( = 2) = 0.23775

⇒ P( < 3) = 0.27223 + 0.38463 + 0.23775

∴ ( < )= .
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Revision Questions on Normal Distribution

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

13. An Examination board determined that the amount of time spent by a candidate
reading instructions is normally distributed with mean 9.3 minutes and standard
deviation 2.5 minutes.

Find the probability that for a randomly chosen candidate, the amount of time spent
on reading instructions will be between 8 and 15 minutes. [5]

November 2008 qp.6 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec)

3. The weight of a mango may be taken to be normally distributed with the mean 6
grammes. Given that the probability of a randomly chosen mango weighing less than
4 grammes is 0.209, find the standard deviation correct to 3 decimal places. [2]

(i). Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen mango weighs more than 10
grammes, giving your answer to 4 decimal places. [2]
(ii). Given that six mangoes are chosen at random, calculate the probability that at
least one weighs less than 4 grammes, giving your answer to 3 decimal places.
[3]

November 2009 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

12. (b) The mean and standard deviation of the masses of a group of adult males are 65 kg
and 10 kg respectively. Males are considered overweight if they are in the top 5% of
the group by mass. Assuming that the masses of this group are normally distributed,
find the least mass to be considered overweight. [3]

June 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.62 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

13. (a) An industrial process mass produces items which are normally distributed. 11.55% of
them weigh over 20 kg and 5.89% weigh under 10 kg.

Calculate the mean and standard deviation of this distribution. [9]

(b) The random variable is normally distributed with mean > 0 and standard
deviation 0.1 . If = 5, find the probability that a randomly observed value of will
be greater than 5.5 correct to 3 decimal places. [3]

June 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

22. (a) Tests made on two types of batteries show the following: Type X, lifetime distributed
normally with an average life of 1 000 hours and standard deviation of 120 hours. Type
Y, lifetime normally distributed with an average of 1 500 hours and standard deviation
of 140 hours. Find

(i). The percentage of batteries of type X expected to have a lifetime of more than
1 200 hours, [3]
(ii). The percentage of type Y that would be expected to last more than 1 600
hours, [3]
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(b) In an examination 25% of the candidates fail and 5% achieve distinctions. Given that
the pass mark was 45 and the minimum mark required for a distinction was 84,
estimate the mean mark and standard deviation assuming the marks are normally
distributed. [6]

June 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.62 (Cambridge)

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November 2010 qp.63 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.61 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.63 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution

Normal distribution can be used as an approximation to binomial distribution if is large,

such that ≥ 30; > 5 and > 5. In such cases, a discrete distribution (binomial) can be
transformed into a continuous distribution (normal).

~ ( , ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ~ ( , )
ℎ −

ℎ , = ( )= = ( )=
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Once that has been successfully done, ~ ( , ). It is at this stage that one has to
formulate a probability statement in terms and subsequently adjust for continuity. The
continuity correction process feeds from two things:

1. The direction of the inequality sign,

2. The strictness of the inequality sign.

For example

 P( < 30) = P( < 29.5)

 P( ≤ 30) = P( < 30.5)

 P( > 30) = P( > 30.5)

 P( ≥ 30) = P( > 29.5)

 P( = 30) = P(29.5 < < 30.5)

In the above example, 30 is at the centre of 29.5 and 30.5(29.5 < < 30.5). As such, 29.5
or 30.5 has to be used in place of 30. What determines whether 29.5 or 30.5 is to be used is
whether the statement is inclusive or exclusive of 30.

In summary, questions on normal approximation to binomial have to be answered with the

following steps in mind:

1) Modelling of a binomial distribution

2) Transformation of the problem into a normal distribution
3) Formulation of a probability statement in terms on
4) Continuity correction
5) Construction of a normal bell
6) Use of standard results
7) Use of normal tables

This concept of normal approximation to binomial is best explained by numerical examples.

The section on ‘typical examination questions on normal approximation for binomial’ gives
a detailed outline of worked examples.

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Worked Examination Questions on Normal Approximation to Binomial

Question (Cambridge, June 2008 qp.6)

Solution

(i). P(5) = 0.75 P( 5) = 1 − 0.75

⇒ P( 5) = 0.25
⇒ ℎ ℎ : 1, 2, 3, 4 6 0.25 ÷ 5
= 0.05
ℎ ℎ :

⇒ P(⟦1, 5, 2⟧ ⟦1, 5, 4⟧ ⟦1, 5, 6⟧) = (0.05 × 0.75 × 0.05) × 3

∴ (⟦ , , ⟧ ⟦ , , ⟧ ⟦ , , ⟧) = .

(ii). ~Bin(10, 0.75)

P( ≥ 8) = P( = 8, 9, 10)

ℎ P( = 8) = C (0.75) (0.25)

⇒ P( = 8) = 0.28157

P( = 9 ) = C (0.75) (0.25)
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⇒ P( = 9) = 0.18771

P( = 10) = C (0.75) (0.25)

⇒ P( = 10) = 0.05631

⇒ P( ≥ 8) = 0.28157 + 0.18771 + 0.05631

∴ ( ≥ )= .

(iii). ~Bin(90, 0.75)

P( ≥ 8) = P( = 8, 9, 10)

ℎ = =

⇒ = 90 × 0.75 = 90 × 0.75 × 0.25

⇒ = 67.5 = 16.875

, ~N(67.5, 16.875)

⇒ P( > 60) = P( > 60.5) ( )

60.5 − 67.5
⇒ P( > 60.5) = P >
√16.875

⇒ P( > 60.5) ⇒ P( > −1.704)

⇒ P( > 60.5) =

⇒ P( > 60.5) = Φ(1.704)

⇒ P( > 60.5) = 0.9554 + 0.0004

⇒ P( > 60.5) = 0.9558

∴ ( > . )= .

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Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.61)

Solution

~Bin(250, 0.86)
ℎ = =

⇒ = 250 × 0.86 ⇒ = 250 × 0.86 × 0.14

⇒ = 215 ⇒ = 30.1
, ~Bin(215, 30.1)

P( > 210) = P( > 210.5)

210.5 − 215
⇒ P( > 210) = P >
√30.1

⇒ P( > 210.5) ⇒ P( > −0.820)

⇒ P( > 210.5) =

⇒ P( > 210.5) = Φ(0.820)

⇒ P( > 210.5) = 0.7939

∴ ( > . )= .

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Question (Cambridge, November 2009 qp.61)

Solution

Parts (i); (ii) and (iii) are centred on the selection of three fruits without replacement. As such,
a tree diagram can be used as an analytical instrument to the problem (see fig 4.19 below)
first fruit second fruit third fruit

(i). P(2 ) = P(⟦PPO⟧ + ⟦POP ⟧ + ⟦OPP⟧)

⇒ P(2 )

4 3 7 4 7 3 7 4 3
= × × + × × + × ×
11 10 9 11 10 9 11 10 9

∴ ( )=

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(ii). P( 3 ) = P(⟦PPO⟧ + ⟦POO⟧ + ⟦OPO⟧ + +⟦OOO⟧)

⇒ P( 3 )

4 3 7 4 7 6 7 4 6
= × × + × × + × ×
11 10 9 11 10 9 11 10 9

7 6 5
+ × ×
11 10 9

∴ =

(iii). ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ ,
P( A ∩ B)
P(A/B) =
P( B)

P(⟦PPO⟧ + ⟦POO⟧)
⇒ P(A/B) =
7
11

4 3 7 4 7 6
⇒ P(A/B) = 11 + 10 + 9 + 11 + 10 + 9
7
11

∴ ( / )=

(iv). ~Bin 121 , 4 11

ℎ = =
4 4 7
⇒ = 121 × ⇒ = 121 × ×
11 11 11
⇒ = 44 ⇒ = 28

, ~ (44, 28)

⇒ P( < 39) = P( < 38.5)

38.5 − 44
⇒ P( < 38.5) = P <
√28
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⇒ P( < 38.5) ⇒ P( < −1.039)

⇒ P( < 38.5) =

⇒ P( < 38.5) = 1 − Φ(1.039)

⇒ P( < 38.5) = 1 − 0.8506

⇒ P( < 38.5) = 0.1494

∴ ( < . )= .

Revision Questions on Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

6. (a) State the conditions under which a normal distribution may be used to approximate a
binomial distribution. [1]

(b) It is estimated that 20% of people undergoing medical review are men. If a random
sample of 100 people are undergoing a medical review, find the probability that more
than 30 are men. [5]

November 2008 qp.6 (Cambridge)

June 2009 qp.6 (Cambridge)

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November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

1. In an Olympiad Quiz Examination paper, there are 100 questions. Each question has 5
suggested answers and a candidate has to choose the correct one.

Given that Mary, is equally likely to choose any of the 5 answers in each question since
she was guessing, use a suitable approximation to find the probability that she gets at
least 27 correct answers. [4]

June 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.62 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.62 (Cambridge)

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November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

4. A library contains a very large number of books of which 60% are fiction and the
remainder are non-fiction.

(a) Determine correct to three decimal places, the probability that a random
collection of 6 books from the library contains 5 or more fiction books. [3]

(b) Using a suitable approximation determine the probability that a random

collection of 200 books from the library contains exactly 80 non-fiction books.
[5]

November 2011 qp.63 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.61 (Cambridge)

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Section C: Introduction to Mechanics

“Chance is an element of life. What I try to do is study what I call the mechanics of reality as
carefully as I can.”
– Paul Auster

Mechanics is a scientific application that deals with problems concerning forces and their
effects on bodies. Forces come in different forms such as push, pull, compressional, tensional
and frictional forces, and they all behave differently. This subject is grouped into particle and
fluid mechanics. Advanced level Mechanics places specific emphasis on particle mechanics
(see Fig. C1).

Mechanics

Particle Mechanics Fluid Mechanics

Study of Study of
Study of Statics
Kinematics Dynamics

Displacement, Connected
Forces and
Velocity and particles and
Equilibrium
Acceleration Projectile motion

Fig. C1

Section C of Paper 2 is made up of four topics: Forces and Equilibrium; Kinematics of Motion
in a Straight Line; Newton’s Laws of Motion; and Projectile Motion.

Forces and equilibrium, study of statics, deals with problems concerning the identification
and analysis of forces acting on stationary particles. The study of kinematics is centred on the
breakdown of forces acting on moving bodies. As forces act on both stationary and moving
bodies, a lot of dynamics pop up due to interaction of forces. Study of dynamics is, therefore,
a positive attempt towards unpacking the motion of connected particles and projectiles.

The spirit and purpose of this module is to simplify the subject to its logical conclusion. Much
emphasis is being placed on the coherence of topics since the topics are incremental in
nature. Mechanics has a lot do with the production and analysis of diagrams. As such, one
should be able to transform given theoretical information into diagrams and subsequently
use mathematical concepts to solve problems hinged to diagrams.

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Chapter Ten: Study of Statics

“A system is in equilibrium when the forces constituting it are arranged in such a way as to
compensate each other, like the two weights pulling at the arms of a pair of scales.”

– Rudolf Arnheim

This lead in chapter sets the stage for mechanics by way of equipping students with the skill
of identifying and analysing forces acting on stationary bodies. It is known that some forces
are visible while others may be considered as invisible. Of particular interest are invisible
forces which include, but not limited to:

 Weight,
 Tension,
 Normal reaction, and
 Friction.

Weight is a function of mass and acceleration due to gravity (g). As such, it is a product of the
two (weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity) and it acts vertically downwards. Use g as
9.81 ms unless specified otherwise.

Tension acts in strings, which implies that tension in the same string is uniform and it acts
away from the particle.

Normal reaction ( ) is the feedback given as a result of contact of a body with a surface.
acts perpendicular(⊥) to the plane of action.

Friction is a force that opposes motion. In limiting equilibrium it opposes the potential
direction of motion and in relative motion it opposes the direction of motion. When a body is
in equilibrium, it experiences a frictional force, ≤ and in limiting equilibrium it
experiences a frictional force, = where µ is the coefficient of friction and is the
normal reaction.

Resolution of Forces

Forces act in all directions, as such, they are scattered all over. This makes it difficult to analyse
these forces unless they are grouped systematically. Resolution of forces borrows its
inspiration from the Cartesian plane and is centred on the idea that there are two directions
only, that is, and which are ⊥ to each other. It is against this background that forces have
to be collected into two directions before addressing any given problem.

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NB:

 Only acute angles can be resolved;

 Obtuse angles can only be resolved in the direction of the acute angle;

 Forces acting at right angles cannot be resolved because they have predetermined
permanent direction;

 Assume the existence of a Cartesian plane at the centre of action. This will help to
determine whether a force is positively or negatively contributing to any given
direction;

 When resolving towards an angle, one has to use cos and when resolving away from
an angle, one has to use sin . This is summarised in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1

Resolving vertically (in the -axis) Resolving horizontally (in the -axis)

sin = cos =
ℎ ℎ

sin = cos =

= =

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Below is a detailed outline on resolution of forces:

Example 1:

Fig. 10.1

By resolving ∥ to AB
= 20 sin − 10 cos − 10 sin

By resolving ⊥ to AB

= − + 10 sin − 10 cos + 20 cos

Example 2:

NB: The angle between and

weight is exactly the same as the
angle of inclination.

By resolving ∥ to the plane

= 10 − 5 cos − sin

By resolving ⊥ to the plane

= − cos + 5 sin

Fig. 10.2

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Example 3:

Assuming that the particle is about to move up the plane, friction acts down the plane:

Fig. 10.3
By resolving ∥ to the plane

= 45 cos − − sin

By resolving ⊥ to the plane

= − cos + 45 sin

After collecting the forces into and directions, this will lead to the formation of a right
angled triangle. It is from this triangle that one can determine the magnitude of the resultant
force ( ) and the direction of the resultant force from either the -direction or -direction.
These two concepts feed from the Pythagoras theorem and trig-ratios respectively as shown
by the diagram:

= +

∴ = +

= tan ℎ −

= tan ℎ −
Fig. 10.4

NB: If a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of the -component is zero and the resultant of
the −component is zero, where a component refers to the sum of all the forces acting along
a particular direction.
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Worked Examination Questions on General Resolution

Question (Zimsec, November 2011 qp.4)

12. Two forces have magnitudes and and the angle between them, , is acute. If the
resultant of these two forces has magnitude , show that

= + +2 cos . [3]

Solution

= + cos

= sin

=( + cos ) + ( sin )

⇒ = +2 cos + cos + sin

⇒ = +2 cos + (cos + sin ) ℎ cos + sin ≡1

⇒ = +2 cos + ( 1)

∴ = + + ( )

Question (Cambridge, June 2007 qp.4)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

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Solution

(i) Identify all forces acting on the block for easy of analysis as shown below:

By resolving ∥ to AB to find T

75cos 30 − cos 60 = 0

⇒ cos 60 = 75cos 30

1 √3
⇒ = (75)
2 2

⇒ = 75√3

By resolving ⊥ to AB to find

+ sin 60 + 75 sin 30 − =0

⇒ = 20(10) − 75 sin 30 − (75√3) sin 60

∴ =

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(ii) Now that there is friction, the set-up has changed (see diagram below)

By resolving ∥ to AB to find T

75 cos 30 − − cos 60 = 0

⇒ cos 60 = 75 cos 30 −

75cos 30 − 25
⇒ =
cos 60

∴ = .

By resolving ⊥ to AB to find

+ sin 60 + 75 sin 30 − =0

⇒ = 20(10) − 75 sin 30 – 79.9 sin 60

∴ = .

⇒ 25 = (93.3)

25
⇒ =
93.3

∴ = .

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Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.42)

Solution

(i) Given a set-up of this nature, C is not a primary force, and therefore cannot be
resolved. C is a resultant force of and .

Since and are building blocks of C, they have to be determined first. Below
is a diagram showing forces acting on particle P.

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By resolving horizontally to find

4cos 30 − = 0

⇒ = 2√3

By resolving vertically to find

+ 4 sin 30 − 10 = 0

⇒ = 10 − 4 sin 30

⇒ =8

Since and are acting horizontally and vertically respectively, they represent
the and directions respectively. Diagrammatically, the relationship connecting
C, and is as shown below:

ℎ, =( ) + ( )

⇒ = 8 + (2√3)

∴ = √

(ii) =
⇒ 2√3 = (8)
2√3
⇒ =
8
√
∴ =

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Revision Questions on General Resolution

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

10.

A particle of mass 0.2 kg is suspended in equilibrium by a horizontal force of P N and

two light inextensible strings inclined to the horizontal at 30° and 60° [see diagram].
Given that the tensions in the strings are equal, show that

√3 − 1
P=
5 √3 + 1
[6]

June 2007 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2007 qp.4 (Cambridge)

June 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

June 2009 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.41 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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June 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

15.

A particle of weight 20 N rests on a rough horizontal surface. A force N inclined at

an angle to the horizontal, is applied to the particle until it is on the point of moving.

Given that the normal force = 16 and the frictional force = −9 act on the
particle where and are unit vectors (see diagram),

Calculate

(i). The coefficient of the friction, [2]

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(ii). (a)

(b) [4]

November 2010 qp.42 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.43 (Cambridge)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

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November 2011 qp.41 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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November 1994 qp.2 (Cambridge)

1.

A particle , of weight , is suspended from a fixed point by means of a light

inextensible string . The second particle is held in equilibrium, with making
an angle of 30° with the vertical, by means of a second light inextensible string
attaching P to a fixed point . The string makes an angle of 30° with the
horizontal (see diagram). Using a triangle of forces, or otherwise, find the tension
in and the tension in . [5]

A horizontal force of magnitude , with line of action in the vertical plane ,

acts on . The particle remains in equilibrium in the position shown in the
diagram.

(i). Given that the horizontal force is directed towards the right, and that the
tension in is zero, find . [3]

(ii). Given that the horizontal force is directed towards the left, and that
= 2 , find the tension in . [6]

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec O Level Additional Mathematics)

14. (a) The diagram below shows five forces acting at a point in the same vertical plane which
are in equilibrium.

Find the magnitude and direction of force P. [6]

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June 2012 qp.43 (Cambridge)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

June 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.41 (Cambridge)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

November 2010 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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November 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.43 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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June 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

5.

Two forces, of magnitudes 1 N and 3 N, act on a particle in the directions shown in the
diagram. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force on the particle and the angle
between this resultant force and the force of magnitude 3 N. [4]

November 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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November 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

6.

A particle of weight 45 N rests on a rough horizontal surface. A cord is attached to the

particle and the particle is in limiting equilibrium when the tension in the cord is
newtons. The diagram illustrates the forces acting on the particle. Calculate the
coefficient of friction and the magnitude of the contact force between the particle and
the surface. [3]

Calculate and the angle between the cord and the horizontal. [4]

November 2000 qp.3 (Cambridge)

7.

A particle is placed on a smooth horizontal table. Horizontal forces of magnitude 3

newtons, 5 newtons and newtons act on , as shown in the diagram, and rests in
equilibrium. Calculate and . [4]

The force of magnitude 3 newtons is removed. Given the mass of is 2 kg, state the
magnitude and direction of the initial acceleration of . [2]

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Worked Examination Questions on Rods

[For this section, take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms .]

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.41)

Solution

Identify forces acting on the ring as outlined below:

(i) By resolving ⊥ to the rod to find

+ 7 sin 45 − =0

⇒ = 0.8(10) − 7 sin 45

∴ = . ( )

(ii) By resolving ∥ to the rod to find

7 cos 45 − = 0
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⇒ = 7 cos 45

, =

⇒ 7 cos 45 = (3.05)

7 cos 45
⇒ =
3.05

∴ = .

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.43)

Solution

If the question remains silent on the direction of friction, use ‘what if’ analysis.

Scenario 1: assuming that the ring is about to move up the rod, friction acts down the rod.

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By resolving ⊥ to the rod to find

cos 30 − = 0

⇒ = cos 30

By resolving ∥ to the rod to find T

sin 30 − − =0

⇒ sin 30 − 0.24( cos 30) − 2(10) = 0

⇒ (sin 30 − 0.24 cos 30) = 20

20
⇒ =
(sin 30 − 0.24 cos 30)

∴ = .

Scenario 2: assuming that the ring is about to move down the rod, friction acts up the rod.

By resolving ⊥ to the rod to find

cos 30 − = 0

⇒ = cos 30

By resolving ∥ to the rod to find T

+ sin 30 − =0

⇒ 0.24( cos 30) + sin 30 − 2(10) = 0

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⇒ (0.24 cos 30 + sin 30) = 20

20
⇒ =
(0.24 cos 30 + sin 30)

∴ = .

Revision Questions on Rods

[In this section, take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms .]

November 2009 qp.42 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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June 2004 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2006 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2007 qp.4 (Cambridge)

Worked Examination Questions on Inclined Planes

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

Question (Zimsec O Level Additional Mathematics, November 2005 qp.2)

7. (a) A body of mass 4.6 kg is held in equilibrium on a rough plane, by a force of G N, acting
up a line of greatest slope. The plane is inclined at an angle ° to the horizontal. When
G is 18.4 N, the body is about to slide down the plane.

Given that tan = , find the value of , the coefficient of friction between the body
and the plane. [6]

Solution

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∥ ℎ ,

+ − sin = 0

⇒ + cos − sin =0

4 3
⇒ + (4.6)(10) − (4.6)(10) =0
5 5

184 138
⇒ 18.4 + − =0
5 5

184 46
⇒ =
5 5

46
⇒ = 5
184
5

∴ =

Question (Cambridge, November 2012 qp.43)

Solution

In case where the question remains silent on the direction of friction, use ‘what if’ analysis.

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Scenario 1: assuming that the particle is about to move up the plane, friction acts down the
plane.

By resolving ⊥ to the plane to find

− cos 25 = 0

⇒ = 6 cos 25

By resolving ∥ to the plane to find P

− − sin 25 = 0

⇒ = + sin 25

⇒ = 0.36(6 cos 25) + 0.6(10) sin 25

∴ = .

Scenario 2: assuming that the particle is about to move down the plane, friction acts up the
plane.

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By resolving ⊥ to the plane to find By resolving ∥ to the plane to find P

− cos 25 = 0 + − sin 25 = 0

⇒ = 6 cos 25 ⇒ = sin 25 −

⇒ = 0.6(10) sin 25 − 0.36(6 cos 25)

∴ = .

NB: Since the question is asking for the set of values of P, 0.578 and 4.49 represent the lower
limit and upper limit respectively.

∴ . ≤ ≤ .

Question (Cambridge, June 2012 qp.43)

Solution

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(i) By resolving ⊥ to the plane to find

− cos =0

⇒ = 6.1 cos

By resolving ∥ to the plane to find

5.9 − − sin =0

⇒ = 5.9 − sin

, ≤µ

⇒ 5.9 − 6.1 sin ≤ (6.1 cos )

5.9 − 6.1 sin

⇒ ≥
6.1 cos
11
ℎ = tan
60
11
5.9 − 6.1 sin tan 60
⇒ ≥
11
6.1 cos tan 60

∴ ≥ ( )

(ii)

By resolving ⊥ to the plane to find

− cos =0

⇒ = 6.1 cos

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By resolving ∥ to the plane

ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

⇒ 5.9 + sin >

⇒ 5.9 + 6.1 sin > (6.1 cos )

11
5.9 + 6.1 sin tan 60
⇒ <
11
6.1 cos tan 60

∴ < ( )

(iii) = ,
5.9 + sin − =
⇒ 5.9 + sin − =
6.1
⇒ 5.9 + 6.1 sin − (1.7) = (6.1 cos )
10
11
5.9 + 6.1 sin tan − (0.61)(1.7)
⇒ = 60
11
6.1 cos tan 60
∴ = .

Revision Questions on Inclined Planes

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this section, unless specified otherwise.]

November 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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June 2009 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.42 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

13. A body of mass 5.2 kg is held in equilibrium on a rough plane, by a force N acting up
the line of greatest slope. The plane is inclined at an angle to the horizontal where
cos = . When is 19.2 N, the body is about to slide down the plane.

Find the value of , the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane. [5]

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November 2002 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

12.

A ring of mass 3 kg is threaded on a rough wire inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The
ring is about to slip down the wire when a force of 24 N inclined at 30° above the wire
is applied to it, (see diagram).
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(i). Find the value of the normal reaction exerted on the wire. [3]

(ii). Calculate the coefficient of friction. [2]

November 2004 qp.4 (Cambridge)

Lami’s Theorem

Lami’s theorem serves as an alternative formula in solving problems that can be analysed
using resolution of forces. Lami’s theorem can only be used to analyse problems where
exactly three forces act on a particle or at a point. This concept borrows its inspiration from
the sine rule. Fig 1.5 is a breakdown of the theorem:

Fig. 10.5

= =
sin sin sin

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Worked Examination Questions on Lami’s Theorem

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.42)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

Solution

ℎ ,

50 + 50 − 80
cos =
2(50)(50)

−1 400
⇒ = cos
5 000

⇒ = 106.2602°

180 − 106.2602
⇒ =
2

∴ = . °

(i) ’ ℎ ( ℎ ),

= =
sin(90 + 36.8699) sin(90 + 36.8699) sin(106.2602)

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0.6 × 10
⇒ =
sin(90 + 36.8699) sin(106.2602)

⇒ sin(106.2602) = 6 sin(126.8699)

6 sin(126.8699)
⇒ =
sin(106.2602)

∴ = .

(ii) By considering forces acting on the bead (see diagram),

By resolving ⊥ to the rod to find

− − sin =0

⇒ = 0.4(10) + 5 sin 36.8699

∴ = .

By resolving ∥ to the rod to find

cos − =0

⇒ = cos

⇒ = 5 cos 36.8699

∴ = .

(iii) =

⇒ 4 = ( 7)

∴ =

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Question (Zimsec, November 2003 qp.2)

7. A brick of mass 2 kg is held at rest by two ropes. One rope is horizontal and the other
makes an angle of 30° with the vertical (see diagram).

(i). Find the tension in each of the ropes, giving your answers as exact values in
terms of . [4]

(ii). State the underlying assumptions made in answering (i). [1]

Solution

(i).

ℎ ,

= =
sin 50 sin 120 sin 90

2
⇒ =
sin 50 sin 120

⇒ sin 120 = 2 sin 150

√3 1
=2
2 2
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2
⇒ =
√3

√
∴ =

=
sin 120 sin 90

⇒ sin 120 = 2 sin 90

√3
⇒ =2
2

2( 2 )
⇒ =
√3
√
∴ =

(ii). Weight vertically downwards; the sum of the forces acting on the particle horizontally
is zero; the sum of the forces acting on the particle vertically is zero.

Revision Questions on Lami’s Theorem

In this section, take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms unless specified otherwise.

November 2009 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec)

11.

The diagram above shows a particle at P of mass kg supported by two light

inextensible strings AP and PB. The ends A and B are on the same horizontal such that
PAB = 30° and PBA = 45°. The tension in strings PA and PB are 2 newtons and T
newtons respectively.

Find the exact values of T and in terms of where applicable. [4]

November 2010 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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November 2012 qp.43 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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Chapter Eleven: Study of Kinematics

“Life is like a ten-speed bike. Most of us have gears we never use.”

– Charles Schultz

This chapter analyses forces acting on a particle in motion. A particle can move with variable
acceleration or constant acceleration. Paper 2 Mechanics analyses problems inclined to
uniform motion in a straight line. As such, this chapter unpacks concepts involving
displacement, velocity and acceleration, and their association, in the framework of constant
acceleration. Questions on constant acceleration are analysed using equations of uniformly
accelerated motion and graphs of motion.

The relationship connecting the three is hinged to the definitions of the three measures. (See
Table 11.1)

Definition of terms

Scalar – is used to describe a physical quantity with size (magnitude) only.

Vector – refers to a physical quantity with both magnitude and direction.

Table 11.1 below gives a detailed outline of the difference between some important scalar
and vector quantities covered in kinematics.

Table 11.1

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

Displacement – refers to the size of the
Distance – is the size of the space between
path between two points in a given
two points irrespective of the direction
direction
Speed – is a measure of the change in Velocity – measures the change in
distance with respect to time displacement with respect to time
Acceleration – refers to the change in
velocity with respect to time

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Equations of Motion

These instruments are used to solve problems where all other quantities can be determined
except for one unknown variable. In the rare event that there are two unknown variables, a
pair of simultaneous equations can be formed and solved. The derivation process to the
equations of motion is beyond the scope of the Paper 2 syllabus.

Below is a breakdown of the equations

 = +
 = +
 = +
 = −
 = ( + )

Where:

 ℎ ;
 ℎ ;
 ℎ ;
 ℎ ;
 ℎ .

Graphs of Motion

There are two types of graphs, namely displacement-time and velocity-time graphs. The
forthcoming section discusses the conditions underlining the analysis and interpretation of
the two graphs.

Displacement-time ( , ) graph

A displacement-time graph upholds the following points:

 A( , ) graph is used to analyse the relationship between displacement and time.

 The gradient of a displacement-time graph measures velocity.
 All the points on the time-axis represent the starting point where displacement is
equal to zero.
 All the points above the time-axis represent the positive side of the starting point.
 All the points below the time-axis represent the negative side of the starting point.
 A horizontal line represents rest.

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NB: The analysis of displacement-time graphs uses the reference point, herein after referred
to as the ‘starting point’. It is assumed that there are two possible directions that a particle
can take from the starting point:

o Distance travelled in one direction is regarded as the positive side, that is, the region
above the time-axis.
o Distance travelled in the other direction is the negative side. This is depicted by the
region below the time-axis of a displacement-time graph.
The two diagrams below augment the points raised immediately above:

Fig. 11.1

Fig. 11.2

Velocity-time ( , ) graph

Analysis and interpretation of velocity-time graphs feed from the following truths:

 A( , ) graph is used to analyse the relationship between velocity and time.

 The gradient of a velocity-time graph measures acceleration.
 Area under the curve represents distance travelled.
 An upward sloping line above the time-axis represents forward journey acceleration.
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 An upward sloping line below the time-axis represents deceleration on the return
journey.
 A downward sloping line above the time-axis represents forward journey
deceleration.
 A downward sloping line below the time-axis represents acceleration on the return
journey.
 A vertical line represents an abrupt or sudden change in speed. This abrupt change in
speed affects neither location nor time since it happens in a fraction of a second at a
particular spot.

 A horizontal line located anywhere in space represents constant speed whereas a

horizontal line sitting on the -axis denotes rest.

NB: A ( , ) graph is built on the notion that there are two points under study where the
movement from the first point to the other point represents the forward journey. The
movement from the latter to the former represents the return journey. For example
movement from A to B is the forward journey and vice versa.

o During the forward journey, the velocity is positive. This is denoted by the region
above the time-axis.

o On the return journey, velocity is negative and is accounted for by the region below
the time-axis.

Figures 11.3 and 11.4 capture the points outlined immediately above:

Fig. 11.3

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Fig. 11.4

Worked Examination Questions on Graphical Analysis and Sketching

Question (Cambridge, November 2010 qp.42)

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Solution

(i) By considering distance travelled,

1
= ℎ
2
1
⇒4= × 2.5 × ℎ
2
⇒ 8 = 2.5ℎ
⇒ ℎ = 3.2
ℎ ℎ
∴ = .

−0
(ii) =
4.5 − 2.5

⇒3=
2
∴ =
(iii) ℎ ℎ ℎ
1
= ( + )ℎ
2
1
⇒ 48 = (12 + )6
2

⇒ 48 = 3(12 + )

⇒ 48 = 36 + 3

⇒ 12 = 3

⇒ =4

, = 4.5 + 4

∴ = .
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0−6
(iv) =
14.5 − 8.5
= −1
∴ =

Question (Zimsec, November 2008 qp.4)

14. A bus travelling along a straight horizontal road passes through two garages P and Q.
The bus passes P at a speed of 15 ms and maintains this for seconds, during which
time it travels a distance of 900 m. The bus then decelerates uniformly at 0.5 ms
over the next metres to reach a speed of 10 ms . The bus then accelerates
uniformly at 0.75 ms for 20 seconds and reaches a speed of ms . It maintains
this speed for 45 seconds to reach Q.

(i). Calculate the values of , and . [5]

(ii). Sketch a ( , ) graph for the motion of the bus between P and Q. [3]

(iii). Find the distance between P and Q. [2]

Solution

(i). ℎ ℎ ,

= 15; = 0 ( ); = 900

1
= +
2

1
900 = (15) + (0)
2

⇒ 900 = 15

900
⇒ =
15

∴ =

ℎ ℎ ,

= 15; = ; = 10; = −0.5

= +2

10 = 15 + 2(−0.5)( )
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⇒ 100 = 225 −

⇒ = 225 − 100

∴ =

ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

= 10; = 20; = 0.75; =

= +

= 10 + 0.75 × 20

∴ =

(ii). ℎ ℎ ,

= 15; = −0.5; = 10; =

= +

10 = 15 − 0.5

⇒ 0.5 = 5

⇒ = 10

(iii). = ℎ ℎ

= 900

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1
= (15 + 10)(10)
2

⇒ = 125

1
= (10 + 25)(20)
2

⇒ = 350

= 45 × 25

⇒ = 1125

⇒ = 900 + 125 + 350 + 1125

⇒ = 2500

∴ =

Question (Cambridge, November 2010 qp.43)

Solution
−
(i) =
−
−0
=
4−0
⇒ 0.75 =
4
⇒ = 0.75 × 4

∴ =

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= 0, which implies that is constant, that is 3 ms for that phase,

−3
=
60 − 54

−3
⇒ −0.5 =
6

⇒ −3 = −3

⇒ = −3 + 3

∴ =

Sketch diagram:
The velocity-time graph should capture three time phases as given and use the
velocities calculated immediately above.

1
(ii) = ( + )ℎ
2
1
⇒ = (60 + 50)3
2
∴ =

Revision Questions on Graphical Analysis and Sketching

November 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

8. An athlete’s motion is represented by a ( , ) graph below.

(a) Sketch a ( , ) graph for the motion of the athlete during the 24 seconds. [3]

(b) Calculate the average speed during the 24 seconds. [2]

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec O Level Additional Mathematics)

9. (a)

The diagram above is a velocity-time graph of a particle moving in a straight line.

Calculate

(i). The acceleration of the particle during the first 10 s,

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(ii). The total distance travelled by the particle,

(iii). The displacement of the particle from the starting point after 40 s. [8]

June 2010 qp.41 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.2 (Zimsec)

12. A car travelling along a straight road passes through a fixed point A with a velocity of
10 ms and continues with this velocity for seconds. The car then accelerates
uniformly over the next seconds till it attains a velocity of 15 ms . The car
subsequently decelerates to rest in a further seconds.

(a) Sketch a well labelled ( , ) graph to illustrate the motion of the car after
passing A. [2]
(b) Given that the cars acceleration and deceleration are equal, show that
=2 . [2]

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November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

11. (a) A particle starts with a velocity of 2 ms and travels along a straight line, covering a
distance of 20 metres in 2.5 seconds.

Find the constant acceleration of the particle. [2]

(b) Draw a velocity-time graph for this motion. [2]

June 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

14.

The diagram shows an approximate ( , ) graph for the motion of a parachutist falling
vertically, ms is the parachutist’s downwards velocity at time seconds after he
jumps out of the plane. Use the information in the diagram.

(i). To give a brief description of the parachutist’s motion throughout the descent,
[3]

(ii). To calculate the height from which the jump was made. [2]

State two ways in which you would expect an accurate ( , ) graph of the
parachutist’s motion to differ from the approximate graph shown in the diagram. [2]

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November 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.41 (Cambridge)

June 2011 qp.41 (Cambridge)

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November 2000 qp.3 (Cambridge)

13. Two cars, C and D, move in the same direction in parallel lanes of a straight road. C
starts from rest and begins to move with constant acceleration. At the instant that C
begins to move it is overtaken by D, which is moving with a constant speed of 6 ms .

(i). It is given that C’s acceleration remains constant until the instant when it
overtakes D. This occurs 5 seconds after C begins to move. Find C’s speed at
the instant when it overtakes D. [2]

(ii). It is given instead that C moves for T seconds with constant acceleration
ms until its speed reaches 8 ms , and that C then continues to move at
a constant speed of 8 ms until it overtakes D. This occurs 5 seconds after C
begins to move.

(a) Sketch, on a single diagram, the ( , ) graphs for the two cars. [3]
(b) Find . [4]
(c) Sketch, on a single diagram, the ( , ) graphs for the two cars. [2]

June 2011 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.43 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

15. Two vehicles moving in the same direction pass the point O on a straight road at time
= 0. Vehicle A is moving at a constant velocity of 11 ms . Vehicle B has a constant
acceleration of 2 ms and it has a velocity of 3 ms as it passes O.

a) On the same diagram, draw the velocity-time graphs for the two vehicles. [2]

b) Find

(i). The distance of B from O when its speed is 21 ms ,

(ii). The time in seconds when B overtakes A,

(iii). The distance from O, travelled by A before it was overtaken by B. [7]

November 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

7. Sketch ( , ) graphs for each of the following situations.

(i). A car starts from rest and moves with constant acceleration until the driver
changes gear. For a short time, while the driver changes gear, the speed is
constant. After the driver changes gear, the car continues with a constant
acceleration which is less than the initial acceleration. [2]

(ii). A swimmer completes one length of a pool, turns and completes one length in
the opposite direction, swimming at constant speed throughout, except for a
brief reduction in speed at the turn. [3]

Sketch also a ( , ) graph for situation (ii). [2]

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Vertical Motion under Gravity

When a body moves vertically upwards or downwards, it experiences a uniform acceleration

called the acceleration due to gravity ( ). This constant acceleration acts vertically
downwards. As such, when a body moves upwards it undergoes a negative acceleration and
when it falls it experiences a positive acceleration. The most widely used values of are
9.81 ms and 10 ms . Students are advised to use the value of specified in the question.

Worked Examination Questions on Vertical Motion

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

Question (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics, November 2003 qp.2)

15. A particle of mass 0.6 kg is dropped from rest at a height of 1 500 m above ground
level. At the same instant a particle B of mass 0.8 kg is projected vertically upwards
from the ground level so that it collides and coalesces with A. The particles are in
motion for 3.4 seconds before the collision takes place.

Calculate

a) The speed of each particle immediately before the impact. [9]

Solution

ℎ : = 0; = = 10; = ; = 3.4; =

= +

⇒ = 0 + (10)(3.4)

∴ =

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1
= +
2
1
= 0 × 3.4 + (10)(3.4)
2
289
⇒ = m
5
ℎ ℎ ,

ℎ :

= 1 500 − ; = − = −10; = 3.4; =

1
= +
2
1
1 500 − = × 3.4 + (−10)(3.4)
2
289 289
⇒ 1 500 − = 3.4 −
5 5
⇒ 3.4 = 1 500

1 500
⇒ =
3.4
7 500
⇒ =
17
= +

7 500
= + (−10)(3.4)
17

∴ =

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.42)

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Solution

(i) NB: the set of values of is given by the difference in the time taken by
each particle to reach the maximum height. At maximum height, = 0

By considering ,
= 12; = 0; = −10; =
= + ,
⇒ 0 = 12 − 10
⇒ = 1.2

By considering ,
= 7; = 0; = −10; =
= +
⇒ 0 = 7 − 10
⇒ = 0.7
∴ . < < .

(ii) NB: the two particles share the same value of at the point where they
satisfy the condition 3ℎ = 8ℎ
ℎ 3ℎ = 8ℎ
1
ℎ ℎ =
+ =
2
⇒3[12 + 0.5(−10) ] = 8[7 + 0.5(−10) ]

⇒ 36 − 15 = 56 − 40

⇒ 25 − 20 = 0

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⇒ 5 (5 − 4) = 0

ℎ 5 = 0 5 − 4 = 0

4
⇒ = 0 =
5

∴ =

= + ℎ ,
4
= 12 + (−10)
5
∴ =

4
= 7 + (−10)
5
∴ =−

Question (Cambridge, November 2007 qp.4)

Solution: The two particles meet at the same point at the same time. This implies that at that
point ℎ are identical.

1
= + ℎ ,
2
ℎ ,

= 12.5 + 0.5(−10)

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⇒ = 12.5 − 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1
ℎ ,
1
(10 − ) = (0) + (10)
2

⇒ (10 − ) = 5

⇒ = 10 − 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
(1) (2),

12.5 − 5 = 10 − 5

⇒ 12.5 − 10 = 0
⇒ 12.5 = 10
⇒ = 0.8
(2),
= 10 − 5(0.8)

∴ = .

Revision Questions on Vertical Motion

November 2010 qp.42 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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Chapter Twelve: Newton’s Laws of Motion

“We cannot live for ourselves alone. Our lives are connected by a thousand invisible threads,
and along these sympathetic fibres, our actions run as causes and return to us as results.”

– Herman Melville

This topic is centred on the analysis of the laws of motion that were developed by Sir. Isaac
Newton. These laws are central to the study of mechanics, with much emphasis on their
application to the study of connected particles.

Newton’s First Law

 A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an
external has acted on it.

Newton’s Second Law

 The rate of momentum is proportional to the force applied to the body ( = ).

Newton’s Third Law

 To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

These laws are used in the analysis of motion of single bodies and motion of connected
particles. This chapter is, therefore, divided into two in cognisance of the fact that the
application of the laws is twofold.

Motion of Single Bodies

Whereas chapter one considered the forces acting on a body in equilibrium and chapter two
looked at the uniformly accelerated motion of bodies in vertical and horizontal planes, this
chapter covers the relationship between forces and the motion they effect in the framework
of Newton’s laws of motion.

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Worked Examination Questions on Motion of Single Bodies

Question (Zimsec, November 2013 qp.4)

13.

A particle of mass 8.72 kg is pulled horizontally at a constant horizontal speed of

5 ms along a rough horizontal surface by two horizontal forces of 4 N and 6 N
inclined to each other at 60°, (see diagram).

(i). Find the magnitude of the resistance to the motion of the particle. [3]

(ii). The pulling forces are removed instantly.

Find the distance travelled by the particle after the removal of the forces [4]

Solution

(i). =

− =

ℎ , = 0

⇒ − = ( 0)

⇒ − =0

⇒ =

∥ ℎ 6 N ,

= 6 + 4 cos 60

⇒ = 8

⊥ ℎ 6 N ,
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= 4 sin 60

⇒ = 2√3

= +

⇒ = 2√3 + (8)

⇒ = 2√19 N

∴ = √

(ii). − = ,

= 0

⇒− =

⇒ −2√19 = 8.72

2√19
⇒ =−
8.72

ℎ ℎ ,
2√19
= 5; = 0; = − ; = ,
8.72
= +2
2√19
0 =5 +2 − ( )
8.72

4√19
⇒ = 25
8.72
25
⇒ =
4√19
8.72

⇒ = 12.5031575

∴ =

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Question (Cambridge, June 2007 qp.4)

Solution

(i) = +2
−
⇒ =
2
(1.5) − (2.5)
⇒ =
2( 4 )
⇒ = −0.5
∴ = .

(ii) =

∥ ℎ

ℎ ℎ ,

⇒− sin =

⇒ −10 sin = −0.5

1
⇒ sin =
20

1
⇒ = sin
20

∴ = . °

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Question (Zimsec, November 2008 qp.4)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

12. A bus is travelling at 72 km/hr on a level road when it begins to ascend a hill of
inclination arcsin to the horizontal. (see diagram).

The tractive force developed by the engine is maintained at a constant value and
the resistance at , where is the mass of the bus. Find the distance moved up the
hill before the bus comes to rest. [5]

Solution

∥ ℎ ,

− − sin =

1 1
ℎ = sin sin =
200 200
1
− − =
100 10 200

⇒ = − −
100 10 200
19
⇒ =−
200

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∥ ℎ ,

19
= 20ms ; = 0; = − ; =
200
=
+ 2 ,
19 × 9.81
0 = 20 + 2 − ( )
200

⇒ 1.8639 = 400
400
⇒ =
1.8639
⇒ = 214.6037878

∴ =

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.41)

Solution

(i) Since there are two unknown values form a pair of simultaneous equations.
One equation accounting for the phase AB and the other one for the phase AC.
Phase AB Phase AC
= =
= =
= 1.76 = 3.92(1.76 + 2.16)
= 0.8 = 1.4
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= + ℎ ,
1
1.76 = (0.8) + (0.8)
2

⇒ 1.76 = 0.8 + 0.32 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

1
3.92 = (1.4) + (1.4)
2

⇒ 3.92 = 1.4 + 0.98 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

1.76 − 0.8
(1), =
0.32

(2),

1.76 − 0.8
3.92 = 1.4 + 0.98
0.32

⇒ 1.2544 = 0.448 + 0.98(1.76 − 0.8 )

⇒ 1.2544 = 0.448 − 0.784 + 1.7248

⇒ 0.336 = 0.4704

∴ = .

1.76 − 0.8(1.4)
⇒ =
0.32

∴ =

(ii) =
∥ ℎ

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sin =

⇒ 10 sin =2

2
⇒ = sin
10

∴ = . °

Question (November 2009 qp.41)

Solution

(i) By resolving ⊥ to the plane to find ,

− cos 18 = 0

⇒ = 0.6(10) cos 18

∴ = .
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By resolving ∥ to the plane to find ,

− − sin 18 =

⇒ =− sin 18 −

⇒ (5.71) = −0.6(10) sin 18 − 0.6(−4)

−6 sin 18 + 2.4
⇒ =
5.71

∴ = .

(ii) Now that the particle is moving down the plane, the direction of friction changes
as shown by the diagram below:

By resolving ∥ to the plane,

sin 18 − =

0.6(10) sin 18 − 0.096(5.71) = 0.6

6 sin 18 − 0.096(5.71)
⇒ =
0.6

∴ = .

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Revision Questions on Motion of Single Bodies

November 2007 qp.2 (Zimsec)

8. The diagram shows a man cycling up a hill inclined at 10° to the horizontal.

a) Calculate the normal force that is exerted on the road if both the man and the
bicycle weigh 800 N. [2]

b) Given that he stops cycling when moving at 15 ms at the point O, find how
far from O he goes up the hill if he decelerates at 5 ms . [2]

June 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.4 (Zimsec)

13. A particle of mass 0.65 kg is placed on a plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal,
where sin = . Given that the coefficient of friction is 0.85, show that the particle
will not slide down if it is gently placed on the plane. [4]

June 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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November 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.42 (Cambridge)

November 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

12.

A straight rough wire is fixed at an angle of 70° to the vertical and has a rubber stopper
attached at its lower end. A small bead of mass 0.01 kg is threaded onto the wire. The
coefficient of friction between the bead and the wire is . The bead is released from
rest at a distance of 0.5 m from the stopper (see diagram).

(i). For the case = 0.3, find the acceleration of the bead and show that its speed
just before it strikes the stopper is 0.77 ms , correct to two significant
figures. [5]

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(ii). For a different value of it is found that, after rebounding from the stopper
without loss of speed, the bead first comes to instantaneous rest at a distance
of 0.25 m from the stopper. Find the value of . [6]

June 2011 qp.43 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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November 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

Motion of Connected Particles

If two particles are connected by a light inextensible string, the motion of the two is regarded as
motion of a combination. As such, they share the same speed and acceleration. Tension
acting in the string connecting the two particles is viewed from two perspectives. For
example, given two bodies, A and B, in motion regardless of direction of motion, tension acts
away from each particle (see Fig. 12.1).

Fig. 12.1

When the string is fully stretched it is said to be taut and the tension in that string is uniform.

Questions on connected particles take 3 different forms, that is, a combination moving:

 On a horizontal table,
 On inclined planes, and
 With vertical straight parts.

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For ease of analysis, the forces acting on the particles are considered separately. In the event
that a diagram is not provided, the pupil is expected to construct a diagram that will assist in
the identification and analysis of the forces acting on the particles in question. Newton’s
second law of motion, = , is used to form a pair of simultaneous equations where
refers to the sum (resultant) of forces acting on the particle.

Of particular interest is the point of transition which separates the motion of the two particles
as a combination and the motion of one particle only. A particle moves under the action of its
weight alone when the string has been cut or when the other particle has hit the ground. It is
at this point that the final velocity of the combination translates into the initial velocity of
one particle only. If the remaining particle is moving vertically downwards, acceleration is
given by , that is acceleration due to gravity. In cases where the remaining particle is moving
on a horizontal or inclined plane, = must be used to find the acceleration.

Critical to note is the fact that equations of motion can be used to find time, distance
travelled, initial velocity, final velocity, and/or acceleration since the particle(s) move(s) in a
straight line with constant acceleration.

One of the less widely examined concepts is the force exerted by the string on the pulley or
force exerted by the pulley on the string. It is given by,

where is the tension in the string and is the size of the angle separating the two particles.

One question remains unanswered: How does one put these concepts into practice?

Worked Examination Questions on Horizontal Tables

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.41)

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Solution

(i) Identify forces acting on both particles:

− =

⇒ 0.45(10) − = 0.45

⇒ = 4.5 − 0.45 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

− =

⇒ = 0.2 +

⇒ = 0.2 + 0.3(2)

⇒ = 0.2 + 0.6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

ℎ − =0

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⇒ = 0.2(10)

⇒ =2 1 2,

⇒ 4.5 − 0.45 = 0.2 + 0.6

⇒ 0.65 = 3.9

∴ =

Take note of the following distances:

 ℎ = 2.8 − 2.1 = 0.7

 ℎ ℎ ℎ = 2 − 0.7 = 1.3
 ℎ ℎ = 1.3
 ℎ ℎ ℎ = 2.1 − 1.3
= 0.8

= +2

ℎ = 0; = 6; = 1.3; =

⇒ = 0 + 2(6)(1.3)

⇒ = √15.6

∴ = . ( )

(ii) This question is centred on the analysis of as a single particle. This brings about
a new set of variables.
 ℎ .
ℎ = 3.95
 = .

ℎ , − =

⇒ −0.3(2) = 0.2

⇒ = −3

 2.1 − 1.3 = 0.8 (i) .

= +2

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⇒ = 3.95 + 2(−3)(0.8)

⇒ = 3.95 − 6(0.8)

∴ = .

Question (Cambridge, November 2010 qp.41)

Solution

(i) Identify forces acting both P and Q,

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– =0

⇒ = 0.2(10)

⇒ = 2 N

⊥ ℎ ,

+ 3.2 sin 30 − =0

⇒ = 0.5(10) − 3.2 30

⇒ = 3.4

∥ ℎ ,

3.2 cos 30 − − =0

⇒ 3.2 cos 30 − 2 = (3.2)

3.2cos30 − 2
⇒ =
3.4

∴ = .

(ii) ℎ ℎ 3.2 ℎ , ℎ ℎ
ℎ . ℎ ℎ , ℎ ,
ℎ ℎ ℎ :

,
− =

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⇒ 0.2(10) − = 0.2

⇒ = 2 − 0.2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

,
⊥ ℎ ,
− =0
⇒ = 0.5(10)
⇒ =5

∥ ℎ
− =
⇒ = 0.5 +

⇒ = 0.5 + 0.227(5) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(1) (2),

2 − 0.2 = 0.5 + 0.227(5)

⇒ 0.7 = 0.865

∴ = .

(1),
⇒ = 2 − 0.2(1.24)
∴ = .

Revision Questions on Horizontal Tables

June 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2000 qp.3 (Cambridge)

11. (b)

Two particles and have masses 2 and 3 respectively, and are connected by a
light inextensible string. Q rests on a rough horizontal table and the string passes
over a smooth pulley at the edge of the table. The system is released from rest with
the string taut and perpendicular to the edge of the table, and with suspended
vertically (see Fig. 2). The coefficient of friction between and the table is 0.5. Find
the tension in the string in terms of and . [5]

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June 2005 qp.4 (Cambridge)

June 2006 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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November 2003 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2004 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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Worked Examination Questions on Inclined Planes

Question (Cambridge, June 2010 qp.43)

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Solution

(i) ℎ ℎ ,

sin 60 − =

⇒ = 0.36(10) sin 60 − 0.36(0.25)

∴ = .

(ii) ,

⊥ ℎ ,
− cos 60 = 0
⇒ = 0.24(10) cos 60
6
⇒ =
5

∥ ℎ ,
− − sin 60 =
⇒ 3.03 − − 0.24(10) sin 60 = 0.24(0.25)
6√3 3
⇒ = 3.03 − −
5 50
6
⇒ = 0.89154
5
∴ = .

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Question (Cambridge, November 2007 qp.4)

Solution

(i)

(ii) sin =
16
= sin
65
,
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Since the particle is moving up the plane, it means that forces acting up the plane

outweigh forces acting down the plane.

> + sin

16
⇒ − > 0.13(10) sin sin
65

∴ − > . ( )

(iii) ,

− =

⇒ 0.11(10) − = 0.11

⇒ = 1.1 − 0.11 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

⊥ ℎ ,

− cos =0

16
= 0.13(10) cos sin
65

63
= = 1.26
50

∥ ℎ ,

− − sin =

16
⇒ = + 0.13(10) sin sin + 0.13
65

63 8
⇒ = 0.6 + + 0.13
50 25

⇒ = 1.076 + 0.13 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(1) (2),

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1.1 − 0.11 = 1.076 + 0.13

⇒ 0.24 = 0.024

∴ = . ( )

Revision Questions on Inclined Planes

November 2010 qp.43 (Cambridge)

November 2005 qp.2 (Zimsec, O Level Additional Mathematics)

9.

The diagram below shows two particles A and B of mass 2 kg and 4 kg respectively,
connected by a light inextensible string which passes over a smooth fixed pulley P.

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(a) Find the angle given that both planes are smooth and the tension in the string
is . [5]

(b) It is given that both planes are rough, each with coefficient of friction is . If
the system is released from rest, find

(i). The acceleration of the particles, [5]

(ii). The tension in the string during the motion. [2]

June 2012 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec O Level Additional Mathematics)

16. The diagram shows two particles A and B of masses 6kg and 4kg respectively
connected by a fixed smooth pulley.

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A rests on a plane inclined at sin to the horizontal. B rests on a plane inclined at

30° to the horizontal.

(a) In the case where both planes are smooth and A is released from rest, find
(i) The acceleration of the particles,

(ii) The tension in the string,

(iii) The speed of each particle after travelling 0.83 m assuming both particles
remain on their respective planes. [9]

(b) In the case where the lower plane is smooth, the upper plane is round and the
system is in equilibrium, find the coefficient of friction between the particle A and
the upper plane. [7]

Worked Examination Questions on Vertical Straight Parts

Question (Cambridge, June 2007 qp.4)

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Solution

(i) ℎ ( ),

− =

⇒ 0.6(10) − = 0.6

⇒ = 6 − 0.6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

− =

⇒ − 0.2(10) = 0.2

⇒ = 2 + 0.2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(1) (2),

⇒ 6 − 0.6 = 2 + 0.2

⇒ 0.8 = 4

∴ =

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(2),

= 2 + 0.2(5)

∴ =

(ii) ,

= 5; = 0; = 0.9; =

1
= +
2

1
⇒ 0.9 = 0( ) + (5)
2

⇒ 0.9 = 2.5

⇒ = 0.36

∴ = .

Question (Cambridge, November 2011 qp.43)

Solution
Towards a diagrammatic presentation,

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− 7.2 =

0.9(10) − 7.2 = 0.9

⇒ 9 − 7.2 = 0.9

⇒ 1.8 = 0.9

∴ =

After has hit the ground, reaches point and continues to move under the action of
its weight alone as shown below:

 Point is a point of transition where the final velocity of the combination becomes
the initial velocity of particle only.

ℎ ,
= +2

⇒ = 0 + 2(2)(2)

⇒ = √8

⇒ = √8 ℎ .

 Since is now moving under the action of its weight alone, = −10 ms

 At the maximum height, =0

= +2

⇒ 0 = √8 + 2(−10)( )
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⇒ 20 = 8
∴ = 0.4 m
⇒ Distance from to the maximum height and back to : = 0.4 × 2
∴ = .

Revision Questions on Vertical Straight Parts

June 2007 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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June 2009 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.41 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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June 2009 qp.4 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.41 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.43 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.42 (Cambridge)

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June 2012 qp.42 (Cambridge)

June 2003 qp.4 (Cambridge)

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Chapter Thirteen: Projectile Motion

“It is not an easy thing to alter the trajectory of your life. People have expectations on your
behalf. You come to believe them yourself.”
– Jay Parini

A projectile is any body that is given an initial impetus (that is, an instant force that triggers
motion of a particle) and is allowed to move freely under the action of its weight alone. Under
ideal conditions the projectile undergoes a uniform vertical acceleration due to gravity. This
is due to the action of the body’s weight (which acts vertically, see page 321). Since there are
no forces acting in the horizontal plane, the body moves with a constant horizontal speed.
Fig. 4.1 below shows the motion an ideal projectile.

Fig. 13.1

In reality though, ideal

conditions are not Effects of air resistance
feasible due to the
presence of air
resistance and wind.
This affects the
motion of a body, for
example air resistance
decreases a
projectile’s speed,
maximum height and
range.
Fig. 13.2
The motion of a projectile can be expressed in terms of vertical and horizontal components
(on a Cartesian plane). This is called resolving (see Chapter Eleven, page 322). As shown in Fig.
13.3, if a body has an initial speed of projection , at an angle to the horizontal, the vertical
and horizontal components of its velocity are given by and respectively.

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Fig. 13.3

Resolving vertically (in the -axis)

sin =
ℎ

sin =

Fig. 13.4 ∴ =
Resolving horizontally (in the -axis)

cos =
ℎ

cos =

∴ =

Fig. 13.5

Since we are dealing with uniformly accelerated motion, Newton’s equations of motion can
be applied in determining the maximum height, time to reach maximum height, total time of
flight, horizontal range, locating the position and speed of the projectile, and its subsequent
direction at any given time.

Before we look at tools used in projectile analysis, it is critical to note that:

 Horizontal component of the speed is constant (acceleration is zero); this is because

there are no forces acting on the projectile in the horizontal plane,
 Vertical speed changes uniformly as a result of the acceleration due to gravity.
Acceleration is negative when the initial motion is upward and positive when the
initial motion is downward,
 At maximum height, the vertical component of the speed is zero, that is, the
projectile moves horizontally only.

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Analysis of Ideal Projectiles

An ideal projectile is one in which the body returns to the same height as at the initial
projection.

1. Maximum height

= +2

ℎ = = sin ; = 0; = − ; = ℎ

⇒ 0 = ( sin ) + 2(− )(ℎ )

⇒2 ℎ= sin

∴ =

2. Time to reach maximum height

= +

ℎ = 0; = = sin ; = − ; =

⇒0= sin + (− )

⇒ = sin

∴ =

3. Total time of flight

Since the trajectory is parabolic in nature (and therefore symmetrical, see Fig. 13.6),

Fig. 13.6

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ℎ ℎ ℎ = ℎ
ℎ =2× ℎ ℎ ℎ

∴ =

4. Horizontal range
1
= +
2
ℎ = = cos ; = 0 ( ); = ; =
1
⇒ = + (0)
2
⇒ = ×
2 sin
⇒ = cos ×

2 sin cos
⇒ =

2 sin cos ≡ sin 2

∴ =

ℎ sin 2 = 1
⇒ 2 = sin (1)
⇒ 2 = 90°
⇒ = 45°
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ = 45°

∴ =

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The horizontal and vertical components of the acceleration, velocity and displacement of a
projectile at time are given by:

Table 13.1

Horizontal Vertical
Acceleration 0 ±
Velocity
cos sin −
( = + )

Displacement 1
1 ( cos ) ( sin ) −
= + 2
2

5. Trajectory

The path taken by a projectile is known as its trajectory. If we consider the vertical
and horizontal motion of a projectile to be in the Cartesian plane, then the horizontal
and vertical displacement at time are given by:

= ( cos ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1
1
= ( sin ) − ⎯ 2
2
respectively.

(1), =
cos

(2),

1
⇒ = ( sin ) −
cos 2 cos

sin 1 sin
⇒ = − ℎ ≡ tan
cos 2 cos cos

∴ = −

This is called the equation of trajectory. This equation is used to analyse problems
concerning both ideal and non-ideal projectiles.

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The resultant speed, , of a projectile with horizontal component and vertical component
at time is determined using a Pythagorean triangle:

= +

∴ = +

Fig. 13.7

The direction of the projectile (the angle it forms with the horizontal) is given by

If the angle is negative it implies that it is

an angle below the horizontal and the
opposite is true.

Fig. 13.8

Worked Examination Questions on Ideal Projectiles

Question (Cambridge, June 2011 qp.51)

[Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

Solution

2 sin
=

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2 × 15 × sin 40
⇒ =
10
∴ = .

Question (Zimsec, November 2005 qp.4)

12. [Take acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

A projectile is fired from a point O at an angle of ° to the horizontal. The speed of the
projectile when it is at its greatest height H above O is of its speed when it is at a
height of above O. Find the value of . [6]

Solution

, H, = 0 = cos

H = cos

H
: = cos = +2
2
H
⇒ = ( sin ) + 2(−9.81)
2
= +

H
⇒ = ( cos ) + ( sin ) + 2(−9.81)
2
⇒ = cos + sin − 9.81H

⇒ = (cos + sin ) − 9.81H

ℎ cos + sin ≡1

⇒ = − 9.81H
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⇒ = − 9.81H

1
=
3
1
⇒ cos = − 9.81H
3

3 cos = − 9.81H

⇒ (3 cos ) = − 9.81H

, ℎ ℎ H

sin
H=
2

sin
⇒9 cos = − 9.81
2 × 9.81

sin
⇒9 cos = −
2

⇒ 18 cos =2 − sin

ℎ ℎ

⇒ 18 cos = 2 − sin

sin + cos ≡ 1, sin = 1 − cos

⇒ 18 cos = 2 − (1 − cos )

⇒ 18 cos = 2 − 1 + cos

⇒ 17 cos =1
1
⇒ cos =
17
1
⇒ cos =
17

1
⇒ = cos
17

⇒ = 75.96
∴ = °
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Question (Cambridge, November 1990 qp.2)

4. [Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

A particle is projected from the origin O on horizontal ground and moves freely under
gravity. Referred to a horizontal -axis and a -axis which is vertically upwards, the
equation of the trajectory of the particle is

= − ,

where and are constants, and where the distances are measured in metres. The
trajectory is observed to pass through the points (200, 300) and (800, 0).

(i). Find the values of and . [3]

(ii). Find, correct to the nearest degree, the angle of elevation above the
horizontal at which the particle is projected and show that the speed of
projection is 100 ms . [4]

(iii). Find, correct to the nearest second, the time, after projection, at which the
particles reaches the point (800, 0). [3]

(iv). Find, to the nearest degree, the inclination to the horizontal of the
direction of motion if the particle ten seconds after projection. [4]

Solution

(i). ℎ ,

300 = 200 − (200)

⇒ 300 = 200 − 40000 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

0 = 800 − (800)

⇒ 0 = 800 − 640000 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2

(2), = 800

(1),

⇒ 300 = 200(800 ) − 40000

⇒ 300 = 160000 − 40000

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⇒ 300 = 120000

300
⇒ =
120000

∴ =

(2),
1
⇒ = 800
400
∴ =

(ii). =2 −
1
⇒ =2−
200

ℎ = 0, =2

tan =

⇒ tan =

⇒ tan =2

⇒ = tan (2)

⇒ = 63.4349

∴ = °

= tan −
2 cos
10 × 800
⇒ 0 = 800 tan[tan (2)] −
× {cos[tan (2)]}
16 000 000
⇒ 0 = 1 600 −

16 000 000
⇒ 1 600 =

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⇒ 1 600 = 16 000 000

16 000 000
⇒ =
1 600

⇒ = 10 000

⇒ = √10 000

∴ = ( )

(iii). ℎ ℎ = +

ℎ = = 800; = cos ; = 0; =
= cos ×

⇒ =
cos
800
⇒ =
100 cos[tan (2)]
⇒ = 17.8885

∴ =

(iv). = tan

ℎ = cos

⇒ = 100 cos[tan (2)]

⇒ = 44.72136

= sin −

⇒ = 100 sin[tan (2)] − 10(10)

⇒ = −10.55728

⇒ = tan

−10.55728
⇒ = tan
44.72136

⇒ = −13.2825
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∴ = °

Revision Questions on Ideal Projectiles

June 2003 qp.5 (Cambridge)

June 2007 qp.5 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.51 (Cambridge)

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November 2005 qp.5 (Cambridge)

November 2010 qp.53 (Cambridge)

November 2006 qp.5 (Cambridge)

June 2002 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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June 2004 qp.5 (Cambridge)

November 2012 qp.51 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.52 (Cambridge)

November 2007 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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November 2009 qp.51 (Cambridge)

June 2012 qp.53 (Cambridge)

November 2008 qp.5 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.2 (Zimsec)

10. A particle is projected from a point O on the ground with a speed of V ms at an

angle of 60° to the horizontal and passes through the points A and B, where A √3; 2
is a point before it reaches its maximum height above O at b (see diagram).

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a) Express V in terms of . [4]

b) Find the angle that AB makes with the horizontal. [6]

November 2010 qp.51 (Cambridge)

November 2011 qp.4 (Zimsec)

14. Two particles are projected simultaneously from two points A and B on level ground
which are 150 m apart. The first particle is projected vertically upwards from A with
an initial speed of m/s, and the second particle is projected from B towards A with
an initial velocity m/s at an angle of projection . If the particles collide when they
are both at their greatest height above the level AB, prove that

tan =
150
[7]
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Analysis of Non-ideal Projectiles

As previously established, ideal projectiles return to the same horizontal level as at the point
of initial projection. In some cases however, the projectile may land at a point higher or lower
than the initial horizontal level. The analysis of these scenarios is outlined below.

Scenario I

If a body is given an initial horizontal speed as shown,

Fig. 13.9

the following truths must be remembered:

 The horizontal component of the velocity is constant,

 The initial vertical component of the velocity is zero (this is the same scenario as
when an object is dropped),
 The acceleration due to gravity is positive.

This is best explained using a practical example as shown in the following question.

Question (Zimsec, November 2007 qp.2)

11. A man fires a gun horizontally with a speed of 10 ms from the top of a vertical 7-
storey building which is ℎ metres high (see diagram).

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The bullet moves under gravity and hits a peg on the ground 20 m from the building.
Find the exact value, in terms of of

(i). ℎ, [4]

(ii). the speed of the bullet as it hits the peg. [4]

Solution

(i). ℎ ℎ , ℎ= ℎ 20 m,
ℎ : = 20; = 10; = 0; =
1
= +
2
1
⇒ 20 = 10 + (0)
2
⇒ 20 = 10
⇒ = 2 seconds
: = ℎ; = 0; = 2; =

1
= +
2

1
⇒ ℎ = (0)(2) + ( 2)
2

∴ =

(ii). = 10

= +

⇒ = 0 + (2)

⇒ =2

= +

⇒ = 10 + (2 )

∴ = +

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Scenario II

If a projectile lands on a level higher than the level at the point of projection as in Fig. 13.10,

Fig. 13.10

In such cases,

 The vertical displacement, = between the levels is positive,

 The acceleration due to gravity is negative

The following question explains the dynamics and applications in Scenario II.

Question (Cambridge, November 1998 qp.3)

11. Two friends are standing at different levels in a garden, and one throws a ball at the
other. Their horizontal distance apart is 8 m and the angle of projection is 60° above
the horizontal. The effect of air resistance is neglected.

(i). It is given that the ball is caught at a height of 1.5 m above the level of the point
from which it is thrown. Find the speed of projection. [5]

(ii). It is given instead that the direction of motion of the ball, when it is caught is 20°
below the horizontal. Find the speed of projection. [5]

Solution

(i). ,

= tan −
2 cos
ℎ = 1.5; = 8; = 60°; = 9.81
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9.81 × 8
⇒ 1.5 = 8 tan 60 −
2 (cos 60)
31 392
⇒ 1.5 = 8√3 −
25
31 392
⇒ = 8√3 − 1.5
25
⇒ 31 392 = 25 8√3 − 1.5
31 392
⇒ =
25 8√3 − 1.5

31 392
⇒ =
25 8√3 − 1.5

⇒ = 10.08076
∴ =

(ii). ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ , = −20°

= tan

⇒ −20 = tan

⇒ tan(−20) =

sin −
⇒ tan(−20) =
cos

, = 60°

sin 60 −
⇒ tan(−20) =
cos 60

⇒ cos 60 tan (−20) = sin 60 − ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1

ℎ : = 8; = cos 60 ; = ; = 0
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1
= +
2

⇒ =

⇒ 8 = ( cos 60)

8
⇒ =
cos 60

(1),

8
⇒ cos 60 tan (−20) = sin 60 − 9.81
cos 60

1 √3 3 924
⇒ tan(−20) = −
2 2 25

ℎ ℎ 50 ,

⇒ 25 tan(−20) = 25√3 − 7 848

⇒ 25√3 − 25 tan(−20) = 7 848

⇒ 25√3 − 25 tan(−20) = 7 848

7 848
⇒ =
25√3 − 25 tan(−20)

7 848
⇒ =
25√3 − 25 tan(−20)

⇒ = 12.23803

∴ =

Scenario III

If a projectile lands on a level lower than the level at the point of projection as shown in Fig.
13.11,

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Fig. 13.11

 The vertical displacement, = is negative; this is because the final point of impact
is lower than the initial point of projection,

 The acceleration due to gravity is negative; this is because the initial direction of the
velocity is opposite to the direction of the acceleration,

 The projectile may be considered ideal from the time of projection to the time it
returns to the same horizontal level as the point of projection. During this interval,
some standard results for an ideal projectile (maximum height from point of
projection and time to reach this maximum height only) can be employed.

The questions below unravel the practical applications on Scenario III.

Question (Cambridge, November 1991 qp.2)

4. [In this question, take the acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms .]

The point O is 20 m above horizontal ground. A particle is projected from O with

velocity 35 ms at an angle of elevation 45° above the horizontal, and it moves freely
under gravity. The particle hits the ground at the point A. Find, in any order,

(i). The height, above the ground, of the highest point of the path of the
particle, [2]

(ii). The time taken for the particle to travel from O to A, [6]

(iii). The speed and direction of motion of the particle immediately before its
impact with the ground at A. [6]

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Solution

(i).

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ = ℎ ℎ + 20
sin
ℎ =
2
35 × (sin 45)
⇒ℎ =
2 × 10
245
⇒ℎ =
8
245
⇒ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ = + 20
8

∴ =

(ii). : = −20; = −10; = 35 sin 45 ; =

1
= + ,
2
1
⇒ −20 = (35 sin 45) + (−10)
2
35√2
⇒ −20 = −5
2
35√2
⇒5 − − 20 = 0
2
ℎ ,
−√2
= 4√2 ( )
2
∴ = √

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(iii). = +

ℎ = cos

⇒ = 35 cos 45

35√2
⇒ =
2

= sin −

⇒ = 35 sin 45 − 10 4√2

45√2
⇒ =−
2

= +

35√2 −45√2
⇒ = +
2 2

∴ = √

= tan

45√2
−2
⇒ = tan
35√2
2
9
⇒ = tan −
7
⇒ = −52.1250

∴ = °

Question (Zimsec O Level Additional Mathematics, November 2005 qp.2)

6. A bullet is fire with a velocity whose horizontal and vertical components are and
respectively.

a) Find its horizontal displacement and its vertical displacement at time in terms of
and . [1]

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b) If the horizontal velocity is 600 ms and is aimed at hitting a target 5 m above

the muzzle at a distance of 200 m, find
(i). The time taken to hit the target, [1]
(ii). The vertical component of the velocity, the moment it hits the target, [2]
(iii). The angle of elevation correct to two decimal places, the moment it hits
the target. [2]

c) A projectile is fired from a point on a cliff to hit a mark 60 m horizontally from the
point and 60 m vertically below it. If the initial velocity is 10√6 ms , calculate the
two possible directions of projection. [6]

Solution

a) = + ℎ = 0 ℎ
∴ =
∴ = −
b)

(i) =

⇒ =

200
⇒ =
600

∴ =

(ii) = −

1 1 1
⇒5= − (−10)
3 2 3

1 5
⇒ =5−
3 9
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⇒ 3 = 45 − 5

⇒ 3 = 40

∴ =

(iii) = tan

40
⇒ = tan 3
600

⇒ = 1.27303

∴ = . °

c)

= tan −
2 cos

10 × 60
⇒ −60 = 60 tan −
2 × 10√6 cos

30
⇒ −60 = 60 tan −
cos

sin
⇒ −60 cos = 60 tan cos − 30 ℎ ≡ tan
cos
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sin
⇒ −60 cos = 60 cos − 30
cos

⇒ −60 cos = 60 sin cos − 30

ℎ ℎ 30,

⇒ −2 cos = 2 sin cos − 1

⇒ 2 cos − 1 + 2 sin cos = 0

ℎ 2 cos − 1 ≡ cos 2 2 sin cos ≡ sin 2

⇒ cos 2 + sin 2 = 0

sin 2 = − cos 2

ℎ cos 2 ,

sin 2 sin 2
= −1 ℎ ≡ tan 2
cos 2 cos 2

⇒ tan 2 = −1

⇒ 2 = tan (−1)

⇒ 2 = −45° ( )

tan 2 , 2 = + 180

⇒ 2 = −45 + 180

−45 + 180
⇒ =
2

ℎ = 0, = = −22.5°

ℎ = 1, = 67.5°

∴ . ° . °

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Scenario IV

Fig. 13.12

Despite bearing resemblance to Scenario II, when a projectile encounters an obstacle it

usually does not ‘land’. In this case there really is no range to calculate, however it is
important to note that questions involving this scenario involve rebounding of the projectile
in which the vertical and horizontal components of the velocity may change after impact with
a surface.

 Acceleration due to gravity is negative,

 Vertical and horizontal displacement are both positive,
 The horizontal component of the velocity may change in magnitude and direction.

The scenario is best amplified by the following question.

Question (Unknown Source)

4. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

A particle is projected with speed at an angle of elevation above the horizontal,

and moves freely under gravity. Prove that the range on a horizontal plane through
the point of projection is
sin 2

[3]

The point is situated on the ground 10 m in front of a vertical wall. A particle is

projected from , with speed ms at an angle of elevation 30° above the
horizontal, in the vertical plane through perpendicular to the wall. The particle hits
the wall while still moving upwards. Show that, correct to 3 significant figures, >
15.2. [3]

At the impact with the wall, the vertical component of the particle’s velocity remains
unchanged. Show that the time from the instant of projection until the particle hits
the ground is s. [2]
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It is also given that, at the impact with the wall, the horizontal component of the
particle’s velocity is reversed in direction and halved in magnitude. The particle
returns to without first hitting the ground. Find the value of , giving your answer
correct to 3 significant figures. [6]

Solution

= ×

2 sin
⇒ = cos ×

2 sin cos
⇒ = { 2 sin cos ≡ sin 2 }

(2 sin cos )
⇒ =

∴ = ( )

Since the wall is located at a point before the line of symmetry (half of range)

1
⇒ 10 <
2

⇒ 20 <

sin 2
⇒ 20 <
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⇒ 20 < sin 2

20
⇒ <
sin 2

20(10)
⇒ >
sin(2 × 30)

200
⇒ =
sin 60

⇒ > 15.1967

∴ > . ( )

Since the vertical component of the velocity is unchanged and the particle goes back to the
initial point of projection, which implies that the displacement is zero.

= 0; = sin ; = − ; =

1
= +
2

1
⇒ 0 = ( sin ) + (− )
2

ℎ ℎ

1
⇒0= sin −
2

1
⇒ = sin
2

2 sin
⇒ =

2 sin 30
⇒ =
10

2 1 2
⇒ =
10

∴ = ( )
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The journey of the particle is divided into two parts, that is, the forward journey and the
return journey. In this case, forward journey denotes the motion of the particle from the
point of projection to the wall and return journey denotes the motion of the particle from the
wall back to the point of projection.

ℎ = +

1
ℎ =
10

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

= 10; = cos 30 ; = 0; =

1
= +
2

1
⇒ 10 = ( cos 30) + (0)
2

⇒ 10 = ( cos 30)

10
⇒ =
cos 30

= ℎ −

1 10
= −
10 cos 30

ℎ ℎ ℎ ,

1 1 10
= −10; = =− cos 30 ; = − ; = 0; =
2 10 cos 30

1
= + ,
2

1
⇒ = + ( 0)
2

1 1 10
⇒ −10 = − cos 30 −
2 10 cos 30

1 1 10
⇒ 10 = cos 30 × − cos 30 ×
2 10 2 cos 30
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√3
⇒ 10 = −5
40

√3
⇒ 15 =
40

⇒ 600 = √3

600
⇒ =
√3

600
⇒ =
√3

⇒ = 18.6121

∴ =

Revision Questions on Non-ideal Projectiles

November 2006 qp.5 (Cambridge)

November 2009 qp.52 (Cambridge)

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November 2012 qp.53 (Cambridge)

June 2010 qp.53 (Cambridge)

November 2003 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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November 2013 qp.4 (Zimsec)

14. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

(a) A particle of mass m kg is projected with a velocity of 28 ms from the point O on

level ground at an angle of 50° to the horizontal. It reaches its highest point at A on
the edge of a rough horizontal plank AB, (see diagram).

Giving your answers correct to two decimal places,

Calculate

(i). The height of A above O,

(ii). The speed of the particle at the point A. [4]

(b) When it reaches the point A, the particle slides along the plank and just manages to
reach the point B and drops to the point C which is vertically below B, and on the same
level as O. the points O, A, B and C are on the same vertical plane. The coefficient of
friction between the plank and the particle is 0.8.

(i). Calculate the retardation of the particle between A and B.

(ii). Hence find the length of the plank AB. [4]

June 2012 qp.4 (Zimsec)

13. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

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The diagram shows the trajectory of a ball that is projected from the top of a building
40 m high with initial velocity of 20 ms at angle of 30° to the horizontal. The ball
hits the ground at a point P (see diagram).

Find

(i). The time of the flight of the ball, [2]

(ii). The direction in which the ball is moving when it hits point P. [3]

June 2006 qp.5 (Cambridge)

November 2002 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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November 2003 qp.2 (Zimsec)

10. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

A child throws a ball from a height of 2 m above the level ground aiming at a target.
The target is on top of a vertical pole of height 2.5 m. the distance of the child from
the pole is 15 m (see diagram).

√
The initial speed of the ball is ms at an angle of elevation arcsin , and the ball
moves freely under gravity.

Calculate

a) Find the value of for which the ball hits the target, [4]
b) The direction of the ball as it hits the target. [4]

June 2008 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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June 2005 qp.5 (Cambridge)

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November 2008 qp.4 (Zimsec)

4. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

A particle is projected with speed at an angle of elevation above the horizontal,

and moves freely under gravity. Prove that the range on a horizontal plane through
the point of projection is

sin 2

[3]

The point is situated on the ground 10 m in front of a vertical wall. A particle is

projected from , with speed ms at an angle of elevation 30° above the
horizontal, in the vertical plane through perpendicular to the wall. The particle hits
the wall while still moving upwards. Show that,

> 15.1 correct to 3 significant figures. [3]

November 1996 qp.2 (Cambridge)

5. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 10 ms in this question.]

A shell is fired from a stationary ship O which is at a distance of 1 000 m from the foot
of a vertical cliff AB of height 100 m. the shell passes vertically above B and lands at a
point C on horizontal ground, level with the top of the cliff (see Fig.1). The shell is fired
with speed 300 ms at angle of elevation , and air-resistance to the motion of the
shell may be neglected.

(i). Given that = 30°,

a) Show that, when the shell is vertically above B, its height above B is
approximately 403 m, [3]
b) Find the time taken for the shell to travel from O to C, giving your answer
correct to 3 significant figures, [3]
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c) Find the distance BC, correct to the nearest 100 m. [2]

(ii).

Given that the shell just passes over B, as shown in Fig. 2, find the value of ,
correct to the nearest 0.1°. [6]

November 2000 qp.3 (Cambridge)

14. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

A firework F is places at a height of 1m above horizontal ground. Sparks are projected

from the burning firework with a speed of 2 ms . Two sparks are projected from the
firework at the same time, the first at an angle of 30° above the horizontal, and the
second at an angle of 30° below the horizontal. The first spark passes through the
same horizontal level as F at the point G and reaches the ground at H. the second spark
reaches the ground at K (see diagram). The sparks move in the same vertical plane. It
is assumed that there is no air resistance and the sparks are modelled as particles

(i). Find the distance FG, [3]

(ii). Give a reason why, until it reaches the ground, the second spark remains
vertically below the first, [1]

(iii). Show that, while they are both in motion, the vertical distance between the
two sparks, at time seconds after projection, is proportional to , [3]

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(iv). Calculate the angle between the horizontal and the path of one of the sparks
as it hits the ground, [5]

(v). Give a reason why the distance between the paths FK and GH is constant. [2]

June 1998 qp.3 (Cambridge)

15. [Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 ms in this question.]

The diagram shows the trajectory of a tennis ball during a serve. The server’s racket
hits the ball at a point A which is 2.8 m above the ground, and projects the ball towards
the receiver with initial velocity components ms horizontally and ms
vertically downwards. The server and the receiver are each at a distance of 12 m
horizontally from the net, and the ball bounces halfway between the net and the
receiver. The receiver’s racket hits the ball 0.6 s after the serve, at the point B. assume
that the ball may be treated as a particle, that air resistance may be neglected, and
that the ball’s horizontal speed is unaffected by the bounce.

(i). Show that = 40. [1]

(ii). Find the value of , and show that the ball clears the net, which has a height
of 0.91 m, by approximately 0.24 m. [5]

(iii). The point B is 0.75 m above the ground. Calculate the direction in which the
ball is travelling when the receiver’s racket hits it at B. [5]
Suppose now that the air resistance is taken into account, but that the other
assumptions and all the given distances and times remain unchanged. State, with a
reason, whether the value of is larger or smaller than 40. [2]

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Answers to Revision Questions

Section A: Pure Mathematics

Chapter One: Matrix Algebra

Questions on General Matrices

 N09/P2/Q5 (Z)  J09/P2/Q10 (IB)

3 5 1
(i) 2 0 3 0 1 0
4 2 4 (a)(i) = 1 0 1
(ii) 6 1 1 0
(iii) = −1; = 1; = 1 0 −1 −1
(a)(i) = −1 0 −1
0 −1 0
 N03/P2/Q3 (Z) (a)(ii) ; | + |=0
1 0 0
(b) = 0 1 0  US
0 0 1
(b) = −15; = 10; = 39 = 2; = −3; = 5

 N09/P1/Q1 (ZAFM)  US
15 9 5
= ; = − ; = 1 1
2 4 2 = 0; = − ; =
3 3

 N07/P2/Q5 (Z)
(b)(i) 9  US
3 −1 −3
1 −10 7 −5
= 3 −1 −4
(b)(ii) 4 −1 2
9 −2 1 2
−13 10 −11
7 1 13
= ; = − ; =  US
3 3 3
−16 −8 −34
 N07/P1/Q10 (IB) 14 −46 −63
−24 −12 2
(ii) = −2, 1 3

 J05/P1/Q1 (AQA)
 N06/P1/Q1 (IB)
2 −7 3
(a) 0 2 −1 (a)(i) 3 6
6 3
−1 3 −1
(b) = 2; = −3; = 4 (a)(ii) 8 6
6 8

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 J08/P1/Q6 (AQA) 1 ⟦ − 9⟧ ⟦3 − ⟧ 2
( b) ⟦12 − ⟧ ⟦ − 4⟧ −2
2
−1 1 0
(a) 0 −4

4 0
 J03/P1/Q5 (IB)
 J06/P4/Q2 (AQA)
= 1 6
(a) det = − 2;
(a) det = 3 − 28  N01/P1/Q9 (IB)
4
(b) = 10 = 4 7
3

 J07/P4/Q8 (AQA)  N01/P1/Q6 (IB)

(a)(i) 5 + 10
= 1; = 8
(a)(ii) 25
(a)(iii) − 2
 J02/P1/Q4 (IB)
1
(b)(i)
25 1
1 = 3 −
(b)(ii) 3
25
(b)(iii) 625
 J08/P1/Q2 (IB)
 J05/P4/Q1 (AQA)
= 0, 1 −1
5 7
= −1; = ; =
2 2  J06/P1/Q17 (IB)
 J08/P4/Q3 (AQA) (b) − 3
(a) 2

Questions on Transformations

 J05/P1/Q5 (AQA) −√3 1

⎛ 2 2⎞
(a) ; (c) ⎜ ⎟
1 √3
=
⎝ 2 2⎠
1 √3
⎛2 −
( b) ⎜ 2⎞
⎟
√3 1  J06/P1/Q7 (AQA)
⎝2 2 ⎠
(a)(i) ;
(a)(i) =−

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(a)(ii) 1 0
(b)(ii) = tan 30°
0 1 (c) ;
(a)(iii) (c) 144
(b)(i) 0 2
0 0
J02/P1/Q18 (IB)
(b)(ii) 1 2 
0 −1
(a) (1; 2)
(b) (0; 0)
 J07/P1/Q2 (AQA)
 J00/P1/Q2 (IB)
(a)(i) √3 0
1 0 (a) 1 0
0 −1
(a)(ii) 1 0 (b) ;
0 −1
(b)(i) 30° (b) =0
( )( )
( )( ) ℎ  J03/P2/Q2 (IB)
(b)(ii) ; −1 0
(a) =
(b)(ii) = (tan 15) 0 −1
(b)(iii) (a) 0 1
ℎ =
1 0
− 0 −1
(a) =
1 0
 J08/P1/Q8 (AQA) (b)(i) 1 0
0 −1
(b)(ii) ;
(a) 3 0
0 1 (b)(ii) =0
(b)
(c) 0 1
 N03/P2/Q3 (Z)
3 0
1 25
(a) = − +
8 8
 J08/P1/Q6 (AQA)
(a)(ii) = 2√3  N07/P2/Q5 (Z)
(a) 7 − 2 + 6 = 0
(b)(i) 2√3

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Chapter Two: Further Vector Methods

 N07/P3/Q10 (C) (ii) 5.1° 0.089

(i) 3 + 2 +
(ii) 72.2° 1.26  J11/P31/Q3 (C)
(iii) = 3 + 2 + (i) 3 − 4 + 6 = 80
+ (−6 − 2 + ) (ii) 30.8° 0.538
 N11/P31/Q7 (C)
 J08/P3/Q10 (C) 3
(ii)
(ii) 5 + 3 + 4 8

 N08/P3/Q7 (C)  N11/P33/Q9 (C)

(i) 57.7° 1.01 (ii) 4
(ii) = 2 − + (4 − 7 + 5 ) (iii) 13 −5

 N09/P31/Q6 (C)  J12/P31/Q8 (C)

(i) = 2 + − 2 (i) √104 10.2
+ ( −3 +3 ) (ii) 3 − 9 + = −28
(ii) 5 − 8 + 7
 J12/P33/Q9 (C)
 N09/P32/Q10 (C) (ii) = 3, = 2
(i) 2 − 3 + 6 = 2 (iii) + 2 + 3
(ii) 2
(iii) = (−6 − 2 + )  N12/P31/Q10 (C)
(i) 3 + = 13
 J10/P31/Q10 (C) (ii) 3√2 (4.24)
(ii) 74.2° 1.30
(iii) − 5 + 3 + 4 = 2  N12/P33/Q8 (C)
(i) = 9; (7, −1, 2)
 J10/P32/Q9 (C) (ii) − 11 + 10 + 7 = −73
(i) − 2
(ii) 3  N93/P2/Q15 (CSC)
(i) 36.7°
 J10/P33/Q10 (C) 3 6 9
(i) 4 + 3 (ii) , ,
7 7 7
(ii) 26.5° 0.462 (iii) − 2 + = 0
(iii) 6 + 4 − 7 = 36
 N92/P2/Q15 (CSC)
 N10/P31/Q7 (C) (i) − 6 + 2
(i) = + 2 + 2 3 1
+ (2 + 2 − 2 ) (ii) = −12 + −6
2 5 7 1 2
(ii) + +
3 3 3 (1, 0, − 3); ℎ = √246
(iii) 2 + 5 + 7 = 26
 N09/P2/Q6 (Z)
 N10/P33/Q6 (C) 3 −1
(i) (−1, 5, 4) (a)(i) = 1 + 6
−2 −2
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19 19 18 21
(a)(ii) , ,− 5
7 7 7 ⎛ ⎞
(b)(ii) 3 + 2 − 6 = −13 (ii) ⎜34 5⎟
√14 23
(a)(iii) ⎝ 5⎠
2
(iii) 45.6°
 J91/P1/Q7 (CSC)
3 1  N92/P1/Q7 (CSC)
= 1 + −1 ; 45° 7
−2 4 √14

 N90/P2/Q15 (CSC)  N94/P2/Q15 (CSC)

(2, 1, 3); (−4, 2, 7) 1
10 + 16 + 11 (i) 4
−4
 N07/P2/Q7 (Z) (ii) √19
2 (iii) − 8 + 11 + 9 = 0
7 (iv) 29.9°
(a)(i) ∙ 3 2 = −
2
1
2  N96/P2/Q15 (CSC)
(a)(ii) ∙ 2 = 10 (ii) + + 2 = 15
3 0 1
(iii) (0, 4, 4); = 4 + 1
 N03/P2/Q5 (Z) 4 2
3
2√805 (iv) , 4, 1
(i) 2
7

Chapter Three: Complex Numbers

 J07/P3/Q8 (C) 2
(ii) | | = , arg = +
(i) | | = √2 , 3
2
3 (ii) = , arg = −
arg =− − 135° 3
4 (iii)
| | = 2,
1 (iv) − 2 − √3 − 2√3 + 1
arg = 90°
2
(ii)  N09/P32/Q7 (C)

 N08/P3/Q10 (C) (i) (a) 1 + 2

1 1
(i) | | = 1, (b) − +
2 2 2
arg = 120° 3
3 (ii) 135°
4
(iv) = , ∥
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 J10/P31/Q7 (C)  N10/P33/Q3 (C)

(i) | | = √8 , (i) 3 + 4 ; 5
1 (ii)
arg = 45°
4
(ii)  J11/P31/Q8 (C)
(iii) √7 (i) 3
3
(ii) √2
 N10/P31/Q6 (C) 2
(i) | | = 2 , (iii) 3√2 + 1
1
arg = 30°
6  J11/P32/Q7 (C)
(ii) (a) 3√3 + 5 10
1 1 (a) (i) +
(b) √3 + +4 +4
2 2 (ii) − 2
(iii) ( b)

 N11/P31/Q10 (C)  J12/P33/Q10 (C)

(a) ± √3 − √2 (a) = 1 + 2 ; = 1 − 2
( b) ; = −1 + 2 ; = −1 − 2
(b)(i)
131.8° 2.30
(b)(ii) 2 + √2
 J12/P31/Q4 (C)
2 11
(i) − +
5 5
(ii)

 J09/P3/Q7 (C)
(i) 1 − √3 ; −1 − √3
(ii)
(iii) ℎ ℎ 2
1 5
arg 1 − √3 = −60° 300°, − ; −
3 3
2 4
arg −1 − √3 = −120° 240°, − ,−
3 3

 N09/P31/Q7 (C)  J04/P3/Q8 (C)

(i) = 20 1 √3 1 √3
(ii) − 2 − (i) + −
2 2 2 2
(iii) | | = √5 , (ii) | | = 1;
arg = 153.4° 2.68 arg( ) = −
(iv) 3 3

 J10/P33/Q8 (C)  N02/P3/Q8 (C)

(a) 1 + 2 ; −1 − 2
(a) 1 − √3
1 7
(b) (b)(i) +
5 5
(b)(ii)

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(b)(iii) = (i) √20

−26.6°/−0.464
3 4
 N05/P3/Q3 (C) (ii) −
5 5
(ii) 1 − 2
(iii)  N10/P1/Q3 (Z)
7 1
 N06/P1/Q9 (Z) −
25 25
(i) = −3; = −1 1
√2
5
 N07/P1/Q4 (Z)
2  J07/P3/Q8 (C)
=− (i) | | = √2 ,
5
3
arg = − − 135°
 J10/P1/Q10 (Z) 4
= 4 − 2 ; | | = 2,
1
arg = 90°
 N04/P1/Q2 (Z) 2

 N07/P2/Q1 (Z) (iv) ( + 4)( − 2)( + 2)(

(ii) − 2 + 3)
(iii) ( + 4)

Questions on De Moivre’s Theorem

 N09/P2/Q1 (Z)  J06/P1/Q9 (CAFM)

1 1 3 1 7
cos 4 − cos 2 + cos 7 + cos 5
8 2 8 64 64
21 35
+ cos 3 + cos
 J13/P13/Q7 (CAFM) 64 64
1
(10 − 15 cos 2 + 6 cos 4  J07/P1/Q11 (CAFM)
32
− cos 6 ) (a) = −128
5 11
−
64 48  J10/P11/Q9 (CAFM)
(i) ;
 J03/P1/Q6 (CAFM)
(i) = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
cos ; = 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 (ii) 2
9 ;
(ii) = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
 J04/P1/Q7 (CAFM) (ii)
2 ; 2 ;
2

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 J12/P13/Q7 (CAFM)  N10/P1/Q10 (CAFM)

4 + 2 cos 2 − 4 cos 4 − 2 cos 6 √5

 N11/P13/Q5 (CAFM)  J06/P2/Q6 (AQA)

1 1 3 (a)(ii) 2 cos 2
cos 4 + cos 2 +
8 2 8 1 ± √3
1 3 (b) = ± ; =
+ 2
4 32

 J08/P2/Q8 (AQA)
 N02/P1/Q7 (CAFM)
1
15 1 (a)(i) −
cos 2 + cos 6
16 16 1 1
(a)(ii) + +2 +
 N03/P1/Q8 (CAFM) 1
5 15 3 − + −4
− cos 2 + cos 4
16 32 16 (b)(ii) 2 sin
1 1 1
− cos 6 (c) − cos 6 − cos 4
32 32 16
1 1
 N04/P1/Q6 (CAFM) + cos 2 +
32 16
1 1
; (d) − sin 6 − sin 4
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 192 64
1 1
+ sin 2 +
64 16
 N06/P1/Q11 (CAFM) +
2 2
cos + ;
21 7  J08/P2/Q1 (AQA)
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
(a) 4√2
 N08/P1/Q10 (CAFM) (b) √2 ; √2 ;
(i) 128 sin − 256 sin
+ 160 sin (b) √2 ; √2
− 32 sin + 1 (b) √2
1
(ii) −
16
 J08/P2/Q6 (AQA)
(a)(ii) 3 cos sin − sin
 N09/P1/Q7 (CAFM)
5 9
5 15 3 (b)(ii) tan ; tan
− cos 2 + cos 4 12 12
16 32 16
1
− cos 6  J03/P2/Q3 (IB)
32
5 1 1
(c)(i) + +5 +
64
1
+ 10 z +
z
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1 13√3
(c)(ii) (cos 5 + 5 cos 3 ( b) −
16 5
+ 10 cos )
 N03/P2/Q6 (Z)
 N09/P2/Q7 (Z) (a)
(a) 8 (b) 2 cos 5 + 10 cos 3
(b) (1 − 2 ), 5, − 3 + 20 cos
(b) 16 sin − 20 sin (c) (2 − 3 ) −1
+ 5 sin

Chapter Four: Mathematical Induction

Question on Matrix Algebra

 N02/P2/Q1 (IB)  J02/P2/Q3 (IB)

(ii)(a) 3 −2 (i)(a) 0
= ;
2 −1 (i)(b) = 5
(ii)(a) 4 −3
= ; (i)(c) : = ℎ
3 −2
5 −4 (i)(c) = 1 + =2−3
(ii)(a) =
4 −3 (i)(c) : = ℎ
(b)(i) +1 − (i)(c) = − 1 =5−3
=
1− (ii)(b)

Questions on Sequences and Series

 N14/P11/Q3 (CAFM)
2! − = 1; 3! − = 1
4! − = 1; 5! − = 1
= ( + 1)! − 1

Questions on Differentiation

 J04/P1/Q4 (CAFM)  N03/P1/Q4 (CAFM)

(i) = 1; = 2; = −6
= 2 cos − sin
(ii) = (−1) !

= sin − 4 cos

= (−1) ( sin − 2 cos )

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 N95/P2/Q1 (IB)

(b) = 16 ; = (−4)

Questions on Factors and Multiples

 J06/P2/Q6 (AQA)  N03/P2/Q1 (Z)

(a) 7 × 15 (i) ( + 1) ; ( + 1)
(ii) ( + 1)
 J08/P2/Q7 (AQA)
(a)

Questions on Complex Numbers

 J07/P2/Q5 (AQA)  N99/P2/Q1 (IB)

( b) − 1 (i)(a) 2
(i)(c) 65 536

 J03/P2/Q3 (IB)
(c)(i) + 5 + 10 + 10 +5 +
1
(c)(ii) (cos 5 + 5 cos 3 + 10 cos )
16

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Section B: Statistics

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis

 N01/P1/Q4 (COS)  J08/P6/Q1 (C)

(i) (i) = 24; = 16
Type of Tally Frequency (ii) = 5
vehicle
Car ǀǀǀǀ ǀǀǀǀ ǀǀǀǀ 14  N08/P2/Q1 (COS)
Bus ǀǀǀ 3 (i) &
Van ǀǀǀǀ ǀǀǀ 8
(ii) &
Lorry ǀǀǀǀ 5
(iii) &
(ii)
 N09/P2/Q12 (Z)
Type of Frequency Sector
vehicle angle (i)
Car 14 168o (ii)
Bus 3 36o
Van 8 96o  J10/P61/Q2 (C)
Lorry 5 60o (i)
(ii) = 19; = 10;
(iii) = 24 = 14
(iii) ;
 N03/P2/Q12 (Z)
(a)  N09/P62/Q6 (C)
(b) (i)
(c)(i) (ii) ̅ = 37.5; = 16.9
(c)(ii)
 N08/P4/Q1 (Z)
= $2.14; = $1.37
 N10/P63/Q5 (C)
(i)
T 2 − 4 4 − 6 6 − 7 7 − 8 8 − 10 10 − 16
20 44 34 30 30 36

(ii) ̅ = 7.55
(iii) 0.429

 N08/P6/Q1 (C)
̅ = 38.4; = 4.57

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 N08/P2/Q11 (COS)  N11/P62/Q4 (C)

(i) & = 36; & = 40 (i) 45 − 60
& = 24 (ii) = 5;
(ii) & = 20; & = 32 = 20
& = 48 (iii) 50
(iii) : = 114; = 90; (iv)
= 96
: = 65; = 85;  N12/P63/Q4 (C)
= 100 (i) ̅ = 11.4; = 9.78 9.79
(iv) 65.1% (ii)
(v)
(vi)  J11/P62/Q5 (C)
(i)
 N05/P4/Q1 (Z) (ii) 174 175
; (iii) = 59 60
= 1065 1075
 J12/P4/Q4 (Z)
 N07/P1/Q1 (COS) (a)
(i) = 301°; (b)
(i) = 31°; (c)
(i) = 18°;
(i) . = 10°  J12/P63/Q1 (C)
(ii) (i) ;
ℎ ;
 J12/P61/Q5 (C) (ii) ℎ ;
(i) ;
(ii) = 0.74; = 0.13 ℎ ;
(iii) ̅ = 0.927; = 0.0882
 N01/P2/Q1 (COS)
 N07/P2/Q1 (COS) (i) ̅ = 25.6
(i) (ii) = 8.4
(ii)
(iii)  N02/P1/Q3 (COS)
(iv) (i) 3
(ii) 3.1
 J06/P6/Q1 (C) (iii) 2.6
= $47 000;
 J10/P62/Q3 (C)
 N12/P61/Q4 (C) = 2.0 − 2.1; = 3.8 − 3.9
(i) ℎ ℎ
(ii) = 15 400 = 0.9; = 2.3
(iii) 0.121 ℎ ℎ
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 J11/P61/Q6 (C)  N05/P2/Q3 (Z)

(i) ; = 270 (i)
(ii) 155 165 (ii)(a) 52.9 53.3
(iii) 500 (ii)(b) 2.4 2.8
(iv) 268 (iii) 48 50%

 N02/P1/Q1 (COS)  N10/P61/Q4 (C)

(i) 18 (i) = 15; ℎ ℎ = 0.75
(ii) 20 (ii) 26.6

 J11/P63/Q3 (C)  N11/P63/Q5 (C)

(ii) 91 (i)
(iii) 37.6 (ii)
(iii)(a) €42 500
 N08/P2/Q6 (COS)
(i)  N05/P2/Q4 (ZOAM)
( )
ii 13; 32; 55; 84; 112; 130; 137 (a)
(iii)(a) 10 (b) 62
(b) 30.5 − 30.9
 N04/P1/Q11 (COS)
 N09/P61/Q4 (C) (b)(i) 21 − 23%
(i) 67 (b)(ii) 55 − 59%
(ii) (b)(iii)
(iii) (b)(iv)
(b)(v)
 J10/P63/Q6 (C)
(i) = 0.825; = 0.019  N05/P2/Q11 (COS)
(ii) = 4; = 2 (a)(i) ℎ
(iii) (ii) ; ;
(iv) ( ); ;
( );
(iii)
(b)

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Chapter Five: Probability

Questions on Tree Diagrams  N03/P1/Q11 (COS)

115
 N05/P4/Q2 (Z) (c)
208
8
25  N13/P4/Q2 (Z)
23
 J09/P6/Q5 (C) (i)
500
1 1 1
(i) ( ) = ; ( ) = ; (ii)
4 4 46
1
( ) =
2  N09/P62/Q3 (C)
(ii) (i)
29 17
(iii) (ii)
40 26
3
(iv)
11  N05/P2/Q7 (COS)
(i) 0.458
 J12/P4/Q3 (Z)
(ii) 0.485
17
(a) (iii) 0.194
125
7 (iv) 0.0758
( b) (v) 0.101
17

 N11/P61/Q7 (C)  J12 /P61/Q2 (C)

47 (ii) 0.785
(i)
140
5  N11/P4/Q1 (Z)
(ii)
47 81
(iii) (a)
361
9
( b)
 N08/P4/Q2 (Z) 361
81
(i)
100  N05/P1/Q11 (COS)
7 33
(ii) (b)
18 56

 N10/P63/Q3 (C)  N12/P62/Q1 (C)

(i) (i) 0.1
170 1
(ii) (ii)
202 30

 J11/P61/Q2 (C)  N03/P6/Q5 (C)

0.921 135
;
181

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Questions on Combinations 1
(ii)
20
 N03/P2/Q17 (ZOAM) 1
3 (iii)
(i) 2
11 1
27 (iv)
(ii) 4
220 (v)
3
(iii) (vi) 0.904
44

 N90/P2/Q6 (C)
Questions on Space Diagrams
1
(i)
14  J11/P63/Q4 (C)
97 1
(ii) (i)(a)
105 36
37 5
(iii) (i)(b)
42 36
85 (ii)
(iv)
97
;
 N05/P2/Q10 (ZOAM)
1
 N02/P1/Q5 (COS) (i)
4
1 1
(i) (ii)
4 6
6 1
(ii) (iii)
11 3
5
(iii)
11  N10/P62/Q3 (C)
3 8
(iv)
11 11
Questions on Tabulated Data

 N11/P63/Q2 (C) Questions on Distribution Tables

5
(i)  J08/P6/Q6 (C)
6
(i)
(ii)
(ii)
 J12/P63/Q5 (C) 0 1 2 3 4
(i) 1 1 1 1 1
P(X = )
Designer Not Total `
2 4 8 16 16
designer
H-h 2 4 6 15
(iii)
shoes 16
L-h 1 3 4
shoes  J10/P61/Q1 (C)
Sports 5 5 10 = 0.2; = 0.25
Total 8 12 20

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 N08/P4/Q3 (Z)
(i)
0 9 18 36
27 4 4 1
P( = )
36 36 36 36

(ii) $4.00
profit = $1.00 ℎ ℎ ;

 J10/P62/Q6 (C)  J07/P6/Q7 (C)

(i) (i) 3 11
0 1 2 (ii) 12
55
P( X = ) 1 7 4 7 2 7 (iii)
20
(ii) Var( ) = 0 1 2 3
49
5 14 28 12 1
(iii) P(X = )
32 55 55 55 55

 N11/P4/Q7 (Z)
 N12/P61/Q1 (C)
(i) (a)
1 2 3 4 6 9
0 1 2 3
1 2 4 1 4 4
7 21 7 1 P(X = )
P( X = ) 16 16 16 16 16 16
24 40 40 120
( b)
 J11/P62/Q7 (C)
(ii)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X = ) 0.2 0.24 0.08 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.08
64
(iii)
25
2
(iv)
25
(v) 0.2 × 0.4

 N11/P63/Q3 (C)
17 16
(i) ( ) = ; Var( ) =
5 25
8
(ii)
25
48
(iii)
125

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 N12/P62/Q6 (C)
(ii)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P(X = ) 1 3 6 10 12 12 10 6 3 1
64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64
(iii)

 J12/P61/Q3 (C)  N05/P2/Q11 (ZOAM)

(i) 0.1 (b) (i)
(ii) (a) 0.225 0 1 2
(b) 0.765 P(X = ) 2 4 1
7 7 7

6 20
(ii) ( ) = ; Var( ) =
7 49
 N03/P2/Q8 (COS)
(i) 2
(ii) 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8
(iii) 7.2
(iv) (1; 4); (4; 1); (2; 3); (3; 2)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P( = ) 0.16 0.24 0.25 0.2 0.1 0.04 0.01

Chapter Six: Discrete Probability Distributions

Questions on Binomial Distribution

 J10/P63/Q3(C)  J11/P61/Q3(C)
(i) 0.159 17
(i)
(ii) 0.51 35
(iii) 7.2 (ii) 5.33
(iii) 1
 N10/P62/Q6(C)
(i)  N09/P2/Q11(Z)
(ii) 0.196 10

 N08/P4/Q6(Z)  J11/P62/Q1(C)
1 0.109
(a) ~ Bin ,
1000
(b)(i) 0.090
(b)(ii) 0.224

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 J05/P6/Q3(C)
(i) 0.0146
(ii)
0 1 2 3 4 5
( = ) 0.2373 0.3955 0.2637 0.0879 0.0146 0.0010

 J11/P63/Q6(C)  J04/P2/Q7 (CAFM)

(i) 10 19 2
;
(ii) 11 27 3
(iii) 0.115
 N04/P2/Q7 (CAFM)
1
 J12/P61/Q4(C) (i)
(i) 0.994 2
(ii) 0.405 (ii)

(iii) 5 (1 − )
 N11/P62/Q6(C)
(i) 0.953  UP (O)
(ii) 0.701 (a) 0.1029
( b)
 J12/P62/Q3(C) (c)
(i) 0.993
(ii) 22  J05/P2/Q6 (CAFM)
0.606; 200; 21
Questions on Geometric Progression

 J12/P4/Q1 (Z)  UP (L)

(a) 0.128
6
(b) ~ Geo(0.2)
(c) 0.512
 N11/P4/Q3 (Z)
(iii)
 N12/P21/Q6 (CAFM)
(i) 0.00288
 UP (L)
(ii) 0.590
0.0047; 22
(iii)14
 UP (L)
0.00026  UP (O)
(a) 1
 J03/P2/Q9 (CAFM) (b) 0.7599
(1 − ) ×
1 1− 2−  J11/P23/Q7 (CAFM)
(i) ; ; (i) 0.0804
(ii) 1 − (1 − ) (ii) 0.721
(iii) 27

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 J12/P21/Q6 (CAFM)  N10/P2/Q7 (CAFM)

0.00914; 100; 230 (i) 0.0791
(ii) 0.316
(iii) 27

Chapter Seven: Continuous Distributions

Questions involving pdf only  J12/P72/Q6 (C)

(ii) 13
 N09/P2/Q14 (Z) (iii) 0.176
2
(iv)
7
 J13/P71/Q6 (C)
 J04/P7/Q7 (C)
(i) 8.41
72
(ii) 19 94
125 (ii) ( ) = ; Var( ) =
8 3 45
(iii)
3
 J11/P73/Q6 (C)
(ii) ( ) = 2.5; Var( ) = 0.05
 J07/P7/Q7 (C)
(i) (iii) 0.355
(iv) 0.822
 J13/P73/Q5 (C)
3
 N11/P4/Q4 (Z) (ii)
3 4
(a) = (iii) ( ) = 2
2
313
( b)  N04/P7/Q6 (C)
2500
(i) 0.125
 J10/P71/Q5 (C) (ii) = 0.25; Var( ) = 0.0375
(ii)
(iii) 1.48  N05/P7/Q5 (C)
(ii) 0.227
 J10/P73/Q5 (C) 55
(iii) ( ) =
3 3 36
(ii) ( ) = ; Var( ) =
2 4
 N06/P7/Q7 (C)
 J11/P72/Q7 (C) (i) 1 9 ℎ
1 (iii) 3
(ii)
16 (iv) > 1.39
1 (v) 0.774
(iii) −
3
(iv) 1 − √3  N11/P73/Q4 (C)
2
(ii) ( ) = 1−
−1
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 N07/P7/Q5 (C)  N07/P2/Q15 (Z)

(i) = 2;
(i) ( ) = ; Var( ) =
2 12 (ii) 2
8
(iii)
19  J11/P71/Q4 (C)
(a) : ≠ 1;
 N12/P73/Q6 (C) ℎ:
(ii) 12
(b)(ii) 12; 0.0337
3
(iii)
4
 J12/P71/Q4 (C)
Questions involving cdf 1
(ii)
9
 N11/P4/Q2 (Z) (iii) < 0.5;
(i) 2 3
(ii) 1.25  J12/P73/Q7 (C)
(iii) 1.28
 J03/P7/Q4 (C)
(i) 0.0625  J13/P72/Q2 (C)
(ii) 2 3 (i)
14
9
(iii) 2 − √2
(ii) 0.473
(iii) < ;
 J12/P4/Q2 (Z)
(i) ( ) = 2 − 0≤ ≤1
 N02/P7/Q6 (C)
1 >1
7
5 − 2√5 (ii) 70 ln
(iii) 5
5 (iii) 0.528
(iii) > ;
 J09/P71/Q5 (C)
(ii) 33 8
 N03/P7/Q7 (C)
(iii) 4 27 (ii) 0.0959
(iv) < 5; 1
(iii)
3
 J06/P7/Q5 (C)
(ii) Var( ) = 0.0267  N08/P7/Q7 (C)
(iii) 0.931 (ii) 2.66
(iv) 0.223 (iii) 2.73
(iv) 0.0243
 J08/P7/Q7 (C)
(ii) 0.139  N09/P71/Q5 (C)
(iii) 1.24 (ii) 0.449
(iii) 0.559
45
(iv)
512
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 N09/P72/Q6 (C) (ii) √10

491 49
(ii) (iii)
324 144
(iii) > 1.5;
 N12/P71/Q1 (C)
 N10/P71/Q4 (C) √2
5
(i)
16
 N11/P71/Q7 (C)
(ii) √2 (i)(a)
4
(iii) (i)(b)
3 (ii) 0.75
(iii)(b) = 5; = 4
 N10/P73/Q5 (C)
28
(i)
9

Chapter Eight: Normal Distribution

Questions on Normal Distribution

 J10/P61/Q3 (C)
 N07/P2/Q13 (Z) = 23.0; = 6.70
0.687
 N09/P62/Q7 (C)
 N08/P6/Q3 (C) (i) 0.238
(i) 0.0276
(ii) 116
(ii) 7.72
(iii) 0.0910

 N05/P4/Q3 (Z)  N05/P2/Q13 (ZOAM)

= 2.469 (a) = 15.7; = 3.62
(i) 0.0526
(b) 0.421
(ii) 1.000
 J10/P62/Q2 (C)
 N09/P61/Q3 (C) (i) 0.854
(i) 0.484 (ii) 0.215
(ii) 96.9; 103
 J10/P62/Q4 (C)
 N09/P62/Q1 (C) (i) 0.952
(i) 51 (ii) = −1.57
(ii) 37.5
 N03/P2/Q22 (ZOAM)
 N09/P2/Q12 (Z) (a)(i) 4.78%
(b) 81.5 kg (a)(ii) 23.8%
(b) = 56.3; = 16.8

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 J10/P63/Q7 (C) (iii) 11.1

(i) = 132; = 6.29 (iv) 1.54
(ii) 0.978
(iii) 0.805  N12/P63/Q1 (C)
3.57
 N10/P61/Q3 (C)
(i) 335  N11/P63/Q1 (C)
(ii) 0.994 (i) = 22.2; = 7.40
(ii) 0.0967
 N10/P62/Q5 (C)
(i) ( ) = 0.985;
 J12/P61/Q6 (C)
( ) = 0.988 (i) = 9.90; = 3.15
(ii) 4.97 (ii) 317

 N10/P63/Q7 (C)  N12/P61/Q6 (C)

(i) 2.23 (i) 0.531
(ii) 0.654 (ii) 0.136
(iii) 0.112
(iv) 0.250
 N12/P62/Q2 (C)
 J12/P61/Q1 (C) (i) 0.104
0.729 (ii) 0.309

 J11/P61/Q5 (C)  N12/P63/Q5 (C)

(a) = 0.693; = 0.545 (i) 0.0350
(b) 3.09 (ii) 0.471
(iii) 103
 J11/P62/Q6 (C)
(i) 21.0
 J12/P63/Q6 (C)
(ii) 0.746 (i) = 28.4; = 3.25
(ii) 0.149
 J11/P63/Q5 (C) (iii) 35.1
(i) 13.9
(ii) 0.829
 J12/P62/Q7 (C)
(iii) 0.962 (i) 0.433
(ii) = 30.0; = 2.77
 N11/P61/Q5 (C) (iii) 0.0266
(i) 6.38
(ii) 0.864
(iii) 0.0171 Questions on Normal Approximation to
Binomial
 N11/P62/Q7 (C)
(i) 0.373  N11/P4/Q6 (Z)
(a) > 5; > 5; > 30
(ii) 0.309
(b) 0.0043
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 N08/P6/Q2 (C)  N11/P62/Q5 (C)

0.652 9
(ii)
64
 J09/P6/Q3 (C) (iii) 0.742
(i) 0.748
(ii) 0.887  N08/P4/Q4 (Z)
(a) 0.233
 N13/P4/Q1 (Z) (b) 0.0574
0.0521
 N11/P63/Q6 (C)
 J11/P62/Q2 (C) (i) 0.156
(i) 0.590 (ii) 0.0854
(ii) > 5; >5
 N10/P61/Q2 (C)
 N12/P62/Q4 (C) 0.807
(i) = 3.97; = 0.993
(ii) 0.981  J10/P61/Q5 (C)
(i) 0.311
(ii) ; <5
(iii) 0.181

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Section C: Mechanics

Chapter Nine: Study of Statics

Questions on General Resolution  J11/P43/Q5 (C)

(i) 6.1 N
 J07/P4/Q2 (C) (ii) 0.6
(i) 82.8 (iii) 2; ℎ 6.1 N
(ii) 12
 N11/P41/Q3 (C)
 N07/P4/Q3 (C) (i)(a) 8.74
(i) = 8.06; = 29.7 (i)(b) 11.5
(ii) 7; ℎ 7N (ii) 14.4; 53.7°
 J11/P42/Q4 (C)
 J08/P4/Q3 (C) (i) = 11.1; = 21.1
= 16.4; = 52.4 (ii) 12; 30° ℎ ℎ

 N08/P4/Q1 (C)  N94/P2/Q1 (C)

(i)(a) 10 − 8 cos
= 3 + √3 ;
(i)(b) 8 sin
= 1 + √3
 J09/P4/Q3 (C) √3
(i)
(i)(a) 10.8 3
(i)(b) 22.4 (ii) 1 + 2√3
(ii) 62.4° ℎ
 N03/P2/Q14 (ZOAM)
 N09/P41/Q3 (C) (a) 82.7; 13.6° ℎ ℎ
8.91
 J12/P43/Q2 (C)
 J10/P41/Q4 (C) (i) sin + cos = 11.2;
500 N; 36.9° (i) sin − cos = 0.16
(ii) = 8; = 53.1
 J10/P43/Q1 (C)
= 48.9; = 2  J12/P41/Q2 (C)
(i) 67.4
 J12/P4/Q15 (Z) (ii) 9
9
(i)
16  N11/P41/Q5 (C)
(ii)(a) 24.0° 3
(ii) <
(ii)(b) 9.85 4

 N10/P42/Q1 (C)  N10/P42/Q3 (C)

0.25 = 84.8; = 5.52

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 N10/P43/Q5 (C)  N07/P4/Q5 (C)

(i) = 36.5; = 41.1 (i) = sin 60 ;
(ii) = 94.9; = 26.3 (i) = 40 + cos 60
(ii) 377
 N11/P43/Q2 (C)
73 N; 41.1° ℎ 31 N Questions on Inclined Planes

 N08/P4/Q2 (C)
 J12/P42/Q2 (C) (i) 97.8
= 53.1; = 9 (ii) 28.3

 J98/P3/Q5 (C)  J09/P4/Q4 (C)

3.82; 9.7° ℎ 3 N (i) = 14.4; = 75.2
 N12/P41/Q4 (C) (ii) 0.364
= 5.37; = 33.9  N12/P41/Q3 (C)
(i) 4.63
 N12/P42/Q4 (C) (ii) 0.824
(i) − 32; 75; −28 (iii) 0.178
ii) 39; 22.6°
( ℎ
 J11/P41/Q4 (C)
 N98/P3/Q6 (C) (i) 10
28
= ; = 6 (ii) 0.367
39
= 28.6; = 12.1°
 N11/P4/Q13 (Z)
4753
 N00/P3/Q7 (C)
(i) = 5.83; = 59.0 17004
3
(ii) ; ℎ 3 N  N02/P4/Q5 (C)
2
(ii) = 28.7; 0.467
Questions on Rods
 N13/P4.Q12 (Z)
 J12/P42/Q4 (C) (i) 13.5
(i) : 25
(ii) 0.45
(i) 40 + sin 25
(ii) 21.7
 N04/P4/Q2 (C)
(i) 9
 J04/P4/Q1 (C)
(i) 12 (ii) 6√3
(ii) 16
Questions on Lami’s Theorem
(iii) 0.75
 N09/P41/Q4 (C)
 N06/P4/Q2 (C) (i) 3
(ii) 0.668 (ii) 2.4
(iii) 1.4

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 N05/P4/Q11 (Z)  N12/P43/Q4 (C)

1 + √3 = 13; = 20
= √6; =
 J12/P41/Q7 (C)
 N10/P41/Q3 (C) (i) = 6.4; = 4.8
= 41.1; = 4.8 (ii) 0.359

Chapter Ten: Study of Kinematics

Questions on Graphical Analysis and  J98/P3/Q14 (C)

Sketching (i)
(ii) 380
 N08/P4/Q6 (C) ;
(i) ;
(ii) 25 ℎ
(iii) 2 920
 N12/P42/Q3 (C)
 N03/P2/Q8 (Z) = 0.4; = 10
(a)
(b) 60
 N10/P41/Q1 (C)
(i) 20
 N03/P2/Q9 (ZOAM) (ii) 40
(i) 2 (iii) 80
(ii) 350
(iii) 250
 J11/P41/Q5 (C)
(i) 3 600
 J10/P41/Q2 (C) (ii) ; 46 500
(i) 0.09 (iii) 300 3 400
(ii) 1.08
(iii) 0.72
 N00/P3/Q13 (C)
(i) 12
 J12/P2/Q12 (Z) (ii) (a)
(a) 16
(i) (b)
5
 N13/P4/Q11 (Z) (i) (c)
24
(a)
5  J11/P43/Q4 (C)
( b) (i)
(ii) 25
(iii) 100
(iv)

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 N11/P43/Q1 (C)  N98/P3/Q7 (C)

(i) = 0.02; (i)
(i) = −0.21 (ii)
(ii) 42.5
(iii) 86.5
Questions on Vertical Motion
 J10/P43/Q5 (C)  N10/P42/Q5 (C)
(i) = 1.5; = 0.25 (i) 2
(ii) 1; 4
(ii) = 8; = 17
(iii)
 N12/P41/Q1 (C)
35
 N11/P4/Q15 (Z)
(a)
(b)(i) 108  N12/P43/Q3 (C)
(i) (ii) 8 (i) 5.66
(i) (iii) 88 (ii) 0.234

Chapter Eleven: Newton’s Laws of Motion

Questions on motion of single bodies

 J11/P43/Q3 (C)
 N07/P2/Q8 (Z) (i) 6
(a) 788
(ii) 10
(b) 22.5
 N09/P41/Q5 (C)
 J08/P4/Q1 (C) (i) = 0.546; = 5.71;
(i) 2.5 (i) = 0.96
(ii) 14.5 (ii) 2.18

 J10/P43/Q6 (C)  N09/P42/Q4 (C)

(i) 1.75; 10.1° (i) 0.125
(ii) 0.4 (ii) 6
 N10/P43/Q1 (C) (iii)
(i) 3
(ii) 4  N12 P42 (C)
(i) 30
 N11/P42.Q2 (C) (ii) 0.693
(i) 0.589
(ii) 7.64 Questions on Horizontal Tables

 J08/P4/Q5 (C)
 N98/P3/Q12 (C)
(i) = 1; = 3.6
(i) 0.590
(ii) 2.45
(ii) 0.121
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 N12/P41/Q2 (C)  N03/P2/Q16 (ZOAM)

(i) 1.68 (a)(i) 2
(ii) 1.2 (a)(ii) 12
√83
(a)(iii)
 N00/P3/Q11 (C) 5
(a) = 23 17 (b) = 20; = 0.544
9
(b) = Questions on Vertical Straight Parts
5
 J05/P4/Q4 (C)  J07/P4/Q4 (C)
2 (i) = 5; = 3
(i)
3 (ii) 0.6
(ii) 2.8

 N11/P42/Q5 (C)
 J06/P4/Q5 (C) (i) = 2; = 7.2
(i) 0.4
(ii) 2.25
(ii) 0.5
(iii) 4.5
 J09/P4/Q1 (C)
= 40; = 10
 N03/P4/Q5 (C)
(i) 0.92
 N11/P41/Q2 (C)
(ii) 1.2
= 4.55; = 9.1

 N04/P4/Q1 (C)  N08/P4/Q5 (C)

= 1.5; = 2.55 (i)(a) 2.5
(i)(b) 3.75
 N12/P43/Q7 (ii) 0.3
(i) = 4; = 1.92
(ii) 0.7
 J09/P4/Q6 (C)
(iii) 0.85
(i) 2
Questions on Inclined Planes (ii) 3.6
(iii) 0.3
 N10/P43/Q3 (C) (iv) 0.792
(ii) 0.261
 N12/P42/Q2 (C)
 N05/P2/Q9 (ZOAM) (i) 2
(a) 5.7° (ii) = 0.6; = 4.8
(b)(i) − 0.579
(b)(ii) 0.550  N09/P41/Q6 (C)
(i) 1
 J12/P41/Q6 (C) (ii)(a) = 3; =7
(i) = 3.84; = 1.6 (ii)(b) 2
(ii) 1.5

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 J12/P43/Q7 (C) (iii) 0.56

(i) 5.2
(ii) 2.6; 0.5  J12/P42/Q5 (C)
(iii) = 1.02; (i) = 30; = 50
(iv) 1.33 (ii) 8.88; = 1.76

 N09/P42/Q6 (C)  J03/P4/Q5 (C)

(i) 4 (i) = 0.4; = 0.2
(ii) 0.448 (ii) = 8.5; = 0.1

Chapter Twelve: Projectile Motion

Questions on Ideal Projectiles

 J02/P5/Q7 (C)
 J03/P5/Q6 (C) (i) 13.3
(i) 56.4
(ii) 0.869
(ii) 125 (iii) 10.1°
(iii) 1.68

 J04/P5/Q6 (C)
 J07/P5/Q7 (C) (i) = 17.3; = 1.76
(i) 67.4
(ii) 16.1;
(ii) 180
(iii) 1.82
 N12/P51/Q5 (C)
(iv) 45.5 (ii) 59.4
 J10/P51/Q5 (C)
3  J12/P52/Q5 (C)
(ii) tan = , = 38.4; (i) 4.70; = 40.2
4
17 (ii) 13.2
(ii) tan = , = 17.8
4
(iii)  N07/P5/Q6 (C)
(i) 13.5; = 0.721
 N05/P5/Q4 (C) (ii) 2.85°
(i) = 20; = 45
 N09/P51/Q4 (C)
(ii) = −
40 (ii) sin = 10; = 26;
= 22.6
 N10/P53/Q2 (C)
(i) 12.5° ℎ ℎ ; 7.2
(ii) 2.6; 58.5  J12/P53/Q7 (C)
(i) 31.0°
 N06/P5/Q4 (C) (ii) 17.2; 4.6° ℎ ℎ
24

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 N08/P5/Q7 (C)  J12/P4/Q13 (Z)

1 √3 (i) 4
(i) = ; = −5 (ii) 59.4°
2 2 ℎ ℎ
(ii) 29.7
(iii) 53.1° ℎ ℎ  J06/P5/Q7 (C)
(i) 20
 N09/P2/Q10 (Z) (ii) 32
(a) = 6 (iii) 3.2
(b) 16.1°
 N02/P5/Q3 (C)
 N10/P51/Q7 (C) (i) = 10 ; = −5
(i) = 5√2 ;
(i) = −
= 5√2 −5 20
(ii) 71.6°
(i) = −
10
(ii) 4.23  N03/P2/Q10 (Z)
(a) 13.3
(iii) 8.79°
(b) 59.0° ℎ ℎ
Questions on Non-Ideal Projectiles
 J08/P5/Q5 (C)
 N06/P5/Q1 (C) (i) 1.2
5
(i) = − (iii) 13.6
64
(ii) 45
 J05/P5/Q7 (C)
(i) 7 − 5
 N12/P53/Q3 (C)
(ii)(a) cos
(i) 5.22
(ii)(b) sin − 5
(ii) 4.65
(iii) 31.4°
 N96/P2/Q5 (C)
(i)(b) 29.3
 J10/P53/Q1 (C)
(a)(c) 6 617
59.0° ℎ ℎ
(ii) 3.2°

 N03/P5/Q5 (C)
(i) 36.9  N00/P3/Q14 (C)
(i) 0.306
(ii) 9.6
(ii)
(iii) 56.3°
(iv) 69.1° ℎ ℎ
(v)
 N13/P4/Q14 (Z)
(a)(i) 23.4
(a)(ii) 18.0  J98/P3/Q15 (C)
143
(b)(i) 7.85 (ii)
36
(a)(ii) 20.4 (iii) 6.06°; ;
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DIAGRAM ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS

Section A: Pure Mathematics

Chapter One: Matrices

 J08/P1/Q8 (AQA)
(b).

Chapter Three: Complex Numbers

 J07/P3/Q8 (C)
(ii).

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 N08/P3/Q10 (C)
(iii).

 J10/P31/Q7 (C)
(ii).

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 N10/P31/Q6 (C)
(iii).

 N10/P33/Q3 (C)
(ii).

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 J11/P32/Q7 (C)
(b).

 N11/P31/Q10 (C)
(b).

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 J12/P31/Q4 (C)
(ii).

 J12/P33/Q10 (C)
(b)(i).

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 J09/P3/Q7 (C)
(ii).

 N09/P31/Q7 (C)
(iv).

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 J10/P33/Q8 (C)
(b).

 N02/P3/Q8 (C)
(b)(ii).

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 N05/P3/Q3 (C)
(iii).

 J10/P1/Q10 (Z)

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 N03/P2/Q6 (Z)
(a).

Section B: Statistics

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

Questions on Data Presentation and Analysis

 N01/P1/Q4 (COS)
(iii)

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 N03/P2/Q12 (Z)
(a)

Stem Leaf
4 2, 4, 6, 7, 8
5 0, 2, 6, 8
6 3, 6, 6, 7
7 0, 2, 2, 6, 8
8 2, 5, 7
9 3, 3

Key: 5|6 means 56 km

( b)

 J10/P61/Q2 (C)
(i)
Key: 1|2 means 12 people
Stem Leaf
0 2, 5, 6, 8, 8
1 2, 4, 6, 7, 7, 9
2 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 6, 7
3 1, 5

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 N09/P62/Q6 (C)
(i)

 N08/P2/Q11 (COS)
( v)

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 N05/P4/Q1 (Z)

 N07/P1/Q1 (COS)
(ii)

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 J12/P61/Q5 (C)
(i)
flat screen Stem conventional
6 5, 7, 9
6 7 1, 4, 5, 7
9, 5 8 5, 6
6, 4, 2, 1 9
7, 4 10

Key: 5|8|4 means 0.85m for flat screen and

0.84m for conventional

 N12/P61/Q4 (C)
(i)
Stem Leaf
14 3
15 3, 4, 5
16 1, 4, 8, 8
17 3, 7
18 5

Key: 14|3 represents 14 3000 dollars

 N11/P62/Q4 (C)
(iv)

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 N12/P63/Q4 (C)
(ii)

 J11/P62/Q5 (C)
(i)

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 J12/P4/Q4 (Z)
(a)
left leaf (sugar) Stem right leaf (flour)
9, 7, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4 3 0, 4, 8, 8, 7, 9
9, 5, 3, 3, 2, 0 4 1, 5, 8, 9, 9
9, 8, 4, 3 5 2, 4, 9, 9
7, 7, 6, 0 6 3, 5, 6, 7
5, 2, 1 7 0, 5, 8
7 ; 4; 1 8 8, 9

Key: 3|5|9 means 53 marks for Biology and

59 marks for Integrated Science

( b)

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 J11/P61/Q6 (C)
(i)

 N13/P4/Q3 (Z)
(a)

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( b)

 J10/P63/Q6 (C)
(ii)

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 N05/P2/Q3 (Z)
(i)

 N09/P61/Q4 (C)
(ii)

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 N11/P63/Q5 (C)
(i)

 N05/P2/Q4 (ZOAM)
(a)

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 N05/P2/Q11 (COS)
(b)

Chapter Five: Probability

Questions on Tree Diagrams

 J09/P6/Q5 (C)
(ii)

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 N10/P63/Q3 (C)
(i)

 N09/P62/Q3 (C)
(i)

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 N03/P6/Q5 (C)

Questions on Distribution Tables

 J08/P6/Q6 (C)
(i)

Chapter Seven: Continuous Distributions

Questions involving pdf only

 J07/P7/Q7 (C)
(i)

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 J10/P71/Q5 (C)
(ii)

 N07/P2/Q15 (Z)
(i)

Section C: Mechanics

Chapter Ten: Study of Kinematics

Questions on Graphical Analysis and Sketching

 N08/P4/Q6 (C)
(i).

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 N03/P2/Q8 (Z)
(a).

J12/P2/Q12 (Z)
(a).

 N13/P4/Q11 (Z)
(b).

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 J11/P41/Q5 (C)
(ii).

 N00/P3/Q13 (C)
(ii). (a).

(ii). (c).

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 J11/P43/Q4 (C)
(i).

(iv).

 J10/P43/Q5 (C)
(iii).

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 N11/P4/Q15 (Z)
(a).

 N98/P3/Q7 (C)
(i).

(ii).

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(iii).

Chapter Eleven: Newton’s Laws of Motion

Questions on Vertical Straight Parts

 J12/P43/Q7 (C)
(iii).

Chapter Twelve: Projectile Motion

Questions on Ideal Projectiles

 J10/P51/Q5 (C)
(iii).

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Statistical Tables

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