1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
Water resources are the most important thing for all human beings. It is
expected that about one-half of the total world population will live in urban area by
the end of 21st Century. As the resulting effects, the urban population will become
crowd that can cause various environmental impacts including water pollution and
flooding. Therefore, it is necessary to act now to improve the management of water in
the urban setting.
Mandalay is situated on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwady River. It is the
second largest city and the centre of various activities such as in business, health,
education, culture, religion, historic remains, etc in the upper Myanmar. Mandalay
City is composed of six townships known as Aung Myay Tha Zan, Chan Aye Tha
Zan, Maha Aung Myay, Chan Mya Tha Zi, Pyi Gyi Da Gun and Amarapura
Townships where people now live around one million.
In Mandalay, nine main drains namely, Shwe Ta Chaung, Ngwe Ta Chaung,
Mingalar Myaung, Columbo Myaung, Nadi Myaung, Pa Yan Daw Chaung, Thin Ga
Zar Chaung, Myaung Gyi Myaung and Tat Myaw Chaung, are flowing from north to
south and from east to west respectively. Among them, Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
that grades gradually from north to south west carries stormwater and wastewater
from the central area and the western part of Mandalay. It is constructed with brick or
stone in the central city area but it becomes earth-lined channel in the suburban area.
Discharges from market areas and residential areas are carried by small collector
drains which flow to the Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain. A number of deficiencies such
as flat grades, considerable weed growth, solid wastes, etc limit the flow capacity of
Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain. This causes the drain to overtop its banks in the wet
season, spreading highly polluted matter into more public areas. The other result in
the dry season is very low flow velocity and this causes solid waste concentration and
 2

mosquito born. Moreover, if the discharge in the drain is disposed directly into the
outlet, it can result in poor water quality in lakes or rivers. To prevent these problems,
the proposed main drain is designed with open channel system by providing proper
bed slopes and proper drain flow velocity. Moreover, to reduce the harm to water
resources, a new approach should be considered by adding sustainable drainage
systems techniques to conventional drainage system.
In this study, there are three major functions of sustainable drainage systems;
collection work, treatment work and disposal work. In collection work, the water that
runoff from a site is collected into the designed channel. After collecting them, they
should be treated with natural processes in order to dispose them clearly and safely
into the proper lake or river. Finally, that water is reused for household and
agricultural lands.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are as follows;
(1) To design sustainable drainage system for Mandalay (Western Portion).
(2) To reduce the risk of sewer flooding during heavy rain.
(3) To prevent the downstream site of the Ayeyarwady River.

1.3. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is as follows:
(1) Ayeyarwady River is considered as the outlet.
(2) In this study, only stormwater discharge is taken into consideration for the
design purpose.
(3) Rational method is used for calculating the stormwater discharge.
(4) Time of concentration is calculated by using the velocity method and modified
rational method as each subcatchment area is less than 2.5 km2.
(5) The rainfall intensity is determined by using once in five years intensity-
duration-frequency (IDF) curve.
(6) Manning’s Equation is used to determine the best hydraulic sections of the
proposed main drain in the study area.
(7) Sustainable drainage system is designed with the open channel for the selected
area of the western portion of Mandalay.
 3

(8) Before discharging to Ayeyarwady River, wastewater characteristics are

treated and reduced by natural processes.

1.4. Location of the Study Area

The study area is the administrative area of Mandalay City. Shwe Ta Chaung
Main Drain flows from north to south passing through the downtown area of
Mandalay. Finally, this drain flows into the Ayeyarwady River. The study area starts
at north boundary of the city and ends at the Shwe Gae sluice gate near the Shwe Gae
village. The length of the drain in the study area is approximately 16 km. Its
catchment area is approximately 15 km2 including the area of Mandalay City which
are the parts of Aung Myay Tha Zan, Chan Aye Tha Zan, Maha Aung Myay, Chan
Mya Tha Zi and Amarapura Townships. The location of the study area is shown in
Figure 1.1.

1.5. Geography
1.5.1. Physical Geography
Mandalay is located on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwady River. The city is
the central low land area with a slight difference of ground heights.
Mandalay is largely flat with a gentle fall to the south west. Approximately, a
ward of the city is below the annual flood level of the Ayeyarwady River. Mandalay
Hill is an isolated outcrop from the alluvial plain.

1.5.2. Climate
Mandalay City is situated at North Latitude 21˚ 57’ and East Longitude 96˚ 05’,
hence it is in the tropical climate and it is under the influence of Monsoon rainstorm.
The city is hot and dry in climate with an annual rainfall of 500 mm to 1300 mm. The
rainy season starts from the middle of May and ends at the beginning of November.
The rainfall distribution pattern throughout the year is of an even and erratic nature.
The rainy season lasts for 60 to 80 days in a year and other days are entirely dry. The
average rainfall intensity is around 60 mm/hr which is rather high.
The city is generally hot and dry throughout the year with the highest air
temperature up to 40˚ C in May. The minimum temperature is around 13˚ C and the
coldest month in the city is January.
 4

1.6. Outlines of the Study

This study consists of six chapters. In chapter one, the objectives, scope and
location of the study with general are introduced. Chapter two contains literature
review. In chapter three, the primary variables for design calculation is determined
and the peak discharge of the study area is calculated. Best hydraulic section designs
of the drainage system are calculated and the best design for study area is selected.
Chapter five contains designs of sustainable drainage systems. Finally, chapter six
describes discussion, conclusion and recommendations for this study.
 5

Figure 1.1. Location Map of the Study Area

 6

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
As towns and cities have grown, green fields have been replaced by surfaces.
And so there is a growing problem with diffuse pollution, which comes from a wide
range of small sources in urban areas. These include drainage from roads, industrial
and residential areas. Uncontrolled, rapid runoff from developments increases the risk
of flooding from receiving watercourses and can damage the river habitat. It also
decreases the amount of water soaking into the ground, reducing the amount of
groundwater available to feed into streams and rivers.
Protecting rivers and groundwater from the effect, of these pollutants requires
a new approach to drainage and a review of the need for treatment prior to discharge.
Moreover, many existing drainage systems are damaging the environment including
water quality, flooding, water resources, etc and are not sustainable in the long term.
Techniques to reduce these effects have been developed and collectively referred to as
sustainable drainage systems.
Sustainable drainage is a concept that makes environmental quality and people
a priority in drainage design, construction and maintenance. The sustainable drainage
systems approach includes measures to prevent pollution, improve water quality and
provide a range of physical structures designed to receive the runoff. Sustainable
drainage systems can be divided into many categories such as green roofs, permeable
surfaces, swales, infiltration basins, wetlands, ponds, etc.
There are many sustainable drainage system design options to choose from
and they can be tailored to fit all types of development, from hard surfaced areas to
soft landscaped features. They can be designed to improve amenity and biodiversity
in developed area. For instance, ponds can be designed as a local feature for
recreational purposes and to provide valuable local wildlife habitat nodes and
corridors.

2.2. Stormwater
Stormwater is the water originates during precipitation water. Stormwater does
not soak into the ground become runoff. Stormwater is also a source and ever
 7

growing in importance of the world human population demand exceeds the

availability of readily available water. Techniques of stormwater harvesting with
point source water management and purification can potentially make urban
environment serve sustaining in term of water.
The amount of water flowing over the ground surface, pavements, house roofs,
etc is commonly known as runoff or stormwater. This stormwater is ultimately
drained through the sewers, otherwise the streets, roads, etc would be flooded. During
ordinary or normal rain, the sewers run full of stormwater. However, during heavy
rain, the peak stormwater is allowed to accumulate for sometimes, while the sewer
continue to run full of stormwater. After the rains are over, the accumulated
stormwater is discharged gradually through the sewers. The runoff or the stormwater
flows depend upon the following factors;
(1) Catchment area
(2) Ground slopes
(3) Permeability of ground
(4) Extent of impervious area such as buildings, paved yard, non- absorbent road
surface, etc.
(5) Extent of vegetation growth
(6) Rainfall intensity
(7) Rainfall duration
(8) Condition of ground prior to the rainfall
(9) Concentration or compactness of catchment area
(10) Climatic condition such as wind, humidity, temperature, etc [85 How].

2.3. Methods for Estimating the Magnitude of Flood Peak

To estimate the magnitude of a flood peak, the following alternative methods
are available:
(1) Rational method,
(2) Empirical method,
(3) Unit-hydrograph technique, and
(4) Flood-frequency studies.
The use of a particular method depends upon (i) the desired objective, (ii) the
available data and (iii) the importance of the project [94 Tho].
 8

2.4. Rational Method

Catchments possessing some or all of the following properties are small in
hydrologic sense. These are (1) rainfall can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
time, (2) rainfall can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in space, (3) storm
duration usually exceeds concentration time, (4) runoff is primarily by overland flow,
and (5) channel storage processes are negligible. The rational formula is only
applicable to the small-size catchments which are less than 50 km 2 [85 How]. In this
study, rational method is used to estimate the flood magnitude.
The rational method is the most widely used method for the analysis of runoff
response from small catchments. It has particular application in urban storm drainage,
where it is used to calculate peak runoff rates for the design of storm sewers and small
drainage structures.
The rational method takes into account the following hydrologic
characteristics or processes: (1) rainfall intensity, (2) rainfall duration, (3) rainfall
frequency, (4) catchment area, (5) hydrologic abstractions, (6) runoff concentration,
and (7) runoff diffusion.
In general, the rational method provides only a peak discharge. The peak
discharge is the product of (1) runoff coefficient, (2) rainfall intensity, and (3)
catchment area. Rainfall intensity contains information on rainfall duration and
frequency. In turn, rainfall duration is related to the concentration time, i.e., to the
runoff concentration properties of the catchments.
The rational method does not take into account the following characteristics or
processes: (1) spatial or temporal variations in either total or effective rainfall, (2)
concentration time much greater than rainfall duration, and (3) a significant portion of
runoff occurring in the form of stream flow. In addition, the rational method does not
explicitly account for the catchment’s antecedent moisture condition.
The above conditions indicate that the rational method may be restricted to
small catchments. For one thing, the assumption of constant rainfall in space and time
is strictly valid only for small catchments. Furthermore, for small catchments, storm
duration usually exceeds concentration time. Finally, in small catchments, runoff
occurs primarily as overland flow rather than as stream flow. The rational method is
based on the following formula and the variables are as follows:
Qp = C i A; for t ≥ tc Equation 2.1
 9

where, C = coefficient of runoff

A = area of catchment
i = intensity of rainfall
This is the basic equation of the rational method.
For field application,
1
Qp = C (itc, p) A Equation 2.2
3.6
where, Qp = peak discharge (m3 / s)

C = coefficient of runoff
itc , p = the mean intensity of precipitation (mm/hr) for a

duration equal to tc and an exceedence probability p

A = drainage area ( km2)

The use of this method to compute Qp requires three parameters (i) tc, (ii) itc , p

and (iii) C [94 Tho].

2.4.1. Runoff Coefficient

Hydrologic design centers on runoff, not the rainfall that generates the runoff
or the watershed processes that transform the rainfall into runoff. Runoff means the
draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a surface
channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time.
For a given precipitation, the evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and
detention storage requirements will have to be first satisfied before the
commencement of runoff. When these are satisfied, the excess precipitation moves
over the land surfaces to reach smaller channels. This portion of the runoff is called
overland flow and involves buildings up of storage over the surface and draining off
of the same. Flows from several small channels join bigger channels and flows from
these in turn combine to form a larger stream, and so on, till the flow reaches the
catchment outlet. The flow in this mode where it travels all the time over the surface
as overland flow and through the channels as open-channel flow and reaches the
catchment outlet is called surface runoff.
 10

The coefficient C represents the integrated effect of the catchment losses and
hence depends upon the nature of the surface, surface slopes and rainfall intensity.
The effect of rainfall intensity is not considered in the available tables of values of C.
Some typical values of C are indicated in Table 2.1.
If the catchment is non-homogeneous but can be divided into distinct subareas
each having a different runoff coefficient, then the runoff from each subarea is
calculated separately and merged in proper time sequence. Sometimes a non-
homogenous catchment may have component subareas distributed in such a complex
manner that distinct subzones cannot be separated. In such cases, a weighted
equivalent runoff coefficient Ce as below is used [85 How].

Table 2.1. Values of the Runoff Coefficient for Various Types of Surface [85 How]
Types of Surface Coefficient
Watertight roof surfaces 0.70-0.95
Asphaltic pavements in good order 0.85-0.90
Stone, brick and wood-block pavement with tightly cemented joints 0.75-0.85
Same with uncemented joints
Inferior block pavement with uncemented joints 0.50-0.70
Macadamized roadways 0.40-0.50
Gravel roadways and walks 0.25-0.60
Parks, gardens, lawns, and meadows, depending on surface slope 0.15-0.30
and character of soil 0.05-0.25

Ce = =1 Ci Ai
i Equation
A
2.3
where, Ce = weighted equivalent runoff coefficient
Ai = areal extent of the subarea having a runoff coefficient
N = number of subareas in the catchment

2.4.2. Rainfall Intensity

The intensity of storm decreases with the increase in storm duration. Further,
a storm of any given duration, storms of higher intensity in that duration are rarer than
storms of smaller intensity. In many design problems, it is necessary to know the
 11

rainfall intensities of different durations and different return periods. Especially,

rainfall intensity is an important factor in small watershed design.
The rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration tc and the described
probability of exceedence p is found from the rainfall-frequency duration relationship
for the given catchment area. Just as intensity, duration and volume are
interdependent, frequency is also a necessary determinant. Frequency can be
discussed in terms of either the exceedence probability or the return period, which are
defined as follows.
Exceedence probability: the probability that an event having a specified volume and
duration will be exceeded in one time period, which is most often assumed to be 1
year.
Return period: Average length of time between events having the same
volume and duration.
The exceedence probability and return period are related as described in Eq.
2.4.
1
p= Equation
T
2.4
where, p = exceedence probability
T = return period
Events having similar intensities may differ significantly in volume and
duration when there is a difference in frequency. Relationships between rainfall
intensity, duration and frequency can be displayed graphically. The relationship is
shown with the rainfall intensity (mm/hr) as the ordinate and the storm duration (hr)
on the abscissa, with separate curves given for selected exceedence frequencies. The
IDF curve is most often used by entering with the duration and intensity to find the
frequency. The IDF curve could also be used to find the frequency for measured
storm events [85 Cun].

2.4.2.1. Time of concentration

There are two commonly accepted definitions of the time of concentration.
First, tc is defined as the time required for a particle of water to flow hydraulically
from the most distant point in the watershed to the outlet or design point; methods of
 12

estimation based on this definition use watershed characteristics, and sometimes a

precipitation index.
The second definition is based on a rainfall hyetograph and the resulting
runoff hydrograph. From the actual hyetograph and hydrograph, the rainfall excess
and direct runoff is computed. The time of concentration is the time between the
center of mass of rainfall excess and the inflection point on the recession of the direct
runoff hydrograph. As an alternative, tc is sometimes computed as the time difference
between the end of rainfall excess and the inflection point. It is recognized that both
methods of estimating tc do not provide either the true value or reproducible values of

tc. While the time of concentration is an important input to hydrologic design, it is not
either a highly accurate input or highly reproducible. In summary, there is no one
correct method for estimating tc, and therefore the true value can never be determined.

There are a number of empirical equations for the estimation of the time of
concentration. These are
(1) Carter Lag Equation for partially sewer watershed
(2) Eagleson Lag Model
(3) Espy-Winslow Equation
(4) Federal Aviation Agency Equation
(5) Kinematic Wave Theory Formula
(6) Kerby-Hathaway Formula
(7) Kirpich’s Methods
(8) SCS Lag Formula
(9) Van Sickle Methods and
(10) Velocity Methods
The velocity method is chosen to decide the time of concentration tc for the
proposed main drain based on the available data [85 How].

2.4.2.2. Velocity method

The velocity method is based on the concept that the travel time is a function
of the length of flow and the velocity.
 13

L
Tt = Equation
V
2.5
where, Tt = travel time (s)

L = length of flow (m)

V = velocity(m/s)
The travel time is computed for the principal flow path. The velocity is a
function of the type of flow (overland, sheet, rill and gully flow, channel flow, pipe
flow), the roughness of the flow path, and the slope of the flow path. Where the
principal flow path consists of segments that have different slopes or land cover, the
principal flow path should be divided into segments and Eq. 2.6 is used for each flow
segment. The time of concentration is then the sum of the travel times [85 How];
k k
L
tc =  Tti =
i=1 i=1 V
Equation

2.6
where, tc = time of concentration

i = flow segment
k = number of segments

2.4.2.3. Determination of time of concentration by modified rational method

The modified rational method requires the subdivision of the catchment into
several subcatchments as shown in Figure 2.1.
First, the time of concentration tA is estimated and used to calculate the peak

flow QPA at A. With the aid of open channel flow formulas, Q PA is conveyed through

the main channel from A to B, and the travel time t AB is calculated. The time of

concentration, tB = tA + tAB is used to calculate the peak flow Q PB at B. The procedure

continues in the downstream direction until the peak flow QPE is calculated. While the

procedure is relatively straight forward, it may result in peak flows decreasing in the
downstream direction due to the effect of catchment shape [85 How].
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Figure 2.1. Catchment Subdivision in Modified Rational Method

2.4.3. Drainage Area
The area of land draining into a stream on a water course at a given location is
known as the catchment area. It is also called drainage area or drainage basin. It is
known as watershed in some countries. The drainage area A is probably the single
most important watershed characteristics for hydrologic design. It reflects the volume
of water that can be generated from rainfall. Thus the drainage area is required as
input to models ranging from simple linear prediction equations to complex computer
models.
The drainage area of a watershed requires the delineation of the watershed
boundary. The concept of a watershed is based to all hydrologic designs. Since big
watersheds are made up of many smaller watersheds, it is necessary to define the
watershed in terms of a point; this point is usually the location at which the design is
being made and is referred to as the watershed outlet. With respect to the outlet, the
watershed consists of all land area that sheds water to the outlet during a rainstorm.
Using the concept that water runs downhill, a watershed is defined by all points
enclosed within an area from which rain falling at these points will contribute water to
the outlet.
The boundary of a watershed is defined by all points that will shed water to
the outlet, it is only necessary to decide which points in a region will contribute to the
outlet; the most extreme of these points represents the watershed boundary. The
 15

watershed boundary is defined by identifying all points within an area from which
rain will contribute water to the outlet [85 Cun].
The area can be computed with an instrument called a planimeter. Where this
is not available, Mandalay City Contour Map with 0.5m interval (1: 20000 scale) is
used. A tracy paper is laid over the map and then drainage boundaries and sub-
catchment boundaries are divided according to the topography. After that, the divided
subcatchment areas are obtained by using graph paper. The drainage area equals to the
product of the number of grid blocks and the area of each grid block which is
computed using the scale of the topographic map. The accuracy of the estimated value
of the drainage area will depend on the care taken in accounting the gird blocks,
especially the partial grid blocks along the watershed boundary.

2.5. Open Channels and their Properties

An open channel is a conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e., a
boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The free surface is essentially an interface
between two fluids of different densities. In the case of the atmosphere, the density of
air is much lower than the density of the liquid such as water. In the case of the
flowing fluid, the motion is usually caused by gravitational effects, and the pressure
distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic.
The open channel includes flows occurring in channels ranging from rivulets
flowing across a field to gutters along residential streets and continental highways to
partially filled sewers carrying wastewater to irrigation channels carrying water half-
ways across a continent to vital rivers.
A critical topic in open channel hydraulics is the design of channels capable of
transporting water between two points in a safe, cost-effective manner. Although
economics, safety, and esthetics must always be considered in the hydraulic aspects of
channel design will be examined [59 Ven].

2.5.1. Channel Types

Open channels can be classified as either natural or artificial. The terminology
natural channel refers to all channels which have been developed by natural processes
and have not been significantly improved by humans. Within this category are creeks,
rivers large and small and tidal estuaries.
 16

The category of artificial channels includes all channels which have been
developed by human efforts. Within this category are navigation channels, power and
irrigation canals, gutters, and drainage ditches. The hydraulic properties of artificial
channels are controlled by design; this type of channel is much more amenable to
analysis. Within the board category of artificial, open channels are the following
subdivisions:
1. Prismatic: A prismatic channel has both a constant cross-sectional shape and
bottom slope. Channels which do not meet this criterion are termed non-
prismatic.
2. Canal: The term canal refers to a rather long channel of mild slope. These
channels may be either unlined or lined with concrete, cement, grass, wood,
bituminous materials, or an artificial membrane.
3. Flume: In practice, the term flume refers to a channel built above the ground
surface to convey a flow across a depression. Flumes are usually constructed
of wood, metal, masonry or concrete. The term flume is also applied to
laboratory channels constructed for basic and applied research.
4. Chute and Drop: A chute is a channel having a steep slope. A drop channel
also has a steep slope but is much shorter than a chute.
5. Culvert: A culvert flowing only partially full is an open channel primarily used
to convey a flow under highways, railroads embankments, or runways [59
Ven].

2.5.2. Geometric Elements of Channel Section

Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined
entirely by the geometry of a channel section and the depth of flow. These elements
are very important and are used extensively in flow computation.
For simple regular channel section, the geometric elements can be expressed
mathematically in term of depth of flow and other dimensions of the section. For
complicated sections and sections of natural streams, no simple formula can be
written to express these elements, but curves representing the relation between these
elements and the depth of flow can be prepared for use in hydraulic computations.
The definitions of several geometric elements of basic importance are given below.
 17

1. Depth of flow (y); this is the vertical distance from the lowest point of the
channel section to water surface. In most cases, this terminology is used
interchangeably with the terminology depth of flow of section d, which is the
depth of flow measured perpendicular to the channel bottom. The relation
between y and d is
d
y
cos 

Where,  is the slope angle of the channel bottom with a horizontal line. If 
is small
yd
2. Top width (T); the top width of a channel is the width of the channel section at
the water surface.
3. Flow area (A); the flow area is the cross-sectional area of the flow taken
normal to the direction of flow.
4. Wetted perimeter (P); the wetted perimeter is the length of the line which is
the interface between the fluid and the channel boundary.
5. Hydraulic radius (R); the hydraulic radius is the ratio of the flow area to the
wetted perimeter or R = A/P.
6. Hydraulic depth (D); the hydraulic depth is the ratio of the flow area to the top
width or D = A/T.
7. Stage; the stage is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above
datum. If the lowest point of the channel section is chosen as the datum, the
stage is identical with the depth of flow.
8. Section Factor (AR2/3); the section factor for uniform flow computation is the
product of the water area and the two-thirds power of the hydraulic radius. The
equations for the basic channel elements for the channel shape normally
encountered in practice are summarized in Table A.1 [59 Ven].

2.5.3. Best Hydraulic Section

It is known that the conveyance of a channel section increases with increase in
the hydraulic radius or with decrease in the wetted perimeter. From the hydraulic
viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given
 18

area has the maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best hydraulic
section.
It should be noted that from the point of view of application, the best hydraulic
section is not necessarily the most economic section. The best hydraulic section
minimize the area required to convey a specified flow; however, the area which must
be excavated to achieve the flow area required by the best hydraulic section may be
significantly larger if the overburden which must be removed is considered. It may
not be possible to construct a stable best hydraulic section in the available natural
materials. The slope of the channel in many cases must also be considered as a
variable since it is not necessarily completely defined by topographic considerations.
In general, a channel section should be designed for the best hydraulic
efficiency but should be modified for practicability. From a practical point of view, it
should be noted that a best hydraulic section is a section that give the minimum area
for a given discharge but not necessarily the minimum excavation. The section of
minimum excavation occurs only if the water surface is at the level of the bank tops.
Where the water surface of the bank tops, as frequently occur, channels narrows than
those of the best hydraulic section will give the minimum excavation. If the water
surface overtops the banks and these are even with the ground level, wider channel
will provide minimum excavation. The geometric elements of five best hydraulic
sections are listed in Table 2.2 [59 Ven].

Table 2.2. Geometric Elements of Best Hydraulic Sections [85 Ric]

Cross Area Wetted Hydraulic Top Hydraulic
Section (A) Perimeter (P) Radius (R) Width (T) Depth (D)
Trapezoid:
half of a 3y 2 2 3y 1 4 3
hexagon y 3y y
2 3 4
Rectangle:
half of a 2y 2 4y 1 2y y
square y
2
Triangle:
half of a y2 2 2y 1 2y 1
square 2y y
4 2

Semi-cirlce  2 y 1 2y 
y y y
2 2 4
 19

Parabola 4 2 2 2 2y 2
2y 2 2y y y
3 3 3 3

2.5.4. Drain Construction Types

In the channel designs, three types of channels can be considered as
(1) Lined or nonerodible
(2) Unlined, earthern or erodible, and
(3) Grass-lined.
The nonerodible material used to form the lining of a channel and the body of
the built up channel include concrete, stone masonry, steel, cast iron, timber, glass,
plastic, etc. The selection of a material depends mainly on the availability and cost of
the material, the method of construction, and the purpose for which the channel is to
be used.
The purpose of lining a channel in most cases is to prevent erosion. Lined
channels are built for five primary reasons:
1. To permit the transmission of water at high velocities through areas of deep or
difficult excavation in a cost-effective fashion
2. To permit the transmission of water at high velocities at a reduced
construction cost
3. To decrease canal seepage, thus conserving water and reducing the water-
logging of and adjacent to the canal
4. To reduce the annual costs of operation and maintenance
5. To ensure the stability of the channel section [59 Ven].

2.5.5. Drain Cross-section Types

Natural channel sections are in general very irregular, usually varying from an
approximate parabola to an approximate trapezoid. For streams subjected to frequent
floods, the channel may consist of a main channel section for accommodating
overflows.
Artificial channels are usually designed with section of regular geometric
shapes. The trapezoid is usually the commonest shape for channels. The rectangle
and triangle are special cases of trapezoid. Since the rectangle has vertical sides, it is
commonly used for channels built of stable materials such as lined masonry, stones,
metal, or timber. The triangular section is used only for small ditches, roadside
 20

gutters, and laboratory works. The circle is the popular section for sewers and culverts
of small and medium sizes.
The parabola is used as an approximation of sections of small and medium
sized-natural channels. The round-cornered rectangle is a modification of rectangle.
The round-bottomed triangle is an approximation of the parabola. Closed geometric
sections other than the circle are frequently used in sewerage, particularly for sewers
large enough for a man to enter. These sections are given various names according to
their forms: they may be egg-shaped, ovoid, semi-elliptical, U-shaped, horseshoe,
basket-handle, etc. The complete rectangle and square are also common for large
sewers.
In determining the best hydraulic section of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain, the
cross-section for the drain is adopted as trapezoidal shape in this study [59 Ven].

2.5.6. Channel Slopes

The longitudinal bottom slope of channel is generally governed by the
topography and the energy head required for the flow of water. In many cases, the
longitudinal slope may depend also on the purpose of channel. For example, channels
used for water distribution purposes, such as those used in irrigation, water supply,
hydraulic mining and hydropower projects require a high level at the point of
delivery; therefore, a small slope is desirable in order to keep the loss in elevation to a
minimum. If the flow is uniform, the slope of energy line will parallel the water
surface and channel bottom.
The side slope of a channel depends mainly on the kind of materials. The
factors to be considered in determining slopes are method of construction, condition
of seepage loss, climatic change, channel size, etc. Generally speaking, side slopes
should be made as steep as practicable and should be designed for high hydraulic
efficiency and stability [59 Ven].

2.5.7. Design Procedure for Sustainable Drainage Systems

Step (1) Rainfall intensity for each reach is determined by using IDF curve.
Step (2) Catchment boundary and subcatchment areas are defined by using contour
map and its scale.
 21

Step (3) Equivalent runoff coefficient for each subcatchment is determined by field
investigation.
Step (5) Stormwater is calculated by the rational method.

Step (6) To determine channel sections for each reach, the longitudinal slopes that
approximately equal to existing ground slopes are assumed.
Step (7) Then, best hydraulic sections for each reach are determined by Manning’ s
Formula.
Step (8) Based on velocity limitation and existing ground conditions, the proposed
longitudinal slopes are selected.
Step (9) After that, the main channel is designed with SUDs techniques.
 22

CHAPTER 3
DETERMINATION OF STORMWATER DISCHARGES

3.1. General
A primary design variable in hydrology is the peak discharge, which
corresponds to the maximum water surface elevation during a storm event.
Specifically, a peak discharge is the maximum flow rate passing a particular location
during a storm event; it has units of volume per time, such as cubic feet per second,
cubic meter per second or acre-feet per hour.
The peak discharge is the primary variable for the design of small open
channels, stormwater runoff pipe systems, storm inlets and culverts. It is also used for
some hydrologic planning such as small detention facilities in urban areas.
At a given location in a stream, flood peaks vary from year to year and their
magnitude constitutes a hydrologic series which enable one to assign a frequency to a
given flood-peak value. In the design of practically all hydraulic structures, the peak
flow that can be expected with an assigned frequency is of primary importance to
adequately proportion the structure to accommodate its effects [85 Ric].
In the design and construction of drainage system, it is essential to understand
the objectives of each of the project. To design a drainage system, the following steps
are required to prepare;
(1) Preliminary investigation and data collection
(2) Preparation of subcatchment division map, elevation map, and drainage
conception map which are the applicants to guide construction work and
(3) The actual design
In this study, stormwater is only considered for the drainage cross-section
design. In step (1), it is necessary to collect a contour map showing streets and
important topographic features, to investigate the condition of the proposed main
drain such as collector drains flowing into the main drain and to investigate the
various types of surface which need to estimate the values of runoff coefficient, and
intensity-duration-frequency curves for Mandalay City. By using the above data, the
 23

preparations of subcatchment division map, elevation map and drainage conception

map can be done and finally the actual design discharge can be determined.
The other major objectives for the calculation of design discharge are the
division of catchment boundary and subcatchment area for the study area. Based on
the nature of topography and the flow direction of collector drains, the catchment area
of Shwe Ta Chaung is divided into eleven subcatchments. The study area starts at the
north boundary of Mandalay city and finishes near the end of Kan Daw Gyi Circular
Road. It is mostly the downtown area of Mandalay City. The catchment area consists
the whole area of golden palace, the western part of Aung Myay Tha Zan, the middle
part and western part of Chan Aye Thar Zan, the western part of Maha Aung Myay
and the western part of Chan Mya Thar Zi and finally it flows into the Ayeyarwady
River after passing through the western part of Amarapura Township. In reach 1-2
and reach 2-3, Tat Myaw Chaung enters Shwe Kyin Chaung near the corner of Shwe
Kyin Street and 73rd Street. Then the Shwe Kyin Chaung flows continuously to the
west and when it reaches at the corner of Shwe Kyin Street and 76 th street, it meets the
Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain. In reach 3-4, about three small collector drains from
Tat Myaw Chaung divert to the Shwe Ta Chaung. In reach 4-5, there is a diversion
structure called Ye Kyi Myaung to divert some flow to Thingazar Creek. After that
the main drain in reaches 5-6 and 6-7 conveys to the south and in these sections, there
is no collector drain that will enter the main drain. Moreover, the flow from Mingalar
Myaung enters Shwe Ta Chaung at 86th×41st streets in reach 7-8. Then the southern
portion of Shwe Ta Chaung in reach 8-9, 9-10, 10-11 and 11-12 flows along the
eastern side of Kan Daw Gyi lake and finally it enters into the Ayeyarwady River.
The study area with corresponding collector drains is shown in Figure 3.1.

3.2. Division of Subcatchments

Based on the nature of topography and the flow direction of collector drains,
the catchment area of Shwe Ta Chaung is divided into eleven subcatchments. The
approximate reach length of each subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is
listed in Table 3.1. The division of subcatchments of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is
shown in Figure 3.2. Then, ground elevation map and drain flow conception map are
illustrated in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.
 24

0 400 m 800 m 1200 m 1600 m

Figure 3.1. Catchment Boundary of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

 25

To Ayeyarwady River
N
1
A
E SHWE KYIN
2 CHAUNG
B

C
TAT MYAW
4 CHAUNG

GOLDEN
PALACE

YE KYI D
MYAUNG UNG

5
CHA
E TA

E
SHW

LEGEND
CANAL / AQUEDUCT 6
CATCHMENT BOUNDARY F
SUBCATCHMENT BOUNDARY G
MAIN DRAIN NODE NUMBER 1
7 MINGALAR
SUBCATCHMENT NUMBER A MYAUNG
8
To Ayeyarwady River

9
I
10

J
11

12
Figure 3.2. Sub-catchment Boundary Divisions of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
0 400 m 800 m 1200 m 1600 m
 26

To Ayeyarwady River
Figure 3.3. Elevation Map of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

N
70 m 1
75 m
A 74.25 m
E SHWE KYIN
69.5 m CHAUNG
2
76.5 m
B

3
70.5 m
C
70 m 73.25 m TAT MYAW
4 73.5 m CHAUNG 78.5 m

Figure 3.4. Drainage Coecption Map of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

GOLDEN
PALACE

D
YE KYI
UNG

MYAUNG
CHA

69 m
5 74 m
78 m
E TA
SHW

68 m
6 74 m
74 m
F
74 m
G
67.5 m
7 MINGALAR
MYAUNG 73.5 m
8 75 m
67.5 m
To Ayeyarwady River

67.5 m
9 75.5 m
I
10
67.5 m
75 m

12 11
Figure 3.3. Elevation Mapk of Shwe Ta75Chaung
m Main Drain
67.25 m 73 m

0 400 m 800 m 1200 m 1600 m

Figure 3.4. Drainage Conception Map of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

27
 N

28
0 450 m 900 m E
1350 m 2700 m

Figure 3.4. Drainage Conception Map of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

Table 3.1. Approximate Reach Length of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
Figure 3.4. Drainage Conception Map of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
Name of Drain Reach Name of Approximate
Subcatchment Reach Length
 29

(m)
Shwe Ta Chaung 1-2 A 760
2-3 B 1600
3-4 C 1360
4-5 D 2700
5-6 E 1920
6-7 F 1480
7-8 G 460
8-9 H 1300
9 - 10 I 740
10 - 11 J 2360
11 - 12 K 1160
Portion of Tat Myaw
Chaung and Shwe Kyin
2-3 B 3920+2000=5920
Chaung flowing to Shwe
Ta Chaung
Portion of Mingalar
Myaung flowing to Shwe 7-8 G 1700
Ta Chaung

3.3. Calculation of Time of Concentration, tc

To calculate the time of concentration, velocity method and modified rational
method are used as each subcatchment area is less than 2.5 km 2. Its required two
parameters are; (a) the length of flow L (b) the drain flow velocity V.
The respective lengths of flow for each subcatchment are obtained by the use of
contour map (0.5m interval). An average velocity of 0.61 to 0.91 meter per second
prevents sedimentation and vegetative growth. So, an average design flow velocity for
the proposed main drain is taken as 0.76 m/s to prevent both sedimentation and
vegetative growth [59 Ven]. Time of concentration t c for each subcatchment of Shwe
Ta Chaung Main Drain are calculated and shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Calculation of Time of Concentration tc for each Subcatchment of Shwe Ta
Chaung Main Drain

Reach Approximate length Time of Cumulative time

of flow L (m) Concentration for of Concentration tc
 30

each Length of
(hr)
Flow (hr)
1-2 760 0.28 0.28
2-3 1600 0.59 0.59
3-4 1360 0.50 1.09
4-5 2700 0.99 2.08
5-6 1920 0.70 2.78
6-7 1480 0.54 3.32
7-8 460 0.17 3.49
8-9 1300 0.48 3.97
9 - 10 740 0.27 4.24
10 - 11 2360 0.86 5.1
11 - 12 1160 0.42 5.52

3.4. Determination of Rainfall Intensity

In design problems, the rainfall intensity for different duration and different
return periods must be known. A measure of the severity of only rainstorm is its
recurrence interval. That is, a rainstorm that will happen once in ten years will be
more severe than a rainstorm that happens once in five years which in turn will be
greater than a rainstorm that happens in two years etc. In General, the more frequent
the recurrence interval, the lesser than magnitude or severity of the storm and the
consequent flooding. It is almost always impractical or too expensive to design
drainage systems to cater for rainstorms of very infrequent recurrence intervals. A
balance must be reached between the cost of constructing and maintaining the drain
and the cost of the damage and disruption caused by flooding [85 How].
To estimate the storm water flow rate, the rational method is chosen because
the selected area is less than 50 km² in this study. To estimate the drains wet weather
flows, it is necessary to develop an appropriate intensity-duration graph for a variety
of recurrence interval. This graph is shown in Figure B.1. The graph displays the
rainfall intensity (mm/hr) as the ordinate and the storm duration on the abscicca with
separate curves given for selected exceedence frequencies. The required rainfall
intensity is determined by finding the intersection of lines defined by the expected
frequency and the storm duration. In this study, the proposed main drain is designed
to carry flood of the recurrence interval of once in five years. For small catchment, the
time of concentration is taken as the storm duration and rainfall intensities for each
reach are calculated by using time of concentration and once in five years intensity-
 31

duration-frequency curve. The corresponding rainfall intensities for each

subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain are listed in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3. Rainfall Intensity for each Subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
Reach Time of Concentration (hr) Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)
1-2 0.28 100
2-3 0.59 100
3-4 1.09 65
4 -5 2.08 40.83
5-6 2.78 31.67
6-7 3.32 27.08
7-8 3.49 25.83
8-9 3.97 23.33
9 - 10 4.24 22.5
10 - 11 5.1 19.2
11 - 12 5.52 18.3

3.5. Determination of Runoff Coefficient

In the determination of runoff coefficient C e, the nature of the surface type in
each subcatchment must be considered. Their respective equivalent runoff coefficients
are estimated after making field investigation.
In the foremost reach, about one-tenth of the total area is asphaltic pavement
type, one-third of that is lawns and meadows and the portion remain is watertight roof
surface. The subcatchment areas B and C mainly contain water tight roof surface and
the asphaltic pavement type is only about 17% of the areas. Moreover, discharge from
Mandalay Hill Region and Golden Palace enters into the subcatchment A, B and C. In
the Mandalay Hill Region, almost the whole area is lawns and wooden areas. In the
later region, about half an area is lawns, playgrounds and parks and the portion remain
is residential area and asphaltic pavement. Thereafter, subcatchment areas D, E and F
are the most densely residential areas in which there are rarely lawns and parks.
Lawns, Playgrounds and parks contain approximately 10% of the whole area of
subcatchment G, 15% of H and I and 20% of J. About 73% of total area of
subcatchment G, 68% of subcatchments H and I and 70% of subcatchment J are
watertight roof surfaces. And the portion remains are asphaltic pavement type. In the
final reach, almost whole area is lawns and meadows.
As each subcatchment area is non-homogeneous and they have component sub
areas distributed in such a complex manner each having a different runoff coefficient
 32

of 0.95 for water tight roof surfaces, 0.9 for asphaltic pavements, 0.25 for lawns,
meadows, parks, playgrounds and wooden areas, a weighted equivalent runoff
coefficient Ce is considered for estimating runoff coefficient values in each
subcatchment.

3.6. Calculation of Peak Discharge due to Rainfall by Rational Method

The drainage area of each subcatchment is defined by using Mandalay City
contour map with 0.5 m contour interval (1:20000 scale) and is computed by using the
scale of the map.
In the calculation of design discharge, the conditions of collector drains in
each subcatchment are considered. According to the topography and the collector
drain conditions, 50% total discharge (23.96 m3/s) from the Mandalay Hill Region
and Golden Palace enters into reach 1-2 and the remain flows into the reaches 2-3 and
3-4 equally. In reach 4-5, Ye Kyi Myaung diverts the Shwe Ta Chaung to enter some
flow to Thingazar Chaung. This takes the form of a low level weir in Shwe Ta
Chaung with sluice gate control over the diverted flow. Since the sluice gate is closed
during the heavy rain, the discharge from Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is not
deducted in this region. In reach 7-8, Mingalar Myaung starts at the end of Ngwe Ta
Chaung and finally enters into the Shwe Ta Chaung. Based on the bed level difference
and cross-sectional area difference, 15% total discharge (66.23m3/s) from Ngwe Ta
Chaung flows into Shwe Ta Chaung through Mingalar Myaung in this section. In the
southern portion, there is no collector drain that enters into the Shwe Ta Chaung.
Finally, the discharge in it is disposed into the Ayeyarwady River.
After obtaining the runoff coefficient, the rainfall intensities and the drainage
area, the possible peak discharge due to rainfall for the subcatchment of Shwe Ta
Chaung Main Drain are calculated. The calculated stormwater discharges for the
subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain are listed in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Calculation of Peak Discharge due to Rainfall for Shwe Ta Chaung Main
Drain
Reach Subcatchment Effective Runoff Rainfall Peak Discharge Q
Area A Catchment Coefficient Intensity (m3/s)
(km2) Area A C i (mm/hr)
 33

(km2)
1-2 0.11 0.11 0.25 100 0.76+11.98=12.74
2–3 0.63 0.63 0.71 100 12.43+5.99=18.42
3-4 1.84 2.47 0.94 65 41.92+11.98=53.9
4-5 1.94 4.41 0.95 40.83 47.52+11.98=59.5
5-6 2.37 6.78 0.95 31.67 56.66+11.98=68.64
6-7 1.19 7.97 0.94 27.08 56.35+11.98=68.33
7-8 1.75 9.72 0.86 25.83 59.98+21.9=81.88
8-9 1.82 11.54 0.86 23.33 64.32+21.9=86.22
9 - 10 0.64 12.18 0.9 22.5 68.5+21.9=90.4
10 - 11 2.01 14.19 0.78 19.2 59.03+21.9=80.93
11 - 12 0.23 14.42 0.25 18.3 18.33+21.9=40.23
 34

CHAPTER 4
DETERMINATION OF BEST HYDRAULIC SECTION

4.1. Introduction
Most lined channels and built up channels can withstand erosion satisfactory
and are therefore considered nonerodible. Unlined channels are generally erodible,
except those excavated in firm foundation, such as rock bed. In designing nonerodible
channels, such factors as the maximum permissible velocity and the permissible
tractive force are not the criteria to be considered. The designer simply computes the
dimension of the channel by the uniform flow formula and then decides the final
dimensions on the basis of hydraulic efficiency, or empirical rule of best section,
practicability and economy. The factors to be considered in the design are; the kind of
material forming the channel body, which determines the roughness coefficient; the
minimum permissible velocity, to avoid deposition if the water carries silt or debris;
the channel bottom slope and side slope; the freeboard; and the most efficient section,
either hydraulically or empirically determined [85 Ric].

4.2. The Section Factor for Uniform Flow Computation

The discharge of uniform flow in a channel may be expressed as the product
of the velocity and the water area.
Q = AV Equation 4.1
where, Q = design discharge
A = water area
V = flow velocity
When the Manning formula is used, the velocity becomes as described in Eq. 4.2.
 2/3 1/2
V= R S Equation 4.2
n
where, V = flow velocity
 = flow resistant factor (1 for SI units)
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = longitudinal slope
 35

This formula was developed from seven different formulas, based on Bazin’s
experimental data, and further verified by 170 observations. Owing to its simplicity of
form and to the satisfactory results it tends to practical applications, the Manning
formula has become the most widely used of all uniform flow formulas for open-
channel flow computation. Then Eq. 4.1 becomes

Q= A R 2/3 S 1/2 Equation 4.3
n

The expression AR2/3 is called the section factor for uniform flow computation.
It is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. This factor may be
expressed as Eq. 4.4.
nQ
AR 2/3 = Equation 4.4
 S
where, A = water area
R = hydraulic radius
n = roughness coefficient
Q = design discharge
 = flow resistant factor (1 for SI units)
S = longitudinal slope

4.3. Determination of Channel Slopes

4.3.1. Drain Side Slope
The slope of a channel mainly depends on the kind of material. Generally
speaking, side slope should be made as steep as practicable and should be designed
for high hydraulic efficiency and stability. The best hydraulic trapezoidal section is
one half of a hexagon and then the side slope that makes the least wetted perimeter is
1: 3 [59 Ven]. Then side slope of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain required for the
design is 1: 3 .

4.3.2. Drain Longitudinal Slope

In most designed problems, the longitudinal slope of the channel is determined
by topography, the head required to carry the designed flow and the purpose of the
channel. For the design of best hydraulic section, the longitudinal slope of the channel
can be considered as a variable [59 Ven].
 36

The existing longitudinal slope of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is mild.

Moreover, it is an artificial channel and based on the nature of topography and
velocity limitation, the corresponding longitudinal slopes of each reach are considered
as a variable using the value 1:1000, 1:1500, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:3000, 1:3500 and
1:4000 respectively.

4.4. Design Procedures for Determination of Section Dimensions

The determination of section dimension for nonerodible channels includes the
following steps:
(1) Collect all necessary information, estimate n, and select S.
(2) Compute the section factor AR2/3 by Equation 4.1.
(3) Substitute the expressions for A and R obtained from Table 2.2 and solve
for the depth. If there are other unknowns, such as b and z of a trapezoidal section,
then assume the values for these unknowns and solve for the depth.
By assuming values of unknowns, a number of combinations of section
dimensions can be obtained. The final dimensions are decided on basis of hydraulic
efficiency and practicability. For lined canals, the trapezoidal section is usually
adopted. The determination of the computed values of AR2/3 can be simplified by the
use of design chart. Some engineers prefer a solution by trial and error.
(4) If the best hydraulic section is required directly, substitute in Equation 4.4,
the expressions for A and R obtained from Table 2.2 and solve for the depth. This best
hydraulic section may be modified for practicability.
(5) Check the minimum permissible velocity if the water carries silt.
(6) Add a proper freeboard to the depth of the channel section [59 Ven].

4.5. Calculation of Best Hydraulic Section

By using the recommended procedures, the best hydraulic section of Shwe Ta
Chaung Main Drain for the selected longitudinal slopes are calculated as described
below:
Step 1. (a) Estimation of 'n'
The Manning 'n' value or coefficient is a parameter that represents the
'roughness' or resistance to flow that the water flowing in a channel will encounter.
The more vegetation or obstructions to flow that occur, the higher 'n' value. [59 Ven]
 37

To estimate the value of 'n', 'Table Method of n Estimation' is used. This

method of estimating n for a channel involves the use of table of values. Chow (1959)
presented an extensive table of 'n' values for various types of channels, and the
information in that table is represented as Table A.2. In this table, minimum, normal,
and maximum values of 'n' are stated for each type of channel. It is noted that the
normal value assumes that the channel receives regular maintenance.
Since, the proposed main drain is stone-pitching channel, the suitable value of
'n' for the design is chosen as 0.027.
(b) Selection of S
As Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is an artificial or improved channel, the
longitudinal slope 'S' is considered as a variable. In determination of section
dimensions for this drain, the selected values of slopes are as 1:1000, 1:1500, 1:2000,
1:2500, 1:3000, 1:3500 and 1:4000 respectively.

Step 2. Computation of the value of section factor (AR2/3)

By substituting n = 0.015,  = 1 (for SI units), and the various longitudinal
selected slopes, the various section factors for each subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung
Main Drain are calculated by using Equation 4.4. The results are shown in Table 4.1.

Step 3. Since the best hydraulic section of the proposed main drain is required, the
expression for A = 3 y2 and R = ½ y obtained from Table are substituted in AR 2/3.
By equalizing AR2/3 with the results from step 2, the values of depth y for the best
hydraulic section for various longitudinal slopes are solved. The results for various
longitudinal slopes are listed from Table 4.2 to Table 4.8.

Step 4. Addition of freeboard

The freeboard of a channel is the vertical distance from the top of the channel
to the water surface at the design condition. This distance should be sufficient to
prevent waves or fluctuations in water surface from overflowing the sides. There is no
universally accepted rule for the determination of freeboard, since wave action or
water-surface fluctuation in a channel may be created by many uncontrollable causes.
Pronounced waves and fluctuation of water surface are generally expected in channels
where the velocity is so high and the slope is so steep that the flow become very
unstable, or on curves where high velocity and large deflection angle may cause
 38

Table 4.1. Section Factors of Each Subcatchment for Variable Longitudinal Slopes
2
Name of Discharge Section Factor, AR 3
Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) S = 0.001 S = 0.0007 S = 0.0005 S = 0.0004 S = 0.00033 S = 0.00028 S = 0.00025

1-2 A 12.74 10.88 13 15.38 17.2 18.94 20.56 21.76

2-3 B 18.42 15.73 18.8 22.24 24.87 27.38 29.72 31.46

3-4 C 53.9 46.02 55.01 65.08 72.77 80.11 86.97 92.04

4-5 D 59.5 50.8 60.72 71.84 80.33 88.44 96.01 101.6

36
5-6 E 68.64 58.61 70.05 82.88 92.66 102.02 110.76 117.21

6-7 F 68.33 58.34 69.73 82.51 92.25 101.56 110.25 116.68

7-8 G 81.88 69.91 83.56 98.87 110.54 121.7 132.12 139.82

8-9 H 86.22 73.62 87.99 104.11 116.4 128.15 139.12 147.23

9 - 10 I 90.4 77.18 92.25 109.16 122.04 134.36 145.87 154.37

10 - 11 J 80.93 69.1 82.59 97.72 109.26 120.29 130.59 138.2

11 - 12 K 40.23 34.35 41.05 48.58 54.31 59.79 64.91 68.7

 39

Table 4.2. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1: 1000

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)

1-2 A 10.88 1.9

2-3 B 15.73 2.18

3-4 C 46.02 3.27

4-5 D 50.8 3.39

5-6 E 58.61 3.57

6-7 F 58.34 3.57

7-8 G 69.91 3.57

8-9 H 73.62 3.61

9 - 10 I 77.18 3.54

10 - 11 J 69.1 2.57

11 - 12 K 34.35 3.65

Table 4.3. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1:1500

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)
1-2 A 13 2.53
2-3 B 18.8 2.91
3-4 C 55.01 4.35
4-5 D 60.72 4.51
5-6 E 70.05 4.76
6-7 F 69.73 4.75
7-8 G 83.56 5.09
8-9 H 87.99 5.19
9 - 10 I 92.25 5.28
10 - 11 J 82.59 5.07
11 - 12 K 41.05 3.9
 40

Table 4.4. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1:2000

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)

1-2 A 15.38 2.7

2-3 B 22.24 3.1
3-4 C 65.08 4.63
4-5 D 71.84 4.81
5-6 E 82.88 5.07
6-7 F 82.51 5.06
7-8 G 98.87 5.42
8-9 H 104.11 5.53
9 - 10 I 109.16 5.62
10 - 11 J 97.72 5.4
11 - 12 K 48.58 4.15

Table 4.5. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1:2500

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)

1-2 A 17.2 2.81

2-3 B 24.87 3.23
3-4 C 72.77 4.83
4-5 D 80.33 5.01
5-6 E 92.66 5.29
6-7 F 92.25 5.28
7-8 G 110.54 5.65
8-9 H 116.4 5.76
9 - 10 I 122.04 5.86
10 - 11 J 109.26 5.63
11 - 12 K 54.31 4.33
 41

Table 4.6. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1: 3000

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)

1-2 A 18.94 2.92

2-3 B 27.38 3.35
3-4 C 80.11 5.01
4-5 D 88.44 5.2
5-6 E 102.02 5.48
6-7 F 101.56 5.47
7-8 G 121.7 5.86
8-9 H 128.15 5.97
9 - 10 I 134.36 6.08
10 - 11 J 120.29 5.83
11 - 12 K 59.79 4.49

Table 4.7. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1: 3500

2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)

1-2 A 20.56 3.01

2-3 B 29.52 3.45
3-4 C 86.97 5.16
4-5 D 96.01 5.36
5-6 E 110.76 5.66
6-7 F 110.25 5.65
7-8 G 132.12 6.04
8-9 H 139.12 6.16
9 - 10 I 145.87 6.27
10 - 11 J 130.59 6.02
11 - 12 K 64.91 4.63
Table 4.8. Value of Depth for Each Reach for S = 1:4000
2
Reach Name of Subcatchment Section Factor, AR 3 Depth, y (m)
1-2 A 21.76 3.07
 42

2-3 B 31.46 3.53

3-4 C 92.04 5.28
4-5 D 101.6 5.48
5-6 E 117.21 5.78
6-7 F 116.68 5.77
7-8 G 139.82 6.17
8-9 H 147.23 6.29
9 - 10 I 154.37 6.4
10 - 11 J 138.2 6.14
11 - 12 K 68.7 4.73

appreciable superelevated water surface on the convex side of a curve, or in channel

where the velocity of flow approaches the critical state at which the water may flow at
alternate depths and thus jump from the low stage to the high state at the least
obstruction. Freeboards varying from 5% to 30% of the depth of flow are commonly
used in design [59 Ven].
For lined canals, the height of lining above the water surface will depend upon
a number of factors: size of canal, velocity of water, curvature of alignment, condition
of stormwater and drain-water inflow, fluctuations of water level due to operation of
flow-regulating structures, and wind action. In a somewhat similar manner, the height
of bank above the water surface will vary with the size and location of canal, type of
soil, amount of intercepted stormwater or drain water, etc [59 Ven].
In calculation of the section dimensions for Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain, its
freeboard is taken as the average value of the sum of minimum and maximum
allowable freeboard which is nearly 18% of the maximum possible depth of water.
Then the value of the freeboard is 1.15 m.
Adding 1.15 m freeboard, the total depths for variable longitudinal slopes are
obtained. Then the water area, the top width, the bottom width, the wetted perimeter
and the hydraulic radius for each subcatchment of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain are
calculated. The results are listed in Tables 4.9 to 4.15.
 43

Table 4.9. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:1000

Wetted Hydraulic
Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width
Reach Perimeter Radius
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m)
P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 2.36 3.51 9.65 2.73 5.45 8.18 1.18

2-3 B 2.72 3.87 12.81 3.14 6.28 9.42 1.36

3-4 C 4.07 5.22 28.69 4.7 9.4 14.1 2.04

4-5 D 4.22 5.37 30.85 4.88 9.75 14.62 2.11

41
5-6 E 4.45 5.6 34.3 5.14 10.28 15.42 2.23

6-7 F 4.45 5.6 34.3 5.14 10.28 15.42 2.23

7-8 G 4.76 5.91 39.24 5.5 10.99 16.49 2.38

8-9 H 4.85 6 40.74 5.6 11.2 16.8 2.43

9 - 10 I 4.94 6.09 42.27 5.71 11.41 17.11 2.47

10 - 11 J 4.74 5.89 38.92 5.48 10.95 16.42 2.37

11 - 12 K 3.65 4.8 23.08 4.22 8.43 12.64 1.83

 44

Table 4.10. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:1500

Reach Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)

1-2 A 2.53 3.68 11.09 2.92 5.84 8.76 1.27

2-3 B 2.91 4.06 14.67 3.36 6.72 10.08 1.46

3-4 C 4.35 5.5 32.77 5.03 10.05 15.07 2.18

4-5 D 4.51 5.66 35.23 5.21 10.42 15.62 2.26

42
5-6 E 4.76 5.91 39.24 5.5 10.99 16.49 2.38

6-7 F 4.75 5.9 39.08 5.49 10.97 16.45 2.38

7-8 G 5.09 6.24 44.87 5.88 11.75 17.63 2.55

8-9 H 5.19 6.34 46.66 6 11.99 17.98 2.6

9 - 10 I 5.28 6.43 48.29 6.1 12.19 18.29 2.64

10 - 11 J 5.07 6.22 44.52 5.85 11.7 17.56 2.54

11 - 12 K 3.9 5.05 26.34 4.51 9.01 13.51 1.95

 45

Table 4.11. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:2000

Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Reach
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)

1-2 A 2.7 3.85 12.63 3.12 6.24 9.35 1.35

2-3 B 3.1 4.25 16.65 3.58 7.16 10.74 1.55

3-4 C 4.63 5.78 37.13 5.35 10.69 16.04 2.32

4-5 D 4.81 5.96 40.07 5.56 11.11 16.66 2.41

43
5-6 E 5.07 6.22 44.52 5.86 11.71 17.56 2.54

6-7 F 5.06 6.21 44.35 5.85 11.69 17.53 2.53

7-8 G 5.42 6.57 50.88 6.26 12.52 18.78 2.71

8-9 H 5.53 6.68 52.97 6.39 12.77 19.16 2.77

9 - 10 I 5.62 6.77 54.71 6.49 12.98 19.47 2.81

10 - 11 J 5.4 6.55 50.51 6.24 12.47 18.71 2.7

11 - 12 K 4.15 5.3 29.83 4.79 9.58 14.38 2.08

 46

Table 4.12. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:2500

Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Reach
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 2.81 3.96 13.68 3.25 6.49 9.73 1.41

2-3 B 3.23 4.38 18.07 3.73 7.46 11.19 1.62

3-4 C 4.83 5.98 40.41 5.58 11.15 16.73 2.42

4-5 D 5.01 6.16 43.47 5.79 11.57 17.36 2.51

44
5-6 E 5.29 6.44 48.47 6.11 12.22 18.33 2.65

6-7 F 5.28 6.43 48.29 6.1 12.19 18.29 2.64

7-8 G 5.65 6.8 55.29 6.53 13.05 19.57 2.83

8-9 H 5.76 6.91 57.47 6.65 13.3 19.95 2.88

9 - 10 I 5.86 7.01 59.48 6.77 13.53 20.3 2.93

10 - 11 J 5.63 6.78 54.9 6.5 13 19.5 2.82

11-12 K 4.33 5.48 32.47 5 10 15 2.17

 47

Table 4.13. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:3000

Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Reach
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 2.92 4.07 14.77 3.37 6.74 10.12 1.46

2-3 B 3.35 4.5 19.44 3.87 7.74 11.6 1.68

3-4 C 5.01 6.16 43.37 5.79 11.57 17.36 2.51

4-5 D 5.2 6.35 46.83 6.01 12.01 18.01 2.6

45
5-6 E 5.48 6.63 52.01 6.33 12.66 18.98 2.74

6-7 F 5.47 6.62 51.82 6.32 12.63 18.95 2.74

7-8 G 5.86 7.01 59.48 6.77 13.53 20.3 2.93

8-9 H 5.97 7.12 61.73 6.9 13.79 20.68 2.99

9 - 10 I 6.08 7.23 64.03 7.02 14.04 21.06 3.04

10 - 11 J 5.83 6.98 58.87 6.73 13.46 20.2 2.92

11-12 K 4.49 5.64 34.92 5.19 10.37 15.55 2.25

 48

Table 4.14. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:3500

Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Reach
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 3.01 4.16 15.69 3.48 6.95 10.43 1.51

2-3 B 3.45 4.6 20.62 3.99 7.97 11.95 1.73

3-4 C 5.16 6.31 46.12 5.96 11.92 17.88 2.58

4-5 D 5.36 6.51 49.76 6.19 12.38 18.57 2.68

46
5-6 E 5.66 6.81 55.49 6.54 13.07 19.61 2.83

6-7 F 5.65 6.8 55.29 6.53 13.05 19.57 2.83

7-8 G 6.04 7.19 63.19 6.98 13.95 20.92 3.02

8-9 H 6.16 7.31 65.72 7.12 14.23 21.34 3.08

9 - 10 I 6.27 7.42 68.09 7.24 14.48 21.72 3.14

10 - 11 J 6.02 7.17 62.77 6.95 13.9 20.85 3.01

11-12 K 4.63 5.78 37.13 5.35 10.69 16.04 2.32

 49

Table 4.15. Geometric Elements of Channel Sections for S = 1:4000

Name of Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Reach
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m) P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 3.07 4.22 16.32 3.55 7.09 10.63 1.54

2-3 B 3.53 4.68 21.58 4.08 8.15 12.23 1.77

3-4 C 5.28 6.43 48.29 6.1 12.19 18.29 2.64

4-5 D 5.48 6.63 52.01 6.33 12.66 18.98 2.74

47
5-6 E 5.78 6.93 57.87 6.68 13.35 20.02 2.89

6-7 F 5.77 6.92 57.67 6.67 13.33 19.99 2.89

7-8 G 6.17 7.32 65.94 7.13 14.25 21.37 3.09

8-9 H 6.29 7.44 68.53 7.27 14.53 21.79 3.15

9 - 10 I 6.4 7.55 70.95 7.39 14.78 22.17 3.2

10 - 11 J 6.14 7.29 65.3 7.09 14.18 21.27 3.07

11 - 12 K 4.73 5.88 38.75 5.46 10.92 16.39 2.37

 50

Step 5. Checking the minimum and maximum permissible velocities

The minimum permissible velocity or the non-silting velocity is the lowest
velocity that will not start sedimentation and induce the growth of aquatic plant and
moss. This velocity is very uncertain and its exact value cannot be easily determined.
For water carrying no silt load, this factor has little significance except for its effect
on plant growth. Generally speaking, a mean velocity of 0.61 to 0.91 m/s may be used
safely when the percentage of silt present in the channel is small, and the mean
velocity of not less than 0.76 m/s will prevent a growth of vegetation that would
seriously decrease the carrying capacity of the channel [59 Ven].
The maximum permissible velocity or non-erodible velocities is the greatest
mean velocity that will not cause erosion of the channel body. The maximum
permissible velocity of the flow depends upon the character of the suspended matter
because of its active erosion and the quality of materials. The maximum permissible
velocities for the design channel is thus limited to about 2.4 m/s because of stone-
pitching channel but in practice it should preferably not exceed 2.5 m/s [59 Ven].
To check the minimum and maximum permissible velocities, the flow
velocities of the proposed main drain for each subcatchment for the selected
longitudinal slopes are calculated using Equation 4.1. The calculated values of the
flow velocities for the selected longitudinal slopes are listed in Tables 4.16 to 4.22.

Table 4.16. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:1000

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity
Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)
1-2 A 12.74 9.65 1.32
2-3 B 18.42 12.81 1.44
3-4 C 53.9 28.69 1.88
4-5 D 59.5 30.85 1.93
5-6 E 68.64 34.3 2.0
6-7 F 68.33 34.3 1.99
7-8 G 81.88 39.24 2.09
8-9 H 86.22 40.74 2.12
9-10 I 90.4 42.27 2.14
10-11 J 80.93 38.92 2.08
11-12 K 40.23 23.08 1.74
 51

Table 4.17. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:1500

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity
Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 11.09 1.15

2-3 B 18.42 14.67 1.26
3-4 C 53.9 32.77 1.65
4-5 D 59.5 35.23 1.69
5-6 E 68.64 39.24 1.75
6-7 F 68.33 39.08 1.75
7-8 G 81.88 44.87 1.83
8-9 H 86.22 46.66 1.85
9-10 I 90.4 48.29 1.87
10-11 J 80.93 44.52 1.82
11-12 K 40.23 26.34 1.53

Table 4.18. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:2000

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity

Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 12.63 1.01

2-3 B 18.42 16.65 1.11
3-4 C 53.9 37.13 1.45
4-5 D 59.5 40.07 1.49
5-6 E 68.64 44.52 1.54
6-7 F 68.33 44.35 1.54
7-8 G 81.88 50.88 1.61
8-9 H 86.22 52.97 1.63
9-10 I 90.4 54.71 1.65
10-11 J 80.93 50.51 1.6
11-12 K 40.23 29.83 1.35
Table 4.19. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:2500
 52

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity

Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 13.68 0.93

2-3 B 18.42 18.07 1.02
3-4 C 53.9 40.41 133
4-5 D 59.5 43.47 1.37
5-6 E 68.64 48.47 1.42
6-7 F 68.33 48.29 1.42
7-8 G 81.88 55.29 1.48
8-9 H 86.22 57.47 1.5
9-10 I 90.4 59.48 1.52
10-11 J 80.93 54.9 1.47
11-12 K 40.23 32.47 1.24

Table 4.20. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:3000

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity

Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 14.77 0.86

2-3 B 18.42 19.44 0.95
3-4 C 53.9 43.47 1.24
4-5 D 59.5 46.83 1.27
5-6 E 68.64 52.01 1.32
6-7 F 68.33 51.82 1.32
7-8 G 81.88 59.48 1.38
8-9 H 86.22 61.73 1.4
9-10 I 90.4 64.03 1.41
10-11 J 80.93 58.87 1.38

11-12 K 40.23 34.92 1.15

Table 4.21. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:3500

Reach Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity

 53

Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 15.69 0.81

2-3 B 18.42 20.62 0.89
3-4 C 53.9 46.12 1.17
4-5 D 59.5 49.76 1.2
5-6 E 68.64 55.49 1.24
6-7 F 68.33 55.29 1.24
7-8 G 81.88 63.19 1.3
8-9 H 86.22 65.72 1.31
9-10 I 90.4 68.09 1.33
10-11 J 80.93 62.77 1.29
11-12 K 40.23 37.13 1.08

Table 4.22. Flow Velocity of Each Reach for S = 1:4000

Name of Discharge Water Area Velocity

Reach
Subcatchment Q(m3/s) A(m2) V(m/s)

1-2 A 12.74 16.32 0.78

2-3 B 18.42 21.58 0.85
3-4 C 53.9 48.29 1.12
4-5 D 59.5 52.01 1.14
5-6 E 68.64 57.87 1.19
6-7 F 68.33 57.67 1.19
7-8 G 81.88 65.94 1.24
8-9 H 86.22 68.53 1.26
9-10 I 90.4 70.95 1.27
10-11 J 80.93 65.3 1.24
11-12 K 40.23 38.75 1.04
 54

74
Elevation (m)

72

70

68

66

64

52
62

60

58
0 760 2360 3720 6420 8340 9820 10280 11580 12320 14680 15840
Distance (m)

Existing ground slope Proposed slope I Proposed slope II

Figure 4.1. Existing Ground Slope and Longitudinal Profiles of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
 55

78
Elevation (m)

76

74

72

70

68

66

53
64

62
0 760 2360 3720 6420 8340 9820 10280 11580 12320 14680 15840

Distance (m)

Existing ground slope Proposed slope I Water Level Owe Bo Sluice Gate

Figure 4.2. Existing Ground Slope, Selected Longitudinal Profile and Water Level of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain
 56

Table 4.23. Selected Section Dimensions of Best Hydraulic Sections for Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain

Reach Wetted Hydraulic

Name of Normal Depth Total Depth Water Area Bottom Width Top Width
Perimeter Radius
Subcatchment y (m) (m) A (m2) b (m) T (m)
P(m) R(m)
1-2 A 2.53 3.68 11.09 2.92 5.84 8.76 1.27

2-3 B 2.72 3.87 12.81 3.14 6.28 9.42 1.36

3-4 C 5.01 6.16 43.47 5.79 11.57 17.36 2.51

4-5 D 5.01 6.16 43.47 5.79 11.57 17.36 2.51

5-6 E 5.07 6.22 44.52 5.86 11.71 17.56 2.54

6-7 F 5.06 6.21 44.35 5.85 11.69 17.53 2.53

54
7-8 G 5.42 6.57 50.88 6.26 12.52 18.78 2.71

8-9 H 5.53 6.68 52.97 6.39 12.77 19.16 2.77

9 - 10 I 5.62 6.77 54.71 6.49 12.98 19.47 2.81

10 - 11 J 5.4 6.55 50.51 6.24 12.47 18.71 2.7

11 - 12 K 3.9 5.05 26.34 4.51 9.01 13.51 1.95

 57

In the above results, the flow velocities of water for all subcatchments of the
proposed main drain are greater than the minimum permissible velocity of 0.76 m/s
and less than the maximum permissible velocity of 2.5 m/s for various longitudinal
slopes. Moreover, in that case, the longitudinal slopes for each reach should be
selected that can reduced constructed costs but can carry good flow. According to the
above reasons, the various longitudinal profiles are drawn and then, the suitable
profile is selected by comparing the existing ground slopes and they are illustrated in
Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
In reaches 1-2 and 2-3, the existing ground slope is sufficient to provide good
flow, therefore, it is unnecessary to select proposed slopes in these reaches. Moreover,
at the beginning of reach 2-3, Owe Bo sluice gate is closed not to enter the discharge
from Shwe Kyin Chaung during heavy rain. So, the discharge from reach 1-2 can't
flow to the south and its section dimensions are considered separately. Then, from
reaches 3-4 to 11-12, the selected longitudinal slopes are steeper and steeper to the
downstream and their values are 1:3000, 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000,
1:2000, 1:2000 and 1:1500 respectively. Then the final dimensions of Shwe Ta
Chaung Main Drain are obtained. The results are shown in Table 4.23.
 58

CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

5.1. General
Sustainable drainage systems are designed using the same principles of
hydrology as traditional drainage systems, but different methods of application. The
sustainable drainage system approach to drainage includes a wide range of methods.
Sustainable drainage system techniques can be divided into many categories such as
green roofs, rainwater harvesting, permeable pavements, infiltration trenches and
filter drains, swales, basins, ponds and wetlands. They offer the benefits of reduced
flood risk and improved water quality. They help to restore underground water
resources, to improve water quality and to reduce water shortage problem [10 Eri].
Depending on local and climatic conditions, stormwater pond is chosen as
sustainable drainage systems of the study area and the factor is discussed as follow.

5.2. Stormwater Ponds

Stormwater ponds are natural ecosystems and in their original form are
valuable parts of the drainage system. The construction of these permanent water
bodies will contribute to visual amenity and biodiversity and can form an intrinsic
link in a network of sustainable drainage systems. Stormwater ponds can be used in
different parts of the drainage system, as a source control on private land, in the upper
part of the drainage system, or as a measure of downstream control. They serve
several purposes, such as the attenuation of flow peaks, reduced stream erosion in
downstream areas, removal of suspended solids and the removal of nutrients.
The implementation of a pond reduces both the magnitude of peak flows as
well as delays its occurrence, which may help to prevent flooding. Another benefit is
that stream erosion is reduced in the downstream area. The maximum amount of flow
that stormwater ponds can handle is dependent on several factors. It is not only the
size and duration of the individual storms that matter, but also the frequency. The site
characteristics will have some physical limitations that influence the possible size of
the pond. It is mainly the additional storage volume that provides the attenuation of
 59

the inflow, where a larger storage can handle more water. Another measure to
improve the maximum capacity of the pond is to implement designed flooding areas,
to which overflow can occur during heavy storms. Depending on the downstream
system capacity and the characteristics of the recipient, the outflow capacity always
has some restriction, which also influences the capacity of the pond [10 Eri].

5.2.1. Design Considerations in Stormwater Pond

The wastewater in the stormwater pond is treated by oxidation pond action in
order to reduce suspended solids and BOD. An oxidation pond is a relatively shallow
body of wastewater containing in an earthen basin which is designed to treat
wastewater. They are used to treat a variety of wastewater, from domestic wastewater
to complex industrial wastewater, and the function under a wide range of weather
conditions, i.e, tropical to arctic. Ponds can be used alone or in combination with
other treatment processes. If sufficient land is available, ponds area a cost-effective
means to provide wastewater treatment. In addition, their operation is the preferred
system in hot climate zones [89 Kri]. Design criteria for oxidation ponds are shown in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1. Design Criteria for Oxidation Pond [89 Kri]

Type of Pond
Parameter Aerobic Aerobic Facultative Anaerobic
maturation
Detention time, d 5-20 5-30 20-50
Depth, m 0.9-1.5 1.2-2.4 2.4-4.8
pH 6.5-10.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-7.2
BOD5 conversion, 60-80 80-95 50-85
%
Principle Algae, CO2, CH4, Algae, CO2, CH4, CO2, CH4,
Conservation bacterial cell tissue bacterial cell tissue bacterial cell
NO3 NO3 tissue

5.2.1.1. Types of ponds

Oxidation ponds are classified according to the biological processes taking
place, namely, aerobic, anaerobic and facultative.
(1) Aerobic ponds: They are shallow ponds of about 30cm depth or less. They
maximize the growth of algae through photosynthetic action. Aerobic conditions are
 60

maintained throughout the depth on the pond micro-organisms. These ponds are
considered useful where ultimate harvesting of algae is desired. They are not used
much [89 Kri].
(2) Anaerobic ponds: Anaerobic ponds are designed for higher organic loadings
so that photosynthetic algae action is precluded and aerobic conditions prvail
throughout the pond volume. The pond is, therefore, devoid of molecular oxygen and
anaerobic and facultative bacteria obtaining their required oxygen from chemical
compounds presented in the waste. Under these conditions the pond acts like an
untreated and unstirred open digester. Anaerobic decomposition degrades organic
matter through successive steps to gaseous end products like methane and carbon
dioxide. Such ponds are built deeper about 2.5 to 3.7 m being more common. The
effluent from these ponds will have high BOD and require further treatment [89 Kri].
(2) Facultative ponds: These ponds are relatively shallow. Their depth varies
from 90 cm to 150 cm. The biological actions involved are predominantly aerobic
during sunshine hours as well as some hours of the night. In the few remaining hours
of the night, the upper layers of the pond may or may not be aerobic but the bottom
layers are generally anaerobic. Many of the oxidation ponds are a combination of
aerobic and anaerobic types in carrying degrees [89 Kri].

5.2.1.2. Process of oxidation

Oxidation ponds are shallow ponds and have regular and controlled shape,
depth and capacity. In these ponds, sedimentation and oxidation, both take place
simultaneously. The process of treatment largely depends on the interaction of
bacteria and algae. In these tanks, aerobic bacteria convert the decomposable organic
matter to more stable products and in doing so, liberates nutriment element necessary
for algae growth. The algae utilizes these nutriments and produce and oxygen surplus
through photo-synthetic action. This surplus liberated oxygen helps to create and
maintain aerobic conditions for the aerobic bacteria to flourish. Sunlight is essential
for oxidation because algae growth takes place only in the presence of sunlight
[89Kri].

5.2.1.3. Formulae for oxidation pond

Design guide lines may specify the maximum allowable BOD loading, the
number of cells required for different size pond system, overall wastewater detention
time, maximum and minimum water depths. The degree of stabilization produced a
pond is influenced climate condition.
 61

BOD removal is a function of detention time, temperature and nature of the

waste, primarily biodegradability and nutrient content. The common relationships
are,
Le 1 Equation 5.1
=
Li 1+k e t

Where, Le = effluent BOD, mg/l

Li = influent BOD, mg/l
ke = BOD removal rate constant, per day

Coldest month’s average daily maximum

Values of ke

temperature (º C)
Warmest month’s average daily maximum
temperature (º C)

Figure 5.1. Determination of values of ke

- Determination of efficiency in BOD removal.

 L -L 
Efficiency in BOD removal =  i e  ×100 Equation 5.2
 Li 
- Determination of pond area,
Qt Equation 5.3
A
D

5.2.1.4. Design of oxidation pond

 62

Influent BOD, Li =138 mg/l (10 Saw)

Effluent BOD, Le = 20 mg/l (assumed)
The reaction rate ke is determined by using Figure 5.1,
The – temperature of warmest and coldest month are 35°C and 27°C.
Reaction rate, ke = 0.22 per day
Le 1
=
Li 1  k et

20 1
=
138 1  0.22  t
t = 26.8 d
Use, t = 27 days
Select water depth, D = 1.5m (from 1.2 to 2.4m)
Hence, heavy rainfall duration lasts about eight days at t=25 days but maximum
rainfall is about three hours per day.
Peak discharge = 40.23 m3 /s
= 40.23 × 3 ×8 × 3600
= 3.5 × 106 m3 ( in eight days )
3.5 106
Pond area, A =
1.5
= 2.33 ×106 m2
Length : Width = 5 : 1
Width, W = 682.64 m
Length, L = 3413.21 m
Li  Le
BOD removal efficiency = × 100
Li

138  20
= × 100
138
= 85.5 %
Nan Kutt Inn, which is situated between Kutt Kyaw and Shwe Gae Pumping
Stations, is used as stormwater pond and its location is shown in Figure 5.1. Its entire
area is about 2.35 km2 and it can store total water depth of about 1.52 m. From the
above result, the required pond area and depth are 2.33 km2 and 1.5 m at t  27 days.
Moreover, at the present condition, Shwe Gae sluice gate is closed for nearly one
 63

month when the water level of Ayeyarwady River becomes high. Heavy rainfall
duration lasts about eight days during that time but maximum rainfall is about three
hours in one day. So, total water depth stored in the pond is 1.5 m in area of about
2.33 km2. Therefore, the available pond area and depth are sufficient for the above
two cases.

5.2.2. Screening
Screening is to be used to remove the solid waste along the Shwe Ta Chaung
Main Drain. The advantage of screening is that the solid waste, a significant
restriction to drain flow, can be removed easily or technically be machines or manual.
A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size, that is used to
retain the coarse solids found in wastewater. The screening element may consist of
parallel bars, rods or wires, grating, wire mesh, or perforated plate, and the openings
may be of any shape but generally are circular or rectangular slots. A screen
composed of parallel bars or rods is called “a bar rack” (sometime called a bar
screen). The materials removed by these devices are known as screenings. The bar
screens are always set, in an inclined position with an angle of about 30 to 60 degrees
with the direction of the flow. This increases the screening surface by 40 to 100% and
helps to be easy cleaning of the screens. According to the method used to clean them,
bar racks and screens are designated as hand-cleaned or mechanically cleaned [85
Met].

5.2.2.1. Types of screen

Screens or screenings devices may be classified as follows:
(1) According to size of the openings _ Under this head screen may be coarse,
medium and fine.
(2) According to shape of the screen – Under this head disc, band, drum, cage,
wing type of screens come.
(3) According to the condition of movement – Under this heading fixed
movable and moving screens come.
(4) According to method of cleaning – Under this head screens may be
classified as hand-cleaned or mechanically-cleaned screens.
 64

According to this classification, screens may be classified as coarse, medium

and fine. Coarse screens are also called racks. They have clear opening from 4 cm to 8
cm. These screens remove large size floating matter such as dead animals, sticks
trash, etc. These screens remove large size floating matter such as rocks, branches,
pieces of lumber, leaves, paper, tree roots, plastics and rags. Organic matter can
collect as well. The rag content can be substantial and has been visually estimated to
comprise from 60 to 70 percent of the total screenings volume on 1 and 4 in (25 and
100 mm) screens, respectively. Coarse screenings are highly volatile (80 to 90 percent
or more volatile solids content), and have a dry solids content of 15 to 25 percent and
density of 40 to 60 lb/ft3 (640 to 960 kg/m3) [85 Met]. For Shwe Ta Chaung Main
Drain, coarse screens or racks are suitable to remove the floating bodies or solid
wastes in the Drain.

5.2.2.2. Design of screens

Peak design flow (Q) = 40.23 m³/s
Velocity through racks = 1.53 m/s
Clear spacing bet; bars = 60 mm = 6 cm
Depth of flow in the rack chamber = 3.9 m
Q
Clear area through the rack openings, (A) =
Velocity through rack
40.23
= = 26.29 m²
1.53
26.29
Clear width of the opening at the rack = = 6.74 m
3.9
Clear width
No. of clear spacing =
Clear spacing between bars
6.74  100
= = 112.3
6 1
Provided 113 clear spacing at 6 cm
Total number of bars = 113 – 1 = 112
Provide bars with 12 mm width
Width of the chamber = clear width + width of bars
12
= 6.74 + [112 × ]
1000
= 8.08 m
 65

5.2.2.3. Screen cleaning

For successful performance, the screens should be cleaned periodically which
may be done by hand rakes or by machine as back hole. Rack is nothing, but a comb
like system of toothed bars. Teeth of rakes are designed in such a way that they fit in
between the spacing of screen bars.
Fixed racks are almost always cleaned by hand-rake. The floor on which the
screenings are deposited should be provided with drainage arrangement through
which water can drop back into the sewage. Facilities must be provided also for
prompt removal and disposed of the screenings [85 Met].
 66

Figure 5.2. Location of Stormwater Pond and Screens

 67

CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. Discussion and Conclusion

Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain is the longest main drain in Mandalay City that
carries wastewater and storm water from the central and western parts of the City. It
flows from north to south. It usually causes flooding during heavy rain because of
insufficient cross-section and solid waste concentration.
To prevent the above conditions, the proposed main drain is designed with
best hydraulic section design and the drain flow in it is treated by SUDs techniques. In
the design considerations of channel section, only stormwater is considered since the
flooding is mainly caused by stormwater and it is calculated by rational method. Once
in five years intensity-duration-frequency curve, which is prepared by JICA for
Mandalay City, is used to estimate the rainfall intensity. And the value of the time of
concentration is calculated by using the velocity method and modified rational
method as each subcatchment is less than 2.5 km2. Based on the calculated values of
the time of concentration, the rainfall intensities for each subcatchment are calculated.
The values of runoff coefficient are taken as 0.95 for watertight roof surfaces, 0.9 for
asphaltic pavements and 0.25 for lawns, meadows, parks, playgrounds and wooden
areas. Mandalay City contour map with 0.5 m interval (1:20000 scale) is used for
boundary divisions and required subcatchment areas.
Then, best hydraulic sections of proposed main drain are designed by
Manning’s Formula. Manning’s roughness coefficient is taken as 0.015 because of
stone-pitching channel. The main channel is designed as trapezoidal shape and the
side slope is taken as 1: 3 . The design flow velocity for each reach must have
between the limitation of the minimum permissible velocity (0.76 m/s) and the
maximum permissible velocity (2.5 m/s). To determine channel sections for each
reach, the various longitudinal slopes that approximately equal to existing ground
slopes are assumed as 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:3000, 1:3500 and 1:4000. Then, the
proposed longitudinal slopes are selected depending on the velocity limitation and the
 68

existing ground condition. As the existing ground slopes in reaches 1-2 and 2-3 are
satisfied to provide good flow, it is unnecessary to propose selected slopes in these
reaches. Moreover, the selected slopes from reach 3-4 to 11-12 are 1:3000, 1:2500,
1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000, 1:2000 and 1:1500 respectively and they are
steeper and steeper to the downstream. The selected values of top widths and bottom
widths in each reach are 5.84 m and 2.92 m, 6.28 m and 3.14 m, 11.57 m and 5.79 m,
11.57 m and 5.79 m, 11.71m and 5.86 m, 11.69 m and 5.85 m, 12.52 m and 6.26 m,
12.77 m and 6.39 m, 12.98 m and 6.49 m, 12.47 m and 6.24 m and 9.01 m and 4.51
m. In the above results, maximum top and bottom widths are occurred in reach 9-10
because the longer the time of concentration, the lesser the rainfall intensity and the
values of runoff coefficient are different in each subcatchment although cumulative
discharge is received in reach 11-12 in general. And the minimum top and bottom
widths are occurred in reach 1-2. The calculated minimum and maximum velocities
are 0.86 m/s and 1.65 m/s in reaches 3-4 and 9-10 and they are within the permissible
velocity limit. To select the best hydraulic section of Shwe Ta Chaung Main Drain, it
needs to consider from the practical point of view. The selection of appropriate
section dimensions depends on the availability of the space of the drain, the
longitudinal slope and the existing condition of the drain.
After that, the main channel is designed with SUDs techniques; stormwater
pond. Nan Kutt Inn is used as storm water pond and its entire area is about 2.35 km 2.
It can store maximum water depth of about 1.52 m. At the present condition, Shwe
Gae sluice gate is closed for nearly one month when the water level of Ayeyarwady
River becomes high. Heavy rainfall duration lasts about eight days during that time
but maximum rainfall is about three hours in one day. Therefore, the pond receives
the total discharge of about 3.5x106m3 from the Shwe Ta Chaung during those days.
And it is designed as oxidation pond system to remove BOD and total suspended
solids. Its influent BOD is 138 mg/l and effluent BOD is assumed as 20 mg/l to reuse
in household and agriculture. Its required area and depth are 2.33 km 2 and 1.5 m and
its BOD removal efficiency is 85.5%. Therefore, the available pond area and depth
are sufficient for the above two conditions. At the inlet of the pond, 12 mm diameter
bar screens are installed with the clear spacing of 6 cm to remove the solid waste.
 69

6.2. Recommendations
For the practical application, the following factors should be considered to
improve the drainage condition.
(1) Screens should be installed at required locations along the Shwe Ta Chaung Main
Drain.
(2) The existing elevation of Shwe Gae sluice gate should be raised.
(3) Daily maximum rainfall should be used for further study.
 70

REFERENCES

[10 Aye] Aye Khaing Mon, Ma, Design of Drainage System with Open Channel
for Aung Myay Tha San Township in Mandalay, ME thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, TU (Mandalay), 2010.
[10 Eri] Ericson T. (2010). A Sustainable Urban Drainage System in the
Wangjiadum Green CBD in Wuhan, China –A Case Study of the
Management of Stormwater. Master thesis. Water and Environmental
Engineering at the Department of Chemical Engineering at Lund
University.
[10 Saw] Saw Zan, Mg, Analysis and Design of Wastewater Treament Process
for Mandalay City, ME Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, TU
(Mandalay), 2010.
[06 Phy] Phyu Zar Khine, Ma, Design of Best Hydraulic Section for Shwe Ta
Chaung Main Drain in Mandalay City, ME Thesis, Department of
Civil Engineering, Mandalay Technological University, 2006.
[95 Met] Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering. 3rd Editon New
Delhi: Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co, 1995.
[94 Tho] Thomas N.Debo, Andrew J. Reese: Municipal Stormwater
Management, Lewis publishers, (1994).
[89 Cun] Mc Cune, Richard H. 1989. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. U.S.A:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. (1989)
[89 Kri] Kriengsak Undomsinort, Wastewater Engineering design, Gutierrez,
Smouse, Wilmut & Asso., Inc, USA. (1989)
[85 How] Howard. S. P., Donald R.R., and George, T: Environmental
engineering, International Ed., U.S.A.: Mc Graw Hill Co, (1985)
[85 Ric] Richard, H. Open-Channel Hydraulic, International Edition French:
Mc Graw Hill Co, 1985.
[59 Ven] Ven Te Chow, Ph. D. Open-Channel Hydraulic, Mc Graw-Hill
kogakusha, Ltd. (1959).
 71

APPENDICES
 72

APPENDIX A
73
 74

Table A.2. Value of Roughness Coefficient n [59 Ven]

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

A. LINED OR BUILT-UP
CHANNEL
A-1. Metal
a. Smooth steel surface
1. Unpainted 0.011 0.012 0.014
2. Corrugated 0.012 0.013 0.017
b. Corrugated 0.021 0.025 0.030
A-2. Nonmetal
a. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood
1. Planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
3. Unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015
4. Plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. Lined with roofing 0.010 0.014 0.017
paper
c. Concrete
1. Trowel 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Float finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
3. Finished, with gravel on 0.015 0.017 0.020
bottom
4. Unifinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
6. Gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. On good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
8. On irregular rock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom float
finish withsides of
1. Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. Cement rubble masonry, 0.016 0.020 0.024
plastered
4. Cement rubble masonary 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. Cement rubble or riprap 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of
1. Formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. Dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. In cement mortar 0.01 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. Cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. Dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
 75

APPENDIX B
 76

LIST OF PUBLICATION

1. Thi Thi Soe and Nilar Aye: Design of Sustainable Drainage System for
Mandalay (Western Portion). The abstract volume of the sixth National
Conference on Science and Engineering, Mandalay, Upper Myanmar, (2013).