wrA Welding Technology Institute of Australia Pee cee ae ec ee MINIMISING CORROSION IN WELDED STEEL STRUCTURESEsco k mst Research, Education, Technical Support & Information WTIA Technical Note No. 12 Minimising Corrosion in Welded Steel Structures Welding Technology Institute of Australia A.C.N. 003 696 526 Unit 3, Suite 2, 9 Parramatta Road, Lidcombe. PO Box 6165, Silverwater, NSW 2128 Phone: (02) 9748 4443 Fax: (02) 9748 2858This Technical Note: The 1996 Edition of this Technical Note is a revision of the 1981 edition which it supersedes. This Tehenical Note is designed to assist designers, fabricators, supervisors and inspectors, and to provide practical guidance and information on corrosion problems associated with the welding of steel structures together with possible solutions for minimising corrosion. The Welding Technology Institute of Australia (WTIA) and the Australasian Corrosion Association Inc. (ACA) directed the preparation of this edition to their joint Technical Panel 11, Welding and Corrosion, consisting of: DrG. Sussex ~ IMMA Lid DrT, Betts ~ University of Auckland Mr L. Boulton ~ Les Boulton & Associates Mr B. Cannon ~ BHP Mr A. Fletcher ~ Tubemakers of Australia Mr M, Jestrimski — Scientific Services Laboratory Mr G. Mirgain ~ Stoody Company Mr G. Noble - BHP Stainless Ms S. Nugent ~ Corrosion Prevention Centre Mr G. Robb ~ Esso Australia Pty Ltd Mr P Thorpe ~P. Thorpe and Associates Dr I. Ward ~ Sandvik Australia Pty Ltd Acknowledgments The WTIA and ACA wish to acknowledge the contribution of Dr Rob Francis and Mr Bruce Cannon in the revision of 4his Technical Note, Future Revisions This Technical Note will be revised from time to time and comments aimed at improving its value to industry will be welcome. No extracts from this publication may be printed or published in any form without the WTIA's permission. Disclaimer While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the material contained herein, the authors, editors and publishers of this technical note shall not be held to be liable or responsible in any way whatsoever and expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for any loss or damage costs or expenses howsoever incurred by any person, whether the purchaser of this work or otherwise, including but without in any way limiting any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred as a result of or in connection with the reliabce whether whole or particlar by any person as aforesaid upon any part of the contents of this Technical Note. The WTIA docs not accept any responsiblity for interpretations of the Teclutival Note nade by individuals. No part of this Technical Note may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the WTIA. ‘Mr Ben Gross ~ Technical Manager and Editor National Library of Australia card number and ISBN 0 909539 51 0 (i)Contents Chapters Page 1 Introduction 2 Scope 3. Types of Conosion. 3.1 General Corrosion .. 3.2. Galvanic Corrosion 3.3 Brosion Corrosion 3.4 Fretting Corrosion .... 3.5. Crevice Comosion wrnnnninnn 3.6 Pitting Corrosion 3.7 Stress Corrosion Cracking 3.8 Corrosion Fatigue 4 Recommended Methods of Minimising Corrosion in Welded Structures 4.1 Design 42. Selection of Weld Metal and Welding Provedue 4.3. Quality of Welds... 44° Surface Cleaning . 45. Surface Coatings é 4.6 Other Methods of Corrosion Prevention . 4.6 Repair After Welding Through Painted or Galvani 4.8 Maintenance to Reduce Corrosion Appendix A ~ Cost Analysis of Protective S A. Method 1 ~ Simple Evaluation .. A.2_ Method 2 ~ Present Value Method Bibliography . List of WTIA Technical Notes stems. ii)EXPERT > TECHNOLOGY for the Welding Industry cies What are they? ‘An Expert Technology Tool (ETT) is a medium for difusion land take-up of technological information based on global research and development (R&D) and experience to improve industy performance, It can be formatted as a hard copy, software (fixed, Interactive or modifiable), audiovisual (videos and sound Lape) or physical samplas. It can be complemented by faceto-face interaction, on-site and remote assistance, training modules and auditing programs, ‘The diagram overleaf and the information below show how the WTIA has introduced a group of ETTs to help ‘companies improve their performance ETTs and the SME — how can they help my Total Welding Management System? ‘A Total Welding Management System (TWMS) is a major ETT with supporting ETTs created specifically to assist Australian industry, particulerly those Small to. Medium Enterprises (SMEs) that do not have the time or finance to develop an in-house system. These companies, however, are stil bound by legal requirements for compliance in any areas such as OHS&R, either due to government regulation or to contract requirements. The TWMS. ‘developed by the WTIA can be tallor- made by SMEs to sult {any size and scope of operation, and implemented in full or In part as required. What is Total Welding Management Total Welding Management comprises all of the elements ‘shown in the left-hand column of the table shown overlea. Each of these elements needs to be addressed within any company, large or small, undertaking welding, which wishes 10 operate efficiently and be competitive in the Australian and overseas markets. The Total Welding Management System Manual (itsolf an Expert Technology Tool) created by the WTIA with the assistance of industy and organisations represented within 8 Technology Expert Group, overviews each of these flomants in tho left-hand column, It details how each clement relates to effective welding management, refers to supporting weding-related ETTs, of, where the subject matter is out ofthe range of expertise of the authors, refers the user {0 external sources such as accounting or legal expertise ‘Knowledge Resource Bank The other columns on the diagram overleaf list the Knowiedge Resource Bank and show examples of supporting ETTs which may, or may not, be produced directly by the WTIA. The aim, however, is to assist companies to access this knowiedge and to recognise the role that knowledge plays in a Total Welding Management System, These supporting ETTs may take ‘any form, such as a Management System eg. ‘Occupational Health, Safety and Rehabilitation (OHS&R), a publication e.g. WTIA Technical Note, a video or a Standard through to software, @ one-page ‘guidance nate or welding procedure. Clearly, ETTs such as WTIA Technical Notes, various Standards, sofware, videos etc are readily available to industry. ‘The group of ETTs shown overleaf relate to 9 general welding fabricatorcontractor. The ETT group can be tailor ‘made to sut any specific company or industry sector. ‘A company specific Knowledge Resource Bank can be made by the company omitting or replacing any other ETT or Standard, Talal Welding Management for Industry Sectors Total Welding Management Systoms and the associated Knowledge Resource Bank are being developed for specific industry sectors, tallored to address the particular Issues of that industry and to faciltate access to relevant resources. A company spectic Total Welding Management System can be made by the company ‘adding, omiting or replacing any element shown inthe left hand column or ETT or Standard shown in the other columns, This approach links in_with industry needs already identified by existing WTIA SMART Industry Groups in the Pipeline, Petrochemical and Power Generation sectors. Members of these groups. have already highlighted the common problem of industry knowledge loss through downsizing, outsourcing and privatisation and ere looking for ways to address this problem. ‘The concept of industry specific Total Welding Management Systems and Knowledge Resource Banks will be extended based on the results of industry needs ‘analyses being currently conducted. The resources within the Bank wil be expanded with the help of Technology Expert Groups including WTIA Technical Panels. Information needs wil be identified forthe spectic industry sectors, existing resaureas located aithar within Australia fF overseas if otherwise unavailable, and if necessary, new resources willbe created to satisfy these needs. How to Access ETTs Management System ETTs, whether they are the Total Welding Management Manual (which includes the Quality Manual), OHS&R Managers Handbook, Procedures, Work Instructions, Forms and Records "or Environmental Improvement System, can be accessed and implemented ina variety of ways. They can be: Purchased as a publication for use by industry. They ‘may augment existing manuals, targeting the welding ‘operation of the company, or they may be Implomented from scratch by competent personnel ‘employed by the company; + Accessed as course notes when attending a public workshop explaining the ETT; + Accessed a6 course notes when attending an in- house workshop explaining the ETT; + Purchased within a package which includes training land on-site implementation assistance from qualified WTIA personnei ‘Accessed during face-o-face consultation + Downloaded from the WTIA website wivw.wtia.com.au ETTs created by the WTIA aro listodin the back of WTIA Technical Notes. Call the WTIA Welding Hotline on 1800, £620 820 for further information. em Research, Education, Technical Support & Information ni. Sute 2, 9 Paramatt Read, Liscombe, 2163. PO Box 6165, Svarwater NSW 1811 Australia Phone (02) 48 4489" Fax (G2) 9740 2856" E-mallInfo@woacomau URL Ripa via com au ‘QHUSERSIETESConminpusonnataIETT Commenter sezWTIA TOTAL WELDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ‘supported by KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE BANK TOTAL WELDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. err: sor KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE BANK i. resources forthe Tot Weldng Menapement Sytem (Noles {ane 2) x Arent Wet Goty erie MANAGEMENT TONS rte OTN RESOURCES ais amon “iaragonortsyaen) ‘ELBMeNTs: === a erereratete [ee >| teaeese «scree @ > 4 rotcton Pang egy ¢-————»] THe re cesar am Tiel Se Cor > 2 Pacts et conc) eae cece 10. prediction &Sance gp ht Seen ange ran nan 1606 oot ‘Mita teetato ‘Tis ng ats nae Thi Caney sos it > eee ae Theta tae eee oe ____p | isco ay anon 14 Prouston pment 1 Woking Conumatiee ¢— 18 Inspection aed Testing @—— 18 Inspection, Nasuing and Test ‘Een 12. Non.coneming Produc! 1, Conectne Aatin @ 2, Storage, Peking ead Dovery 23. Company Reconts, ¢——— 24 huang eee ease p> [80 vermont inerrant THES Erwromer remnare——| y ass 1001 | 21 lnformaton Teenaiogy NOTES) Kae oes ne aereaengne cma ee hn gb 38 secur vitae any Sante ane ETTeansetoraneain orange ras 24 eget NOTE? alsand tes or E7Tsnecanbe ctir tom WTA SAL GAUSERSIETTS\Commen publication materia able 07 October 03.406 Revises on: 07-028 03WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 CHAPTER 1 PAGE 1 INTRODUCTION A welded structure should be as capable of resisting corrosion as the separate metal components from which it is made. Metals corrode for many reasons and this Technical Note describes factors which are known to influence corrosion rates as well ways in which corrosion can be minimised. The Technical Note specifically relates to welds and factors affecting weldments as weldments sometimes corrode preferentially in the weld metal itself or in the heat affected zones of the parent metal. This, edition is a revision of the October 1981 document in which standard references have been updated and the results of current research included. Protection systems, in particular have changed significantly over the last ten, years and this information has been included.PAGE 2 —— CHAPTER 2 WTIA - TECHNIGAL NOTE 12 SCOPE This Technical Note provides guidance to the user on factors which can influence corrosion of weldments in welded steel structures. As such, recommendations are made for minimising corrosion in structures made from carbon and carbon manganese steels (including “mild steels”), and low alloy steels. Other materials are not considered in detail although many of the principles involved are equally applicable to them. For information regarding stainless steel, please refer to WTIA Technical Notes 13 and 16. Forinformation on general guidance for the protection of steels against corrosion, the reader should refer to the. Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 2312:1994 Guide to the protection of iron and steel against exterior atmospheric corrosion. ‘The reader should note that whilst this Technical Note often refers to this standard, it is nota commentary on its interpretation, but rather a focus on issues affecting weldments. In many cases, there will be alternative solutions to the problems given within the Technical Note and the standard. In cases where the structure is continuously wet or immersed in water or soil, where it is exposed to contaminated or acidic vapours, (such as in chemical, industrial and processing plastics) or in the protection of ship's hulls, specialist expert guidance must be sought.WTIA ~ TECHNICAL NOTE 12 CHAPTER 3 PAGE 3 TYPES OF CORROSION Corrosion is the destruction of metal or alloy by chemical change, electrochemical change, or dissolution. ‘The factors which can influence weldment corrosion are summarised below, 1) Composition, and structure of base metal and weld metal 2) Metallurgical condition of base metal before welding (prior thermal and mechanical working history) 3) Welding Procedure ~ Manual or Automatic, number of passes, heat input 4) Size of material welded and size and geometry of weld deposit. ‘The recognised forms of corrosion are shown schematically in Figure 1. These are: 1) General corrosion 2) Galvanic, or two metal corrosion 3) Erosion corrosion in flowing solutions 4) Fretting 5) Crevice corrosion 6) Pitting 7) Stress-corrosion cracking 8) Corrosion Fatigue More noble No Corrosion Uniform Galvanic iting Crevice ‘Stess-corrosion cracking Although every type listed above can be encountered in welded structures, three types, galvanic, crevice, and stress-corrosion cracking have greaterrelevance to welded steel structures than the others. 3.1. General Corrosion General corrosion, resulting in more or less uniform thinning, occurs when surface conditions and the metal structure are relatively homogeneous. In the atmosphere it requires a film of moisture, condensation or spray. In immersed conditions it only occurs if corrosion products donot change the corrosion rate locally and cause pitting, General corrosion is usually predictable and corrosion allowances or corrosion preventative measures can be included. High temperature oxidation also tends to be uniform but is not usually a problem in steel structures. 3.2. Galvanic Corrosion Galvanic corrosion can occur when two different metals or alloys in contact are exposed to corrosive and a conductive solution. Three factors are required to promote galvanic corrosion; different metals, metal to metal contact, and a conductive solution. The galvanic series used to Flowing Erosion Corrosion Fretting Cyclic ses Corrosion fatigue Fig 1 ~ Recognised forms of corrosion in metals and metal alloys (Ref 2) (some illustrations are magnified)PAGE 4 ‘Small weld anodic active) “eglon y x + Large parent metal anodic regions / seali weld cathodic region \. Anodic (active) regions where attack may be serious Fig 2 - Galvanic Corrosion of (a) weld and (b) area beside weld rank the relative activity of metals is of limited use in predicting whether galvanic corrosion will be a problem, because relative area and available corrosion current are also important. A more practical guide to galvanic corrosion is given by corrosion potentials measured in sea water (Table 2.1 of AS 4036) or by compatibility charts (Table 1). This table is arranged in galvanic order with materials more susceptible to corrosion (less noble) at the top, The larger the difference in corrosion potential, the more severe the galvanic corrosion effect. Galvanic corrosion can occur in a weld if the filler metal iselectrochemically different from the parent metal. Such electrochemical differences can occurdue toheating ofthe parent metal during welding, The anodic or “active” metal is dissolved and the cathodic o “noble” metal is unaffected, Galvanic couples also occur between metals and corrosion scales. For example, both magnetite and iron sulphide are cathodic to steel and will cause steel to preferentially corrode. Galvanic corrosion is reduced ifthe active component has a larger area than the noble component. Hence a cathodic or noble weld is generally less of a galvanic problem than an active weld metal because of the large area of parent metal (Figure 2). This same principal applies when considering the galvanic series in Table | Mild steel and low alloy steel weldments are less susceptible to galvanic corrosion than high-alloy steels, where large changes in alloy concentration are possible in the vicinity of the weld. Nevertheless, galvanic attack known as “tramline corrosion” has been found in the HAZ in mild steel welded structures exposed to acidic mine water. The corrosion which occurred immediately adjacent to the weld bead was thought to be due to enhancement of the cathodic reaction at fine carbide precipitates in the HAZ, Normalising the structure after welding can eliminate this problem, CHAPTER 3 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 3.3. Erosion Corrosion Erosion corrosion involves two mechanisms working in concert. It occurs where corrosion product formed on, the surface is eroded by flowing liquid. Fresh surfaces are then corroded and again eroded. The liquid environment ‘may or may not contain abrasive particles, Erosion corrosion can be reduced by eliminating local high velocity, eg changing designs which causes turbulence of liquid flow. Another method is to use ‘materials which areresistant to the corrosive environment, and have at least moderate resistant to erosion, as most liquids in practice will have some particulates present, 3.4 Fretting Corrosion Fretting corrosion is a combination of wear and corrosion which occurs when two surfaces move relative toeach other, usually by asmall amount (as little as 4m). Wear of the surfaces occurs by cold welding and pull out ‘of material of the surfaces and by abrasion. The corrosive environment, which is most often air, causes oxidation of the wear debris and the oxides act as an abrasive which accelerates wear. To avoid fretting corrosion in bolted joints, bolts should be tightened to correct design tension to eliminate any movement of the bolted surfaces relative to each other. It is good practice to exclude moisture from bolted joint surfaces to prevent corrosion. 3 8 2h EEG gas Gest ton © Mile Steel |C) Stainioss Stee! @ Copper) on eee Phosphor Bronze |) Aluminium Bronze |) ©00006 0% etal with the smaller surface area. Manganese Bronze|(-) ‘Aluminium |) oO Zine|O e Mota with the larger surtace area O May be used in contact uncer all conditions © Maybe used in contact in Benign conditions @ 4st not be used in contact, Note: Larger area typically §:1 or greater, Fig 3 - Use of Dissimilar Metalsuasord 51 omisjow UauN = G poseoout 29u suoRpL0® prEoe Ut vesgiee ol O7 aia ie aie JeUEQUOD OAmSIOW! AQ Yom aseoiout ou HEU 2G Kets ,psxep!SUOD IOUY, ayo UD|SOLIO aL =a | SIUOKOMOD‘a y— seddod uo 190y3 fq fru .palepisuco re, 24 UOIsO1.09 a4 = BL Jeais~ men PeWeD aw ano}OId etEnbope INO ‘stORPUOD py UI ana ‘oIgESIAPEL! a UOREUIOD CHAPTER 3 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 “IBA RUDD, |u Aa PaSPAIOU!IOU S| ,parEpISUIOO eFBW, OU JO UOOLIOD OUL = Y :pua607 sojdtuexg, addon ~ pereprsuog rey eae ala eg eo a og gg Gama) ‘sfoity winiseubew. Smunesie a) : ee ie oy = 9g a 3p 3s 9 9 = i ; OBER Ye a a 9 9 amen ‘ 7 seas tore 5 wnuapaAic “youoouy v He ee Wey Woy ety ER Va wow ¥ cag {parewosyo) shopy UZ — wMUpED =— UN} SHOPIOS.SONIS 10 KEL SiejaWUND shoiny 1a19pISUO; gly =) ee pe em reves — “ oe rom i st oL eb a on 6 8 4 9 s + e z 1 V9E|UOD Ur S|EIBHY JO UOISOMOD — F aIqeLes 3.5 Crevice Corrosion ‘The presence of narrow gaps or crevices in steel structures may result in accelerated localised corrosion at these sites. Such corrosion is called crevice corrosion. It ‘occurs as a result of a change in chemical composition of the environment within the crevice or by prolonged maintenance of the corroding environment within the crevice Unintentional crevicescreated by cracks, poorly shaped welds and other welding defects couldalsoleadtocrevice corrosion, Figure 4 indicates the range of welding defects that can give tise to crevice corrosion The occurence of crevice corrosion is often due to differences in oxygen concentration, Water in a crevice becomes depleted in oxygen by reaction with the steel. ‘The water at the crevice opening which is in contact with air contains oxygen and this concentration difference provides the driving force for corrosion. The steel within the crevice therefore suffers accelerated corrosion, particularly at the root of the crevice. Crevice corrosion can be controlled by designs which minimise crevices or by the use of more corrosion resistant alloys. 3.6 Pitting Corrosion Pitting is a very serious form of corrosion because of the high rate of localised metal loss associated with it. It is commonly observed in buried structures and aqueous environments. Pitting corrosion manifests itself by the formation of pits where the external area of corrosion may be small but the depth of the pit may be quite large, The formation of pits is due to variations in the metallurgy of adjacent regions of steel (as occurs at welds) and/or variations in the environment to which the steel is exposed, In immersed situations only small variations in the environmentare needed to initiate pitting corrosion. In buried situations pitting corrosion is commonly experienced due to the non-homogeneous nature of soils. Wold Profile (may have excess Excessive convexity or Weld Ripple excessive concavity) Hot Cracks Lamellar Tearing T oStcrac Undebend Crack Micro Fusion Fig 4 - Weld Detects Lack of Fusion” HAPTER 3 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 __ Pitting can be prevented by one of the following methods: 1) Reduce the agressiveness of the environment by the use of inhibitors, etc. 2) Improve the corrosion resistance of the metal by coatings or different materials. 3) Modify the design to prevent pits occurring. For example: reducing crevices and maintaining flow so that stagnant conditions don’t occur. 4) Application of cathodic protection. Table 2 ~ Weld Defects Likely to Lead to Crevice Corrosion Defects Causes Fomedies Hot cracks Large solfication More filer metal-iess range fusion of parent metal ‘Segregation Stress “Tos cracks. High stress Planned bead sequence. Root eracks Hydrogen Low hydrogen process Underbead cracks Hardenable parent Pre-heeting (Note t below) plate Notenes Avoidance of notches Hardenable deposit Miro fissures: Hydrogen controlled process Hydrogen Pre and post heating stress. Lamellar tears Segregation Less fusion (Note 2 below) Hot tears Stress: Cleaner parent rata Porosity ‘Gas absorption Remove surface scale Remove surface moleture Improve gas shiel Undercut Poor welding Improve technique Slag inclusions technique Lack of fusion Excessive wold ripple Notes: 1. Rotor to WTIA Technical Notes 1 "The Weldabilty of Steels", and 9 “Care and Conditioning of Are Welding Consumable 2, Rater to WTIA Technical Note 6 “Control of Lamellar Tearing 3.7. Stress Corrosion Cracking Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is also called environmentally induced cracking. Itrequiresa susceptible ‘material, a specific corrosive environment and a tensile stress. SCC generally occursin mildly corrosive conditions and results in premature failure compared to the expected effects of either stress or the corrosive medium. Stress corrosion fractures appear brittle in otherwise ductile material. The fractures may be transgranular or intergranular (orboth) and many are branched. In addition to local and general stress levels and concentration of corroding species, factors suchas metallurgical condition, operating temperature and surface treatments can have anWTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 influence on SCC. Stress corrosion has both initiation and propagation stages. Initiation is often slow, ie years, but ‘may be followed by rapid propagation. Much experimental and theoretical work has been undertaken to address this phenomenon. Mild steel and low alloy steels are generally less susceptible to stress corrosion failure than high alloy steels, They have been known to fail in hot nitrate or caustic (>5%) solutions at slightly elevated temperatures in carbonate/bicarbonate environments, at ambient temperature in anhydrous ammonia or cyanide environments and in high hardness steels (22 Rockwell C) in snlphice or sour conditions. Stress corrosion may be minimised by designing to reduce applied tensile stresses or by alternative material selection. Modification of the environment by changing temperatures or controlling the critical corrodent has also been successful. Stress relieving by heating to 650°C can also be effective control method in welded structures through the reduction of residual stresses. 3.8 Corrosion Fatigue Corrosion fatigue is cracking which occurs in metals as a result of the combined action of a cyclic stress and a corrosive environment. The effect is greater than the effect of loss of strength due to corrosion thinning, or fatigue stresses acting alone. For most metals the fatigue strength decreases when in a corrosive environment. Corrosion fatigue often has an initial appearance of many CHAPTER 3 PAGE 7 short corroded cracks aligned transverse to the direction of stress, Corrosion fatigue can be controlled by coating the surface to exclude the corrosive environment and by the elimination of features which increase local stresses, such as stress concentrations at toes of large weld beads. Severity of corrosion fatigue of bolts can be reduced by making the bolted joint faces to mate tightly, and to tighten bolts to the correct tension to eliminate the bolts, experiencing any fatigue stress. Use of austenitic stainless steel bolts for corrosion fatigue applications is often notsuccessful as this material does not have high yield strength and has only moderate fatigue strength ‘Table 3 - Conditions for Stress Corrosion Failure of Mild Steel Weldments steel Waleenesiis fe feiieeiee gu setusemee er Environment Temperature Type of Cracking Nitrate solutions ‘Ambient and above _ Intergranular Nivete setions _Ambientand above _ neon ‘Caustic solutions ‘Approaching Intergranular above 5% concentration baling point ‘Annydrousammonia Ambient Inter-or HS, HON Transgranular Carbonate/ ‘Slight elevated Intergranular Bicarbonate temperature rackingPAGE 8 CHAPTER 4 _— wria - TECHNICAL NoTE 12 RECOMMENDED METHODS OF MINIMISING CORROSION IN WELDED STRUCTURES 4.1 Design Some of the factors causing corrosion in weldments can be eliminated, or minimised by good design. The ‘two types of corrosion which are most sensitive to design, are crevice corrosion, and galvanic corrosion. The corrosion of welded automobile panels and fittings are familiar examples where improved design could prevent corrosion by the elimination of crevices and contact between different metals where moisture is present Crevices arising from the various types of weld defects have already been mentioned (section 3.5, above) but other weld aspects which may give rise to crevices, include the joint angle, the presence of backing strips, and spatter (Figure 5 illustrates the last two). Z— Under Spatter — _ Between backing bar and plate Fig 5 ~ Other Weld Aspects Associated with Crevice Corrosion Butt welds are to be preferred since they produce a erevice-free profile, and also allow ready removal of corrosive fluxes. The detailed design of welded joints should ensure a balance between the economy of weld metal, sufficient access to provide the required fusion and penetration within the welded joint, while at the same time avoiding weld defects that would be detrimental in the particular application or structure. Details of weld design are given in Standards. Some examples of prequalified welds from Australian Standards are shown in Table 4 ‘Structural design detail is also important and Table 5 taken from Australia/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 2312:1994 figure 4.1 illustrates some details that could cause corrosion problems. Possible solutions are also illustrated. 4.2 Selection of Weld Metal and Welding Procedure ‘The Structural Steel Welding Code AS/NZS 1554.1:1995 gives rules for weld metal selection (see Tables 6, 7 and 8) which are based upon a matching of mechanical properties, and are not intended to provide comparable corrosion resistance between the weld and the parent plate except for weather resistant steels made to AS 1594, ASINZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679. Table 8 - Table 4.5.1(C) of AS/NZS 1554.1: 1995 Prequalified Welding Consumablles with Similar Weathering Resistance Consumables Steel grade Manual metabare [Fiux-cored are (AS 1555.2) | (AS 2203.1) AS 1504 — HWSO VisooCNI ASINZS 9678 - WR9S0)1 WesxNit AASINZS 3878 - WR350V1 LO W5xx Ni ASINZS 3679-WA9SO/1 | ESSIG-CLE5S'@-CL | WESKXNE AASINZS 3679-WAGSO/1 LO | ES516-C2,E5518C2 | WEDXKXNG AASINZS 3679 - W350) WSS0CNi3 ASINZS 79 WR350/2 LO ASINZS 3679 W50/2L'5| Weather resistant steels obtain their corrosion resistance from appropriate additions of alloying elements, such as copper, chromium, nickel and phosphorous. These elements, in the presence of wetting and drying, allows, the formation of a dense, tightly adherent protective oxide layer which seals the surface and prevents further corrosion. The rate of formation of this layer is dependant on the nature and rate of the wetting and drying cycle, atmospheric conditions and geographic location. Early in this cycle, the rate of corrosion is similar to that of plain carbon steels, but the corrosion rate falls quickly as the thickness of the protective layer increases. As with most steels in aggressive marine or industrial environ- ments, weathering steels can deteriorate rapidly where the presence of crevices, cavities and surface contamin- ants (not flushed off by rain) prevent the formation of the protective surface layer. For most structural steels the matching of corrosion performance is only of importance in circumstanceswhere the structure cannot be protected by either a coating system or some form of cathodic protection. These circumstances are unusual but can occur, for example in chemical plant and in the hulls of ships intended for use in ice or for frequent grounding where paint protection is unreliable. In such circumstances it is important to ensure that the weld metal is not strongly anodic with respect to the surrounding plate as this can fead to accelerated corrosion of the weld and failure of the structure. Specialist advice regarding the welding procedure should be sought as the properties of the weld and its heat affected zone (HAZ) ‘will be controlled by heat input, consumable composition and the weld cooling rate Since the systems used for classification of welding consumables do not include any consideration of an electro-chemical behaviour, the following remarks are for general guidance only and appropriate corrosion testing should be carried out to select the appropriate weld metal ~ parent metal combination for any specific situation. It is important to note that relatively minor changes in chemical composition give rise to marked changes in corrosion rates. Consequently, in critical situations, appropriate corrosion tests should be done to assist in the selection of the best consumable. The above comments are, of course, only valid in cases where there has been a complete removal of mill scale. For reasons discussed in Chapter 3 in this Technical Note the presence of mill scale will result in corrosion irrespective of the parent metal ~ weld metal combination. 4.3 Quality of Welds The quality of weld surfaces required will depend on the severity of the corrosive environment. Welding procedures, inspection and repairs must be such as to ensure the quality thought necessary for the particular environment is obtained. It should be noted that the weld quality required forstructural purposes may be inadequate from a corrosion perspective. Common types of defects and undesirable features found in butt and fillet welds are shown in Figures 4 and, 5. Guidance as to weld quality is given in Table 9. Welds need to be even and well-shaped, without crevice forming defects such as cracks, undercut, porosit spatter and attached slag, The weld joint must also be such that there are no exposed crevices. Continuous welds are more expensive than stitch welds (intermittent welds) but are preferable. In aggressive environments, stitch welds must not be used. Sharp edges and projections need to be radiused or at least bevelled as coatings tend to pull away from these _CHAPTER 4 PAGE 8 | edges and projections. Likewise crevice forming defects in the steel plate, such as sharp corners, burrs, slivers and laminations, must also be removed or filled with a suitable filler. In the avoidance of fabrication defects, specifiers need to be aware of the following items: Fabrication Defects — Hints for Specifiers 1, Hot rolled shapes usually have rounded edges and will not require major treatment. 2. Cutsteel has sharp edges and will usually require treatment 8. Automated and semi-automated welding produces smoother welds with less porosity and undercutting than manual welding, 4, Machine gas-flame and plasma cutting produce less lip (overhang) than mechanical shearing and ‘a smoother finish than manual gas cutting. (Refer to WTIA Technical Note 5.) 5, Treatment of fabrication defects is usually a manual operation, labour-intensive and expensive. It becomes more economically justified as the required life of the coating increases or environment becomes more severe or both. Itmay nat be economic for mild or moderate environ- ments. It should be mandatory ifthe structure is to be subject to pinhole inspection 6. I surface treatmentis specified, the owner will need ‘io inspect at the fabricators facility to ensure the desired outcome. 7. Some defects, such as weld porosity or deep Corrosion pits, may not become evident until after surface preparation. 8. Too rmuct ytitiding, as well as being costly, can also be detrimental by removing too much material. Table 9 - Guide to Weld Quality Mild Corrosive Conations: Severe Corrosive Conditions: No cracks alowed. No eracks al Free of significant undercut cor surface lack of fusion Completely fee of undercut and Tack of fusion (Fusion with plate surface should be smooth and Uriterm Reasonable weld bead Excelent weld bead shape (no shape overlap, no excess concavity or convent) Reasonably smooth weld Very smooth weld surfaces surfaces, {no crater, no porosity ~ arinding of surface may be necessary) Some spater permitted Remove all spatter Surfaces reasonably clean, Surfaces completely clean (hee of scale, slag), faa ae a ‘Unacceptable defects canbe corrected as indicated in Table 10.PAGE 10 CHAPTER 4 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 Table 4 ~ Prequalified Weld Types ‘Complete penetration butt wolds Good in corrosive environments provided surtace detects are minimal Open square butt weld, weldedboth sides (Open square T and ‘comer joint, welded both sides Single V but weld and come jolt, Welded one side with sealing run Incomplete penetration butt welds Not recommended in a corrosive environment Single-bevel butt ‘weld, T and comer jaint, welded one side. Single-V butt weld ‘and corner joint, welded one side, Double-bevel but ald, T and comer Joint Fillet welds ‘Good in a corrosive environment provided welds form a continuous ‘seal and surface defects are minimal ‘Complete penetration butt welds with backing bar Not recommended in a corrosive environment ‘Open square butt weld and comer joint, welded ‘one side wth backing Single-V butt weld and comer joint welded one side with backing strip Single bovel but weld, Tand comerjoint, but | Welded one side with backing stp Welds joining rolled sections \Welds should form a continuous seal to prevent corosive medium from entering inaccessible areas,| WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 Table 5 ~ Design Detail to Minimise Corrosion Problem Solution CHAPTER 4 PAGE 11 Problem Solution Double angle truss, bearing member Backs of double angles Design as single angle cannot be painted and truss, of use T-section ‘maintained Web member of truss Lower end of angle could collect dirt and moisture 2 LY Sh Channels oF anales may t collect rubbish and moisture Invert angle an oY Invert soeton 4 ting gt, te or strut member Structural members generally ‘Sharp comers cause Consider use of circular ‘concern about possible hollow sections or Toss of protection due to rectangular hollow sections paint sdran-back Column baseplate Gussets cause pockets for Design without gussets dit and moisture ix ner Bridge girder, support beam for machinery or equipment Intermediate web stifener Stop stifaner short of ‘on plate gitder may cause bottom flange (better pocket for dit and moisture ‘and mare economic Sesign detail)PAGE 12 Table 5 ~ Design Detall to Minimise Corrosion (Continued) CHAPTER 4 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 Problem Solution Problem Solution Service tank sitting on steel structure Plates in loose contact may encourage capilary Ingress of moisture To Locate tank, hoppers on legs Slope for Acoess for painting Pe and circulation of it Service pipes running along structural members, tank plating etc. Pipe creates corrosion pocket when lying close to fat surface Keep pipes avy trom surface sutetant access for painting Accass for painting and drying —~ Tubular structures Insicas ot hollow sections not accessible fr painting Prevent enty of air by sealing wih sutable welded end pistes. ‘These can atten be incorporated into the design, eg: column base and cap plates Galvanized members (Cropped comer on svengthening gusset Strengthening gussets prevent adequate drainage uring processing Shell of tank, bin or hopper Lapped joint creates ladge Arrange joint so that ledge snot on the weather sidePAGE 13 CHAPTER 4 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 X°X0K0PNJO AXOFM 30113 840 S2\geuUNSUOD ‘OOF OPED BUBE SZNISY OI 1s 04 TevoIeW wared p uibuaas opsua “uogeoysenb axnbor joys ed SOLE Aare Ma ae a in Sa LAR ah lob seed sano Digi anya, ‘anbos uo sog! Bangor J Ut GLE SY LE 9" SONY P51 SVU‘ so OO : Gieies scinassinee/ suet cases aa setueneumeaeeninevensed sersnon on neve gue Bape et mouvement (xa: ¥01s2wsv (s+ on) 8, ein ap oon em ath ee ON saion ne Te enewe | soa ee wane “WIAL JAE SAL'WSAL'WAL | ‘xOSM x0sMn AXOSM, [_tpeeo oe) ve z xxera nus uc | swwsee | coon soem ecm | soon acon |e wee] : | axed nue uz | siewsie'me | zm roan wceim | secon zon | ws ie XxxerF vss wx _ | sursars | x00 oom xno | vom om | sno | ea | Bs | xxees - se e's oo roe xc | socom nom |e we. | yar mz 2 nee'seine | aon ronan incom | secu |e oe | "oma mus “ x02 ooo ronan | psn | spo | 8 : cn con noms eo secon | apa vontnsst9 vonesss80 sentouern - (vecez sv) ‘eset Sv) VESS1 SZN'SW) vee sence atspiing | attptins Sd ames a 7 3 5 7 5 z i ‘se|qeuinsuog BuipjayA payienbarg ‘S661:1'PS51 SZN/SWIOCHAPTER 4 PAGE 14 WTIA = TECHNICAL NOTE 12. a I - 7 7 - 103%0 a - = . 7 - 7 . 0sr0 ve 021 vss 0z1 406s oz Noss zt vost - 021 408s - 1086 SrT 00» - - - ozt Noss - sr zjosewnn sriose - ° 08x 7 oy ose oorsx. on zioscum sees - - ovesx - - 7 bose 01 Hoserum, orose9 s 7 ‘yosre - 106-2 Nose wi osm oar ose oor 290 ‘oorPH yours oseH zI0seuM, 7 Hoseum - to - osepH Nost's 0se0 boseum, ose 03¢0 ’ | cztvoore iE 01 109% oz Noor-z oz voert oz 108r si oe - - - oz Nosrz - sriosz srt0sz - e ‘ores = _ = oT HoErZ ose = 0520 ee ‘WooePH ‘voor eat ‘o0epH Lost-z osepH Nose oozpH oor +H woorz ose 9 8H avers ozo oe © 2H Nosh ooze ose pees 20 1PH oor 0029 ose oz osz0 ‘ veoz Sv yl0z SY sest sv esi SV ‘rst S¥ osrisy | ese SzNisv | Vezoe vezoe sznisv| connsy | edAL eas ‘1901S UEHERSNY OF S1OqUINN edAL [2aIS Jo UC OSSY SEGLL'PSSL SZN/SWJ0 (B)I'S'e ~Ze1eLWTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 CHAPTER 4 PAGE 15 Table 10 - Correction of Defective Welds Defect Correction *Shrinkage cracks, racks in parent metal, craters Dlowholes, excessive and porosity and siag inclusions Remove defective portions of ‘weld oF parent metal or both ‘down fo sound metal and Undercutting, undersize excessive concavity ‘Overlapping, lack of fusion Remove and replace the and excess corveniy fective length of weld Excessive weld ripple Grind amocth, Removal of adjacent parent metal during welaing, CCinan and form fl size by ‘eposting wel meta + any cracks, poresty and inclusions shouldbe investigated to ascertain the eause with a view fo preventing recurrence when rewelding. 4.4 Surface Cleaning Clean surfaces are necessary both before and after welding if subsequent corrosion problems ate to be avoided. For example the inclusion of impurities in the weld spatter, or flux, can lead to galvanic attack or pitting, The choice of method will depend on the type of protec- tive coating to be used, Steel surfaces should at least be cleaned of grease, dirt, salt residues, weld spatter, weld scale, corrosion products, loose mill scale and other residues before any protective coating is applied. Hot-rolled steels are usually covered with an adherent mill scale which may be damaged during handling leading to partial rusting, Loose rust and mill scale can be removed by hand or power tools, whercas grit blasting or pickling are needed to remove more adherent rust and scale. Australian Standard AS 1627 Parts 0 to 10 provide details of the recommended methods for surface preparation and pre- treatment of steels before applying protective coatings, ‘The main methods for cleaning steel surfaces are given below. 4.4.1 Degreasing — AS1627.1 ~ small areas may be degreased with solvents such as white spirit or similar, the solvent choice being constrained by safety. Larger areas are best degreased by alkaline cleaning. 4.4.2 Abrasive Blast Cleaning ~AS1627.4—is the most effective processes for producing a sound basis for a protective paint or metallic coating. Four classes of surface preparation have been defined, namely 1, 2, 2%. and 3, ranging from light blasting (class 1) to “white metal” (class 3) where all mill scale and rust have been removed, Blast-cleaned surfaces must be primed immediately to avoid rusting, Wet blasting processes may incorporate an inhibitor to prevent flash rusting. 4.4.3 Pickling ~AS1627.5 — is used as a prepara- tion for galvanising. The two most common acids are sulphuric and hydrochloric, Other acids such as phos- phoric, nitric, hydrofluoric, citric and sulphamic have special applications. Final rinsing to remove traces of acid are important and inhibitors containing phosphoric or chromic acid can be used. As for blast-cleaned sur- faces, pickled surfaces should be painted immediately. Pickling is not recommended for high strength carbon or high strength low alloy steels which are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. 4.4.4 Mechanical Cleaning — (hand - AS1627.7; or power tools -AS1627.2) is not recommended for long, term protection or aggressive environments. [t cannot remove all contaminants and will not create the correct surface for painting. It can also damage or polish the surface, 4.4.5 Flame Cleaning~(AS 1627.3) isnow rarely used. It was considered to give results between migchanival cleaning (wite brushing) aud class 2 blast cleaning. Itis not recommended for thin sections, where distortion is likely. There are cost advantages for main- tenance work where removal of old paint is also required ‘Tobe fully effective the flame traverse should be followed by wire brushing and priming while the surface is still warm 4.5 Surface Coatings It is possible to weld through some light primer coatings (especially ifthe coating is designed to be welded, through and the coating thickness is <0.25Hm) and galvanising, etc, but it may be necessary to remove thicker Coatings or heavy galvanising to prevent welding defects, that could give rise to corrosion problems (eg cracks, porosity, et) If it is necessary to weld through these coatings, use a slower welding speed to allow the remnant coating to vaporise ahead of the arc. The are should also be “hot” to assist the “burning” and allow entrapped fume to dissipate out of the weld pool, Weld spatter can be minimised by an appropriate choice of consumables (with shielding gas ‘where relevant) and selection of welding parameters. This, should be verified by an appropiate welding procedure test. Protection of the weld can be achieved by selecting an appropriate coating system from the many metallic and paint coatings available. The choice of coating systems is governed by the service conditions, cost analysis, anticipated life of the plant or component, ease of access and finally, appearance. Itis also essential that the coatings selected for the welds be compatible with, and preferably identical to, the overall coating system Table LL compares various coatings in particular conditions and may be used as a guide to the selection of an appropriate type of coating for those conditions. Table 12 outlines in more detail a selection of metallic coatings and paint coatings which are suitable for the protection of welded steel structures against corrosion under various atmospheric and industrial conditions, The recommended surface preparations, details of the primer and top coats are provided in the table, together with typical uses and specific comments on each type of coating. 45.1 Stripe Coating of structural stec! (applying an extra coat by brush on edges, comers, rivet heads, welds, etc) will appreciably add to the life of a coatingPAGE 16 CHAPTER 4 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 | 5 {t does add to the cost of application, perhaps by one- quarter or more, but is still generally cost-effective. It Secomes more valuable as the environment becomes more aggressive and may not be economic in mild to moderate environments. It should be mandatory if holiday inspection is to be carried out. It involves an inspection step that must be scheduled to ensure that the stripe coat, is adequately applied. The stripe coat should set to touch before the full prime coat is applied, but if conditions are such that this would allow rusting of the unprimed steel, it can be applied after the complete prime coat. 4,6 Other Methods of Corrosion Prevention 4.6.1 Cathodic Protection reduces corrosion by turning the structure into the cathode of the corrosion cell. This is achieved either by connecting it to an anode made of a metal more active than steel in the galvanic series or by applying an external negative potential to the structure relative to an inert anode. Itis only effective in conductive environments, such as under water, under ground or in concrete. Major uses include protecting underground pipelines, the submerged parts of ships and offshore platforms and, more recently, reinforcing bar in concrete bridges and structures. 4.6.2 Environmental modification means altering the environment to make it less aggressive. This can only be done when the environment is enclosed and thus has limited application to welded structures, Vapour phase inhibitors are available which prevent corrosion of steel in enclosed spaces, such as mothballed equipment or machinery which is transported, Dehumidification can be used in such applications to lower the humidity of an enclosed space below the critical level which causes corrosion. In immersed situations, environmental modification may include the removal of oxygen by scavengers or changing the pH toa value where corrosion, will cease. Boilers use both of these processes with sulphite scavengers to remove the oxygen and caustic to raise the pH above 10. This allows the formation of a thick stable magnetite protective film. 4.6.3. Passivation is the forming of a thin corrosion-resistant film on the surface of the metal. A typical example is the chromium oxide film on stainless steel (refer to WTIA Technical Notes 13 and 16). Carbon steels are passivated in highly alkaline environments such, as when steel reinforcing is used in concrete. To this end, ‘cement linings are often used in water pipes and some chemical conditions, although they are brittle and must be poured, cast or sprayed onto the surface. This method of protection is very successful on a long-term basis, provided that concrete gives adequate coverage and is of good quality. Building codes provide these details. 4.6.4 Inhibitors are frequently used in fluid environments such as recirculating water systems and some chemical and petrochemical processing plants. The inhibitors act either by directly blocking the metal dissolution process or forming a protective film on the surface. 4.6.5 Other coatings, apart from metallic and organic coatings, include wrapping tapes for tubular sections and piles in aggressive environments, Special lining materials, such as rubber and neoprene are often used to line tanks where resistance to strong acids and other corrosive chemicals is required. 4.7 Repair After Welding Through Painted or Galvanised Surfaces Surface preparation for any damaged painted or galvanised region is similar to that prior to application of the original coating (see section 3.4), Any weld flux on spatter present must be removed by chipping or grinding, or if required, by abrasive blasting 47.1 Painted Surfaces ~ Prior to repainting, all rust, loose and burnt paint or damaged paint must be removed and the surface cleaned as required by the chosen paint system, Note that it is important to ensure that the paint edge is “feathered” and smooth. In areas subject to severe corrosion, rough weld beads should be ground smooth before coating. Where impractical, they may be stripe-coated using a brush. Refer toAS/NZS2312 section 10.5 for further information. When applying the repair coat, the paint thickness at each coat should comply with the original specification, and overlap and blend with the original coating. 4.7.2. Galvanised Surfaces ~ As required for Painted Surfaces, previously galvanised surfaces need to be correctly prepared prior to repair, ie: all damaged and burnt coating must be removed. Repair may be effected by the use of low melting-point zinc allow repair rods or powder made specifically for this purpose, or by the application of a zinc rich paint (refer to AS 2204). Note that the coating thickness applied should not be less than that of the original galvanised layer. 4.8 Maintenance to Reduce Corrosion In industrial and marine atmospheres, dirt, acid and salt built-up can occur in sheltered and poor access areas. This can lead to accelerated attack compared with exposed areas which are regularly washed with rainwater. Maintenance programs for buildings and structures sliould include regular (eg: 6 mofithly) cleaning with fresh water and a mild detergent of all metallic components. This will reduce the attack of galvanised and otherwise coated surfaces and is equally beneficial to aluminium, copper, brass and stainless steel fixtures and structures,PAGE 17 CHAPTER 4 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 R ts “zie SZNISW 10 61 axteL 898 ‘coUEIeIe0! asrHEIedUI YORI J04 ‘povod peuIEIsNs w 10} PUEIEL ‘UOsOUNUH BO 5p lauab pus sed 1d 40 UoRBULO}U! as0UN 04°C needy UME SIND “2 ‘Our “t ‘SON suqeanddy oN = VIN Uoq=0xa = 3 :p008 ADA = OA!POOD = 44 = J 300d = 4 300 Kon = eA ;PUOBOT ‘buei pA soborma | OND O09 BOA a 3 ono ‘OK Wan vin wu on vn an a on 9 o4 uumeroned ues ap1m 8000 ond . sis9 3A 3h BA Ono 9K seqanu payeUvORD 2ePa ssoj6es a wn ‘9A a 39 ° ° own 2000s opm 506 0178 4 x09 3 4d od 4 4 are\~ us opIM 5019 9 ooss 309A 4 on 9 ° rwonos 99804 ouKioy 6 uys09 yqn9A090N wu 3 ‘0b 3 a > an an F008 As0H4 wu 3 0% 3 3 > an an fos AsO wu on ose-00, on su oa an an yar S806 ues ° oor 3 oe 3 ° ° 6421 pia 6081 9p ° 051-06 On ° ad 4d 4 pawn S806 8s 9 osz-002 OA a On 9 ° e079 snd pawn ponwn 3 oeb06 ono on ma ° © paino onsious~ snd o6ues api | 2006 9p ° o2t-06 o | 2 4 4 . sods, ~ nid o6ues api | 26ue) open a 02406, BDA on 3 ° on rpede- euewieinhiod wo 3 o21-06 On on 3 ° 3 seisahiog ses 01407 3 ozi-06 a 9A a on 3 ose un wnat 3628 3014, ° 082, ono 2 4 4 aa tured wan pos 0) 0 on ozt-os 2 on 3 on ° su ° 021-06 . ° é 4 ae 10 — 3 021-06 . on 3 on ° yond-2 ~ heod oA 001-06, 309A 2 . od ° yood-2 —aytioy . 206, one > d ¢ a hay s6uyeoo eyanranuog (@ 210N 998) (iaion | (1 210N 005) anoyoo yeo1dAL | ssoupsen ‘oouystso: | soweom | 909) "8 wou Aa ‘suonios | S04) sere | SuENIY oisAs 6un809 oy eouesiseu oF 6 @ Z @ 5 ¥ e @ t (ate SZN/Sv 10 12 a1ge1) lop Teiweuuosiaug Jejno;Hed uj Sbuneod Jo eouEWHO}ed [eoIdAL — Lh e1aeLPAGE 18 “CHAPTER 4) wr Table 12 ~ Protective Coatings Suitable for Welded Steel TECHNICAL NOTE 12 Service Application Surface Primer Thickness Top Coat(s) Thickness Comments ‘and Conditions Preparation um) um) (A) Paint Systems Ruratimid Mechanically Alkydpimer —80—2-coats of Aly 50 Cheap, easily applied system for clean to remove Gloss or acryle each mild environments or shor ie loose seale and latex rust ght industial Mechanically coats epoxy 100 - - Sultable as maintenance system (maintenance) clean to remove mastic each on steel structures linen anaia anc Tolerant of poor surtace rust preparation: Urbanimarine Gritblast Class Inorganiczinc 75 = - Not suited to acidic atmosphere. sastez74—siicate Fesistart to most solvents and dry heat to 400°C. Overcoat with actyle latex top coat for ‘appearance of coating, Urbanvight Grit blast class Epoxyzincrich 78 «coats acrylic latex 75 Industria. 24 ASI67.4 each Urbanindustalimarine Grit blast to Inorganiczinc. ©—«75-~—=Ssighbulldepoxy+ ‘160+ Popular Iongsife system with class 3 silicate 2pack acryic or 50 good weathering resistance and AS16274 2-pack polyurethane appearance. Industialacid/akal Grit biast 10 «Epoxy primer. «—«7S~—=—SHighbuld epoxy —=«150—=—=—ZIncsfee system sultabe for class 274 Acidic and alkal excosure, A81627.4 Imrmecsion Grit blast to 2eoatshigh build «400» Temperature must be > 10°C. (potable water class 3 epx0y total to cure, Coating must be Asie274 acceptable for potable water (8355 0” AS4020}, Marine immersion Grit bast to Scoatsrign ula «450 Ships mull systern class 3 epoxy total ASI627.4 Buried pipework Grit blast to Extruded As Best suited for external or internal class 215 polyethylene, required pipe surfaces and with automatic Aasi627.4 fUsion-tonded plant. Tapes and heat shrink polyethylene or Sleeves for field applications. fusion-bonded apoxy (8) Metal Coatings Migiurtan/marine Acid descale Hot dip cy ‘Size limitation depending on tank light industria! asiez75——galvanise ‘ize, Welded joints can be made {good with zinesich primer. Acrylic latex primer and top coat can be appiled for appearance or extra protection, Coastatimarine Grit blast class Zinc metal 100 Propiietary sealer can be used, atmosphere SASI627.4 sprayed ISO 2060 High temperatures Grit blast class Aluminium 150- Propritary sealer or frish coat (upto 480°C) 3 ASI627.4 sprayed ISO 2069 250, should be applied, References: LL. Shrier, A. Jarman, G. T. Burstein, Corrosion (Grd Edition), Butterworth-Helnemann, (London), 1994. .G. Munger, Corrosion Prevention by Protective Coatings, NACE Houston, 1984.WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 APPENDIX A PAGE 19 Cost ANALYSIS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS Several factors affect the cost of a protective system, including: Initial cost Frequency and cost of maintenance Financial considerations (interest rates, taxation rates, and investment allowances, etc) Future cost trends eg: labour/material ratios Hidden costs (eg: loss of output during maintenance). Such an evaluation cannot be precise, but by calculating the costs by the following methods, the designer can make a better choice between systems A.1 Method 1 - Simple Evaluation The expected cost of maintenance during the life of the structure is added to the initial cost, and the total is divided by the expected life in years to give an average annual cost. This method is crude and suitable only for smaller projects where the time spent on detailed analysis, cannot be justified A.2 Method 2 - Present Value Method This method takes into account the cost of money by discounting all cash flows using the following equation: NPV=C,+ GC, + ©, + + ©, wy ee oF Where NPV = Net Present Value ©, = initial cost(s) © =-cash flows discount factor ie: interest rate per annum at which cash is borrowed for ‘the project n= number of years ‘The equation, thus becomes: A.2 Method 2 — Present Value Method (continued) NPV = GC, cesses ee + M (1 +f) + M, (1+ fF + T+) “is Pea i ur - Cxaxt. (t+n -— M(i+ft — M, (1+ft- (+h, F0, - dt - bt - oo - - Wey Gem Gee ey Costs should include all factors eg: tax effects, maintenance cost and residual value. initial outlay annual maintenance costs after adjusting for inflation rate ‘f residual value after‘n! years investment aiiowance year 1 at‘a’ proportion of initial cost and tax rate tax reduction due to maintenance costs, in the year following the expenditure Dt_. _ tax reduction due to depreciation in the following financial year. Itcan be approximated to —Dt if depreciation is constant and n’is greater than 25 years.PAGE 20 mos BIBLIOGRAPHY Text Books LLL Shreir, ‘Corrosion’ Newnes-Butterworths (London) 1976 Ed, Chapter 10.5 ‘Design in Relation to Welding and Joining’ Welding Handbook American Welding Soe. 7th Ed. Vol. 1. pp 201-220 (1976). ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Edition Vol 3 ‘Corrosion’. Standards AS/NZS 1554,1:1995—Structural steel welding -Welding of steel structures. AS 1518-1979 — Extruded high density polyethylene protective coating for pipes AS 1627 —Metal finishing — Preparation and pretreatment, of surfaces (10 parts). ASINZS 2312:1994— Guide to the protection of iron and steel against exterior atmospheric corrosion. AS 3855-1994 — Suitability of plumbing and water distribution systems products for contact with potable water. AS 4020 (Innt)-1994 — Products for use in contact with ‘water intended for human consumption with regard to their effect on the quality of water. AS 4036-1992 — Corrosion of metal — Dissimilar metals in contact in seawater. AS 4100-1990 — Stee! Structures. WTIA Technical Notes WTIA Technical Note No.3, ‘Care and Conditioning of Are Welcing Consumables. WTIA Technical Note No.1 “The Weldability of Steels’ Design T.GF. Gray, J. Spence and TH. North ‘Rational Welding Design’, Newnes-Butterworths (1975). S.A.Ambrose ‘Quality Assurance in Welded Fabrications’, Aust. Welding Journal 22 (1978) 20. Further References from the October 1991 Edition General American Welding Society D1.1 Structural Welding Code 1975. Australian Institute of Metals Handbook 2nd Edition (1973) T.G. Gooch and E.N, Gregory ‘Design of Protective Systems for structural Steelwork’, Br. Cortos. J. 48 (1968) H.D. Steffins, ‘Corrosion Phenomenain Welded Joints of Structural Steel’, LLW. Ann. Assembly, Isreal, (1975) 2-28 (WTIA Panel Document 11-21-77). J.W.Knight, ‘Corrosion Fatigu* related to Welded Steel Structures — A Literature Survey’ (WTIA Panel Document 11-19-77) UK Dept. of Energy Report 3463/ 1/75, Sept. (1975) WJ Jackson, ‘the Surface Treatment of Steel - a Review of the Literature’ Surfacing Technology — Steel Castings Research & Trade Association, (WTIA Panel Documents 11-1-77 and 11-2-77). A.W.L Symposium on quality Assurance in Welding (Sept. 1975). Testing Results of Atmospheric Exposure on the Welded Joints of Weathering Steels and Weld Metal. TW Document IX-731-71» ‘Corrosion of Unprotected, and Painted Steel Weldments in Seawater’ .J.N. Bradley, Br. Weld.J(1962) pp 476-481. RW. Nicols, Use of Welded Materials in Nuclear Power Engineering. Weld. J.Dec. (1975). 4S Caplan, Application of Preheat Temperature after Welding presrare Vessel Steels, Westinghouse Report WCAP 8577 (1975),WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 PAGE 21 WIA rary Reports M.Henthome, ‘Corrosion Testing of Weldments’ ANetters, ‘Welding for Corrosive Environments’ T.Gooch, ‘Corrosion Problems in Welding’ Shell Petroleum, ‘Corrosion and Protectives’. P.Critchell ‘Surface Coatings’, Aust. Inst, Metals Symposium, May 25 (1975). IWeber ‘The Economic Significance of Corrosion and its Prevention’, Sulter Technical Review 1 (1977) 23 (WTIA Panel Document 11-31-77), Temporary FN. Feltham ‘Comments on Pipeline Coatings’ (WTIA Panel Document 11-27-77), KK Yee, ‘Protective Coatings for Metals by Chemical Vapour Deposition’, Inst. Met, Rev. No.1 (1978) (WTIA Panel Document 11-5-78), W. McCaffrey ‘Cathodic Protection in Practice’, Aust Inst. Metals symposium, May 25th (1975). WTA G, Peirson and R Bird, ‘usiness Finance’ 2nd Ed, 1976, McGraw-Hill Aust. rary ReportsPAGE 22 WTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 List OF WTIA TECHNICAL NoTES 1. The Weldability of Steels —'TN 1-94 Gives guidance on the preheat and heat input conditions (run size, current, voltage) required for acceptable welds and to avoid cold cracking in a wide variety of steels. The Note is applicable to a wide range of welding processes, 2. Welding Aluminium - TN 2-96 This note covers the major welding processes as they are used for the welding and repair of aluminium and its alloys. Information is given on the processes, equipment, consumables and techniques, It also provides information on the range of alloys available and briefly covers safety, quality assurance, inspection and testing, costing and alternative joining process 3. Care and Conditioning of Are Welding Consumables ~ TN 3-94 Gives the basis and details for the correct care, storage and conditioning of welding consumables to control hydrogen and to ensure high quality welding, 4. The Industry Guide to Hardfacing for the Control of Wear ~TN 4-96 Describes wear mechanisms and gives guidance on the selection of hardfacing consumables and processes for a wide range of applications, 5. Flame Cutting of Steels — TN 5-94 Gives a wealth of practical guidance on flame cutting including detailed procedures for efficient cutting, selection of equipment and gases, practices for identifying and curing defective cutting, methods of maximising economy and other important guidauce un the use of steeis with flame cut surfaces. Flame Cut Surface Replicas These have been developed to complement ‘Technical Note Number 5 by defining three qualities, of flame cut surface. Each set of three is contained in aconvenient holder with a summary sheet of main flame cutting data 6. Control of Lamellar Tearing — TN6-85 Describes the features and mechanisms of this important mode of failure and the means of controlling tearing through suitable design, material selection, fabrication and inspection. Acceptance standards, repair methods, specification require- ments and methods of investigation are proposed. Four appendices give details on the mechanism, material factors, tests for susceptibility and the important question of restraint. 7. Health and Safety in Welding ~ TN 7-94 Provides information on all aspects of health and safety in welding and cutting. Designed Wo provide this information in such a way that it is readily useable for instruction in the shop and to provide guidance to management, Recommend-ations are given for safe procedures to be adopted in a wide variety of situations found in welding fabrication 8. Economic Design of Weldments — TN8-79 Principles and guidance are given on methods and procedures for optimising design of weldments and welded joints and connections to maximise economy in welding fabrication. Factors influencing the overall cost of weldments which need to be considered at the design stage are discussed. 9. Welding Rate in Are Welding Processes: Part 1 MMAW - TN9-79 Gives practical guidance and information on the selection of welding conditions to improve productivity during manual metal are welding (MMAW). Graphs are provided showing rates as a function of weld size, The graphs enable a direct comparison of different types of welding electrodes when used for butt and fillet welds in various welding positionsWTIA - TECHNICAL NOTE 12 10. Fracture Mechanics ~ TN10-80 i. 2 13. 14, Provides theory and gives practical guidance for the design and fabrication of structures, planning of. maintenance and assessment of the likelihood of brittle or ductile initiation from flaws in ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Engineering critical assessment case histories are discussed. Commentary on Structural Steel Welding Code AS 1554 — April 1992 (A joint publication with AISC) The Note complements AS 1554 Parts 1 0 5 1992, by presenting background information which could not be included in the Standard. It discusses the requirements of the Standard with particular emphasis on new or revised clauses from the 1974 Edition of the Standard. In explaining the application of the Standard to welding in steel construction, the commentary emphasises the need to rely on the provisions of the Standard to achieve satisfactory weld quality. Minimising Corrosion in Welded Stee! Structures~ TN 12-96 Designed to provide practical guidance and information on corrosion problems associated with the welding of steel structures, together with possible solutions for minimising corrosion. Stainless Steels for Corrosive Environments ~ ‘TN13-83 Provides guidance on the selection of stainless steels for different environments. Austenitic, ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are described together with the various types of corrosive attack. Aspects, of welding procedure, design, cleaning and maintenance to minimise corrosion are covered. Design and Construction of Welded Steel Bins ~TNI4-84 Written because of the widely expressed need for guidance on the design and fabrication of welded steel bulk solids containers, this Technical Note gathers together relevant information on functional design, wall loads, stress analysis, design of welded Joints and the fabrication, erection and inspection Of steel bins. It also contains a very comprehensive reference list to assist in a further understanding of this very broad subject. 15. 16. v7. 18. 19. 20. PAGE 23 ‘Welding and Fabrication of Quenched and ‘Tempered Steel - TN 15-96 Provides information on quenched and tempered steels generally available in Australia and gives guidance on welding processes, consumables and procedures and on the properties and performance ‘of welded joints. Information is also provided on other important fabrication operations such as flame cutting, plasma cutting, shearing and forming ‘Welding Stainless Steels - TN16-85 This Technical Note complements Technical Note ‘Number 13 by detailing valuable information on the welding of most types of stainless steels commonly used in industry. Automation in Are Welding ~ TN17-86 Provides information and guidance on all the issues involved with automation in are welding. The general principles are applicable to automation in any field, Welding of Castings ~ TN18-87 Provides basic information on welding procedures for the welding processes used to weld and repair ferrous and non-ferrous castings. It also provides information on the range of alloys available and briefly covers non-destructive inspection, on-site heating methods and safety. Cost Effective Quality Management for Welding - TN 19-95 Provides guidelines on the application of the ASINZS ISO 9000 series of Quality Standards within the welding and fabrication industries. Guidance on the writing, development and control of Welding Procedures is also given. Repair of Steel Pipelines — TN 20-94 Provides an outline of methods of assessment and means of repair available to a pipeline whilst allowing continuity of supply. Binder (holds ten of the above) ‘These Technical Notes may be obtained from the WTIA: PO Box 6165 Silverwater NSW 2128 Australia Phone: +61 2.9748 4443 Fax: +61 2 9748 2858