TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page
Letter to the Students
Course Outline 4
Course Objectives 4
Course Content 4
Course Requirements 5
Classroom Policies 5
Grading System 5
Lesson 1 6
▪ The Overview of English Language 6
▪ Input 1 6
▪ Activity 1 10
▪ Evaluation 11
Lesson 2 15
▪ The Indo-European Family of Languages 15
▪ Input 1 15
▪ Activity 1 23
▪ Input 2 24
▪ Activity 2 25
▪ Input 3 26
▪ Evaluation 29
Lesson 3 31
▪ The English Language in Britain 31
▪ Input 1 31
▪ Activity 1 43
▪ Input 2 44
▪ Evaluation 47
Lesson 4 48
▪ The English Language in America 48
▪ Input 1 48
▪ Activity 1 60
▪ Evaluation 62
Lesson 5 63
▪ The English Language in the Philippines 63
▪ Input 1 63
▪ Activity 1 72
▪ Evaluation 74
Lesson 6 76
▪ The Importance of English Language in Today’s World 76
▪ Input 1 76
▪ Activity 1 79
▪ Evaluation 80
Resources 82

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 College Department
College of Arts and Sciences
Benjie F. Good, LPT
Mobile Number: 0938-133-5030
Email: [email protected]
Consultation Hour: Every Friday, 1:00PM-3:00PM

August 17, 2020

Dear Student,

Please find enclosed the course materials for the course titled:

ELS 103: HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Welcome! I am glad that you have chosen to enroll in this course, so we might explore
the history of English language together. The semester will be intellectually challenging
and eye-opening for you and me. I know that you have many other responsibilities in your
life; some academic, some work-related, some personal. I certainly did when I was an
undergraduate, and I still do today. Given how busy and complicated most of our lives
tend to be, I think it’s best if we take some time, at the start, to consider some good
approaches to how we will be learning and thinking in this class together.

I reckon strongly that mutual communication over expectations and hopes will make it
possible for all of you to stay, and to succeed at a very high level, in the class. I also hope-
though I cannot guarantee this-that many of you will find the semester to be a truly
enriching experience, one that you will remember long after you leave.

Our teaching and learning will take place in the virtual classroom. It is bounded the advent
of technology since we are still in the epoch of pandemic. I am the instructor of this course
and will be your primary contact in relation to any academic matters concerning your study
in this course. My contact details and our course code in the google classroom are as
shown above. I look forward to communicating with you, particularly by email or text

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messages. I also expect your full participation in our incoming discussions in google
classroom. If you have doubts with the concepts presented, feel free to ask for clarification
by posting questions in the dialog box.

I suggest also that you take time to support your classmates by reading their posts and
leaving comments if you agree with their views and ideas on the topic discussed. By then
we will be able to build a supportive learning community in this course which is essential
for the completion of this course.

Once again let me welcome you. I look forward to working with you throughout the
semester.

Yours sincerely,

BENJIE F. GOOD, LPT

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 ELS 103: HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Course Outline

Instructor : Benjie F. Good, LPT

Semester : 1st Semester AY 2020-2021
Course Credit : 3 Units

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The principal objective of this course is to provide students with an understanding of how
communication technologies and relationships have become interdependent with one
another. Digital culture centers on communication, with interaction and interactivity as the
lifeblood of mediated conversation. The original "killer application" of the internet
was email. We have since evolved many, and much more sophisticated digital modes of
talking, listening, sending, and attending. Computer mediated communication, thus, is at
the intersection of these new media technologies (e.g. Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, etc.)
and interpersonal communication. Issues central to the course include the impact of
relationships on communication technology use and vice versa, romantic and family
communication in the digital world, friendships and online social support, identity and
impression management, virtual communities, problematic computer mediated
communication, and privacy.

CONTACT HOURS : 2 hours online and 1 hour consultation per week.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
The students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of historical,
cultural, and philosophical complexity that supports sophisticated discourse.
1. To understand the origins and development of the English Language, in terms of
its historical periods, and its internal and external and external influences.
2. To better comprehend the technical aspects of language, in terms of phonology,
morphology, syntax, and semantics/lexicon.
3. To recognize language change historically and be able to describe these
differences through comparison of written texts.
4. To know the relationship of English to other world languages.
5. To analyze the subject of language acquisition development.
6. Chart the growth of English as a global language.
COURSE CONTENT
1. Overview of the English Language
2. The Indo-European Family of Languages
2.1 The discovery of Sanskrit
2.2 Thee Germanic Languages
3. The English Language in Britain
3.1 Old English
3.2 Middle English

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 3.3 Modern English
4. The English Language in America
4.1 The settlement of America
4.2 American Dialects
5. The English language in the Philippines
6. The Importance of language in Today’s World

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
1. Periodic Examination – Prelim, Midterm, and Finals
2. Class marks, quizzes, assignments
3. Activity output
4. Class Participation
5. Performance output/Projects

CLASSROOM POLICIES:
Policies peculiar to the course/subject (Magallanes, 2017)
1. No special/ repeated testing for all types of objective tests.
2. Point deductions for late submission of individual and group outputs apply.
3. Must comply submission of partial outputs for marking under quizzes and
assignments.
4. Must comply submission of final and corrected outputs with analysis.
5. Must not submit a plagiarized copy or form of any assessment output.
6. All the times, students and teachers are expected to RESPECT each other.

GRADING SYSTEM
For Periodic Grade
1. Periodic Exam 45%
2. Quizzes, Assignments, Projects 30%
3. Class Participation 25%

For Weighted Average

1. Midterm 40%
2. Final 60%

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 Lesson 1: The Overview of
English Language

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Define what language and linguistic is;
b. Explain the technical aspects of language, in terms of phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics/lexicon, and pragmatics;
c. Understand the different functions of the technical aspects of the
language; and
d. Annotate a text and assess the technical aspects of the language.

INPUT 1

WHAT IS A LANGUAGE?
▪ Language is commonly defined (simply) as “a means of communication” but if it is
a defined so, there will be no difference between human communication and
animal communication. The reason is because, both animal and human do have
means to communicate.

To be more scientific, a language can be defined as:

▪ “An arbitrary system of creative vocal symbols used as a means of communication
among human beings”.

Characteristics/Properties of Human Language:

A. Language is Arbitrary
▪ A language is arbitrary
because the relationship
between a vocal symbol
(in form, in the sense of
linguistics) and the entity,
state, event, or action
(meaning)
▪ Of the vocal symbol
cannot be proved
logically.

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B. Language is Vocal Symbols
▪ Considering a language as a construction of vocal symbols, we actually want to
distinguish oral from written language. A language is originally oral/spoken (vocal
symbols). In other words, we can say that spoken language is the origin of
language.
▪ See this Fact!!!
Children grow up learning and speaking a language (orally) before learning
to write. Even in this modern age, some people still cannot write but they
can communicate with a language.
▪ On the other hand, writing or written language is the best thought of as a written
representation of a language.
▪ One of the differences (in characteristics) between oral and written language is
that written language tends to be prescriptive (what one think it/the language ought
to be) but oral/spoken language is not prescriptive.

C. Language is Creative
▪ No matter how well a dictionary of a language is designed and written, it will
never contain al possible sentences that a human being (the speaker of a
language) can make and use for communication. Once we speak a language
(say, our mother tongue/native language), the components and rules of the
language enables us to create infinite number/unlimited numbers of sentences.
It enables us to put words together to make phrases, put phrases together to
make many sentences, and so forth.
▪ As illustration, the same word can be employed in so many different infinite
numbers of sentences, as exemplified with the following phrases:

▪ Indeed, we create and heard new sentences in our language all the time in our
everyday communication. Eve we may have created and heard a sentence that
had never been spoken or heard before, but we did not realize it. This is
because a language is creative.

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 D. Language is a Means of Communication
▪ Language is only one among another means of communication, but it is the
most perfect means of communication possessed by human beings. The use
of a language as a means of communication is what distinguishes animal
communication among human beings.
▪ In most societies (or cultures) there are fables, legends etc., where we are told
that animals do play speaking role, not only among themselves but also with
human beings. But can fables, or legends provide evidence that animals do
speak and have language?
▪ While human beings communicate with language; it is believed that animals
simply communicate with their instinct; but this belief has not been proved
empirically.

WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?
▪ Linguistics is the study of languages.
▪ The subject matter of linguistics is language.
▪ Traditionally, linguistics studies a language as a formal system consisting of four
micro branches, known as “micro linguistics”;
▪ Besides, the linguistic studies which are supposed as the interdisciplinary field of
studies that identify, investigate and offer solutions to language-related real life
problems, called “macro linguistics or applied linguistics”; and there are also
some other linguistic branches.

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 ▪ Furthermore, we will merely discuss about micro linguistics, which are related to
pure language studies such as:
a. Phonology- the study of speech sound and their patterns.
b. Morphology- the study of words and word formation.
c. Syntax- the study of sentence structure.
d. Semantics- the study of meanings.

The systems of
language/
technical aspects of language
MEDIUM
▪ A language is described as an abstraction based on the linguistic behavior of its
users.
▪ All normal children of all races learn to speak the language of their community, so
speech has often been seen as the primary medium of language.

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 ▪ The abstract system which is language can also be realized as writing, however,
although speech and writing have much more in common, they are not to be
equated or hierarchically ordered.
▪ The diagram indicates that, although speech and writing are in theory distinct, they
can do influence each other.
▪ A simple example of this is that pronunciation is often affected by spelling.
A word like ‘often’, for example, is frequently pronounces with a [t] because of
influence from the written medium.

Source: Eka Andriyani , Lecturer at Sekolah Tinggi Bahasa Asing (STBA) LIA, Jakarta
URL : https://www.slideshare.net/Andriyanieka12/1-language-linguistics-18508286

ACTIVITY 1

Multiple Choice: Choose the answer that corresponds to the question. Encircle your
answer.
1. Which describes the relationship between words and their meaning?
A. Syntax B. Semantics C. Morphology D. Spelling
2. Which word describes the sound systems of language?
A. Syntax B. Semantics C. Morphology D. Phonology
3. Morphology is…
A. Sounds of words B. structure of words
C . meaning of words D. origin of words

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 4. Semantics is …
A. Sounds of words B. structure of words
C . meaning of words D. origin of words
5. Which words describes the language in use?
A. Pragmatics B. Morphology C. Phonology D. Lexicon
6. Lexicon is …
A. Sounds of language B. letters of language
C . culture of language D. vocabulary of language
7. Which words describes how words are related in meaning?
A. Phonology B. Spelling C. Semantics D. Morphology
8. Adding the ending “ing” to the words swing is an example of…
A. Phonology B. Spelling C. Semantics D. Morphology
9. Putting the subject in the beginning of the sentence like “My mom quickly ran
through the store” is an example of
A. Syntax B. Semantics C. Morphology D. Spelling
10. The word person has multiple words that mean the same thing with slightly
different connotations - human and homosapien - is an example of...
A. Syntax B. Semantics C. Morphology D. Spelling

EVALUATION

What is Annotating?
▪ Annotating is any action that deliberately interacts with a text to enhance the
reader's understanding of, recall of, and reaction to the text. Sometimes called
"close reading," annotating usually involves highlighting or underlining key pieces
of text and making notes in the margins of the text. This page will introduce you to

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 several effective strategies for annotating a text that will help you get the most out
of your reading. Here is an example of annotation:
▪ You will annotate a passage about the “Common misconceptions about language
awareness”. You can write anything that corresponds to your understanding about
the systems of language. You can write your insights in the right side or you can
write also in the left side. Any notes will do.
Common misconceptions about language
awareness
'Fluency in conversational language means fluency
in academic language.'
Many teachers are surprised when they receive a
piece of written work that suggests a student who has
no difficulties in everyday communication has
problems understanding the main ideas of a lesson.
Problems arise when teachers assume that students
who have attained a high degree of fluency and
accuracy in everyday social English (BICS) have a
corresponding level of academic proficiency (CALP).
Whether English is a student’s first language or an
additional language, they need time and the
appropriate support to become competent in
academic language as it is that language they will
mostly need in school.

'I’m a science teacher – supporting students’

language is not my responsibility.'
Many teachers of non-language subjects worry that
there is no time to include language support in their
teaching or that it is something they know little about.
Some teachers may think that language support is
not their role. However, many teachers would agree
that it is their responsibility to create an inclusive
classroom where all students can access the
curriculum and where barriers to learning are
reduced as much as possible. When you are aware
of the language needs of your students, you can use
this awareness to help reduce obstacles that learning
through an additional language might present.

Science teachers do not need to know the names of

grammatical structures or to be able to use the
appropriate linguistic labels. However, they do need
to have a sound understanding of the challenges
their students face, and plan to help them overcome
these challenges. As we will see, these language-
support techniques do not need to take a lot of extra

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 time and should eventually become an everyday part
of planning, teaching, and reflecting.

'If parents speak a different language at home,

this will confuse learners.'
Early research promoted the idea that languages
were stored separately in the brain. It was thought
that each language had a limited processing
capacity. As a result, the worry was that learning
another language would negatively affect or ‘push
out’ the existing language. This reinforced the idea of
bilingualism as problematic and a disadvantage to
learning.

However, new research into how the brain works

suggests that languages are linked in the brain by a
central processing unit. This means that whether a
learner is speaking, listening, reading or writing in
their first or additional language, it helps the whole
cognitive system to develop. As a result, it doesn’t
matter in which language basic concepts are
developed as this learning will eventually transfer
across languages. Research shows that it is much
better for parents to speak with their children in the
language in which they are most confident. This is
because this language will be richer and more
complex. If parents speak to their children in a
language in which they themselves are not confident,
they are providing a model of language for their
children that is not fully developed.
'Younger children are more effective at learning
languages than older students.'
Some teachers working with older students worry
that an additional language, such as English, is much
harder to learn. Younger learners may succeed in
speaking a new language with little or no accent, but
there is evidence that older people are often more
efficient learners and make faster progress at first. It
is important to remember that language expectations
for younger learners are generally lower and school
language is more complex at higher grades, making
learning a language challenging. While it is possible
to learn both subject content and language at the
same time, the language a learner uses in the
classroom needs to be sufficiently well developed

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 and supported for them to be able to process the
cognitive challenges they face.

'A teacher with only first-language speakers in

their class does not need to be aware of students’
language needs.'
Everyone has an individual experience of language.
Students may not have previously seen or heard
some language that is specific to a subject and may
need to be introduced to this language in the same
way that they would learn a second or foreign
language. Most subjects have terms that need to be
used appropriately. Some of these terms may have
other meanings in other subject areas. First-
language speakers may also be stronger in certain
skills than others. You may find that certain students
are better at writing than at speaking, or that their
understanding of the vocabulary of a subject area is
better than their active use of it. You need to be
aware of the language level and capability of all of
your students, not just those who are learning
through an additional language.
Source: https://www.cambridge-community.org.uk/professional-development/gswla/index.html

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 Lesson 2: The Indo-European
Family of Languages

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Explore the Indo-European European Family of
languages;
b. Know some borrowed words of English that came from
Indo-European languages;
c. Discuss some influences of Indo-European to the English
language; and
d. Value the importance of Indo-European heritage, culture
and language to the development of English today.

INPUT 1

THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES

▪ The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred languages and
dialects, including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many in Asia.
▪ Contemporary languages in this family include English, German, French, Spanish,
Portuguese, Hindustani (i.e., Hindi and Urdu among other modern dialects),
Persian and Russian.
▪ It is the largest family of languages in the world today, being spoken by
approximately half the world's population as first language. Furthermore, the
majority of the other half speaks at least one of them as second language.
▪ The traditional view has been that the Indo-Europeans were a nomadic or semi-
nomadic people who invaded neighboring agricultural or urban areas and imposed
their language on them.
▪ This original language we can call Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The people who
spoke it we can for convenience call Indo-Europeans, but we must remember that
this does not imply anything about race or culture, only about language.
▪ People of very different races and cultures can come to be native speakers of Indo-
European languages: such speakers today include Indians, Afghans, Iranians,
Greeks, Irishmen, Russians, Mexicans, Brazilians and Norwegians.

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 ▪ Conquering new lands of horse back and bringing the language with them as it
developed into different varieties which eventually grew into different branches of
the Indo-European language family.
▪ Sometime after about 3000 B.C., the Indo-Europeans began a series of extensive
migrations that would eventually take them all over present-day Europe and into
Asia.
▪ Perhaps as early as 2000 B.C., some groups of Indo-Europeans were in Greece;
by about 1500 B.C., other groups had reached the Indian subcontinent. The split-
up was gradual, with the Hittites breaking off first, followed by the Indo-Iranians.
The Germanic, Balto-Slavic, and Celtic groups were probably the last to leave their
original homeland.

The Spread of Indo-European from Its Hypothetical Homeland The arrows indicate
the general direction of the migrations that led to the development of the individual
branches of Indo-European. The arrows are not intended to reflect the exact paths
taken by the migrating peoples; these are mostly unknown. Furthermore, the map
is a kind of “time-lapse” diagram because the migrations actually took place at
different times extending over several millennia. © Cengage Learning

THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

▪ On the basis of resemblances among the member languages, scholars today
recognize ten subfamilies of Indo-European, some of them now extinct.
▪ Other subfamilies have become extinct without leaving any written records. The
ten groups for which we have evidence are:
A. Indo-Iranian languages

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 B. Italic Languages (including Latin and its descendants, the Romance Language)
C. Germanic Languages
D. Baltic Languages
E. Slavic Languages
F. Illyrian Languages (extinct)
G. Albanian Language (and extinct cousins)
H. Anatolian Languages (extinct, most notable was the language of Hittites)
I. Tocharian Languages (extinct tongues of Tocharians)
J. Greek language
K. Armenian Language

SOURCE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SqK7XXvfiXs&t=526s
There are a significant number of cognate words in Indo European languages.
Cognate = latin: co + gnatus meaning “born together”

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 We usually think of
hundred as a native
Germanic word and cent
as loanword from Latin,
but these are actually
cognates. First let us take
away the ending of the
word-red which comes
from a suffix meaning
count or number, then
let’s change h back to a [k]
and now you can kind of
see the resemblance.
Remember that the C in
cent was originally
pronounced like a [k] in
Latin, also remember that
d is the voiced equivalent
of t, so you can often see
these sounds alternating
in related languages.

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 The Latin and Greek
examples are quantum
examples, but in Greek it
seems that the k sound
assimilated to the p sound
next to it. The Sanskrit and
\
Persian are Satem
examples since you can
see the k sound became
shuh and suh. It seems
that the w sound shifted to
a V sound in Sanskrit and
to a B sound in Persian
and those are sounds
changes that take place
frequently in various
different languages.

This shared vocabulary

might be hard to spot
when you’re not looking
for it, but when you start to
notice the sounds that
commonly alternate in
those cognates for
example the voiceless t
and the voiced d, then
cognates start to be more
obvious.

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 Indo-European languages
have developed so far
from Indo-European that
grammatically they are
very diverse and they
have many features that
other Indo-European
language don’t share, but
because Proto-Indo-
European was a highly
inflected language all of its
descendants are inflected
language to some extent
by infection, meaning that
words change form to
reflect grammatical
functions like number,
person, tense, mood, and
case. One example is the
verb we find in various in
Indo-European
Languages.

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The most widely studied language family in the world is the Indo-European. There
are several reasons for this:
▪ Many of the most important languages of the world are Indo-European. These
languages are official or co-official in many countries and are important in
academic, technical and world organizations.
Examples: English, Spanish, French, German and Russian.
▪ Indeed, more than half the world's population speak one or more of these
languages either as a mother tongue or as a business language.
▪ Languages that are essential in multinational contexts or with large numbers of
speakers.
Examples: Portuguese, Hindi, German, Bengali.
▪ Some of the great classical languages of religion, culture and philosophy were
Indo-European.
Example: Latin, Greek, Persian, Sanskrit and Pali
▪ Languages that are scattered around the world as their speakers are part of
diasporas.
Example: Greek, Yiddish, Polish, Armenian, Romany, Kurdish, Italian,
Punjabi, Gujarati.
▪ The Indo-European languages tend to be inflicted (i.e. verbs and nouns have
different ending depending on their part in a sentence). Some languages (e.g.
English) have lost many of the inflections during their evolution.
▪ The Indo-European Family is thought to have originated in the forests north of the
Black Sea (in what is now Ukraine) during the Neoloithic period (about 7000BC).
These people began to migrate between 3500BC and 25ooBC, spreading west to
Europe, south to the Mediterranean, north o Scandinavia, and east to India.

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 ACTIVITY 1

A language family is a
"group of languages with a
common ancestry and
similar words. Indo-
European is the largest and
most widespread language
family. It is the primary
language family in the United
States. Your task is to sketch *this is only a sample; you
can create your own design.
a diagram of the Indo-
European language family
tree.

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 INPUT 2
THE DISCOVERY OF SANSKRIT
▪ Sanskrit is a classical Indian language. The name Sanskrit means ‘refined, ‘sacred’
and ‘sanctified’. Hence, the Sanskrit was not thought of a specific language but as
refined or protected sacred tongue.
▪ It is a language always kept in high esteem and used mostly for religious and
scientific discourses in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Sanskrit language
is supposed to have emerged as early as around 2000 to 1000 B.C.E.
▪ It has the credit of being one of the oldest existing languages. Through the origin
of the language could not be clearly defined, it is thought to have come from the
Indus Valley, the present Pakistan and northwestern India.
▪ It has been grouped with the Indo-European languages such as French, German
and English, which considered to share a common ancestor language.
▪ In ancient India, knowledge of Sanskrit was a symbol of the elite class and a source
for educational attainment. This language is still in use primarily among the
educated men, upper class people and religious scholars. It is also one of the 22
official languages of India.

Sanskrit a Vedic Language

▪ The Vedas, the oldest sacred writings of Hinduism, were written in an early form
of Sanskrit, now remains to be called Vedic Sanskrit.
▪ The Brahman priests who studied and chanted the hymns were dedicated in
preserving the Vedas through oral tradition.
▪ The vast literature of Vedic exegesis and Vedic philosophy like the Brahmanas,
Aranyakas and the Upanishads, were somehow connected to one or the other four
Vedas. These works were composed through centuries, and indicate the
continuous and gradual evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit into its later phase, called
Classical Sanskrit.
▪ The great works in Classical Sanskrit like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas,
and other works like the Dharmasastras were fallout of this revolution.
▪ The later dialects like the Prakrits (Pali and rest) were taken up by the heterodox
sects, the Buddhists and the Jaints, and great literary works in these forms were
created. According to Tiwari (1995), there were four principal dialects of classical
Sanskrit vis.pascimottari, madhyades, purvi and daksini.

The Efflorescence of Sanskrit

▪ during the period of Guptas, ie., from the fourth to the 7th century A.D., Sanskrit
attained boom in creative literature.
▪ The older Puranas, such as the Vayu, Matsya, the Visnu and the Markhandeya,
were composed or improved during this period.

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 ▪ The Dharma-sastras are the numerous codes of Hindu civil and social law
composed by various authors and dramas saw their dawn in this period.
▪ In course of time, Sanskrit absorbed and assimilated many words, terms and
expression from regional dialects too and certain phonetic changes and
modifications in grammar did take place as in the case of any language.

The Modern Renaissance

▪ in 1857, the three universities established by the British in India adopted English
as medium of instruction. However, they had prescribed the languages, Sanskrit
Arabic and Persian (as classical languages) besides Greek and Latin and students
were required to take these languages as a compulsory subject.
▪ The study of literature amongst the educated led to the modern literary
renaissance. As a result the literature of India was enriched with the heritage of
Sanskrit and expression of English.
▪ Modern Hindi, during the last 100 years, had acquired great expressiveness by
borrowing the vocabulary and other resources of Sanskrit.
▪ Today, Sanskrit is used mainly in Hindu religious rituals as ceremonial language
for reciting hymns and mantras. However, efforts are going on to revive Sanskrit
as an everyday spoken language in a place near Shimoga in Karnataka.
▪ There are many devoted Sanskrit scholars wo speak Sanskrit as second language.
Sanskrit is studied by many Indians as a source of knowledge as Sanskrit play as
an important role in the study of Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Puranas and
several epic literatures like Ramayana and Mahabharata.
▪ Sanskrit is taught in India right from the school level to the university level through
various national institutes of Sanskrit as well as Sanskrit Universities.
Source: https://www.indianmirror.com/languages/sanskrit-language.html

ACTIVITY 2

Discuss the implication of the Sanskrit language to the language today. (no less than 200 words)
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INPUT 3

THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES

▪ Languages can be classified according to different principles.
▪ The historical, or genealogical classification, groups languages in accordance with
their origin form a common linguistic ancestor.
▪ Genetically, English belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic group of languages,
which is on f the twelve groups of the IE linguistic family.
▪ Most of the area of Europe and large parts of other continents are occupied today
by the IE languages, Germanic being on of their major groups.

The Germanic Branch of Indo-European languages

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The Germanic Languages in Modern World are as follows:
▪ ENGLISH- in Great Britain, Ireland, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the
South African Republic, and many other former British colonies and dominions.
▪ GERMAN- Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Liechtenstein, part of Switzerland.
▪ NETHERLANDISH- in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium) (Known as Dutch
and Flemish respectively).
▪ AFRIKAANS – in the South African Republic
▪ DANISH- in Denmark
▪ SWEDISH- in Sweden and Finland
▪ NORWEGIAN- in Norway
▪ ICELANDIC- in Iceland
▪ FRISIAN- in some regions of Netherlands and Germany
▪ FAROESE- in the Faroe Islands
▪ YIDDISH- in different countries
▪ All the Germanic languages are related through their common origin and joint
development at the early stages of history.
▪ The survey of their external history will show where and when the Germanic
languages arose and acquired their common features, also, how they developed
int modern tongues.

The Earliest Period of Germanic History (Proto-Germanic)

▪ The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of what is known
as the Proto-Germanic (PG) language (also termed Common or Primitive
Germanic, Primitive Teutonic and simply Germanic).
▪ PG is the linguistic ancestor of the parent-language of the Germanic group.
▪ It is supposed to have split from related IE languages sometime between the 15th
and 10th c. B.C.
▪ The wound-be Germanic tribes belonged to the western division of the IE speech
community.
▪ PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded in written form.
▪ In the 19th c. it was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from
written evidence in descendant language.
▪ It is believed that at the earliest stages of history PG was fundamentally one
language, though dialectally colored.
▪ In its later stages dialectal differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our
era Germanic appears divided into dialectical groups and tribal dialects.
▪ Dialectal differentiation increases with the migrations and geographical expansion
of the Teutons caused by overpopulation, poor agricultural technique and scanty
natural resources in the areas of their original settlement.
▪ The earliest migration of the Germanic tribes from the lower valley of the Elbe
consisted in their movement north, to the Scandinavian peninsula, a few hundred
years before our era.

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 ▪ This geographical segregation must have led to linguistic differentiation and to the
division of PG into the northern and southern branches.
▪ At the beginning of our era some of
the tribes returned to the mainland and settled closer to the Vistula basin, east of
the other continental Germanic tribes.
▪ It is only from this stage of their history that the Germanic languages can be
described under three headings: East Germanic, North Germanic and West
Germanic.

LINGUISTIC and Grammatical

FEATURES OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES
▪ The Proto-Germanic and the old Germanic languages were synthetic languages
(the relationships between the parts of the sentence were shown by the forms of
the words rather than position in the sentence or by auxiliary words).
▪ One the main processes in the development of the Germanic morphological
system was the change in the word structure.
The common I-E notional word consisted of 3 elements:
▪ root (expressing the lexical meaning),
▪ inflexion (ending) (showing the grammatical form),
▪ stem-forming suffix.
However in Germanic languages the stem forming suffix fuses with the ending
and is often no longer visible.
The Germanic nouns had a well-developed case system with 4 cases:
▪ nominative,
▪ genitive,
▪ dative,
▪ accusative.
▪ And two number forms: singular and plural.
▪ They also had the category of gender: feminine, masculine, neuter.

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Germanic adjectives had two types of declination:
▪ weak
▪ strong.
▪ They had also had degree of comparison
▪ Germanic verbs are divided into 2 principal groups: strong and weak.
▪ Depending on the way they formed their past tense forms.
▪ The past tense of strong verbs was formed with the help of ablaut(чередование
гласных).
▪ Weak verbs expressed past tense with the help of the dental suffix “d/t”.
▪ The Germanic verb had a well-developed system of categories including the
category of person 1st, 2nd, 3rd; category of number singular/plural.
▪ Also Germanic verb had tense: past and present.
▪ They also had mood: indicative, imperative, optative.
▪ The grammatical forms of the word were built by means of suppletion (the usage
of two or more different roots as forms of one and the same word) (I, my, mine,
me) (ich, mich, mir).
▪ Though in the Germanic languages inflections were simpler and shorter than in
other in other I-E languages.
▪ The usage of interchange of vowels and consonants for the purpose of word and
form building. (tooth-teeth, build-built).
▪ Ablaut or vowel gradation. An independent vowel interchange unconnected with
any phonetic conditions used to differentiate between grammatical forms of one
and the same word.
▪ The Germanic ablaut was consistently used in building the principal forms of strong
verbs.

EVALUATION

After knowing the different languages of Indo-European, discuss the following:

(your answer should not be less than 50 words and a maximum of 100)
▪ Are there more or fewer language groups than you expected? Explain.
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▪ Within each language group, there are many dialects of each language. So even
within the groups there are differences. Do you think these divisions within
groups are also important? Why or why not?
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______________________________________________________________________
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▪ Why do you think language is important to groups and regions?
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▪ Is a common language necessary? Why or why not?
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 Lesson 3: The English
Language in Britain

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Recognize the English language in Britain;
b. Discuss the different periods in the English language in Britain;
c. Compare and contrast the eras in the English language in Britain;
d. Outline the chronological happenings of the English language in
Britain; and
e. Determine the loanwords from the English language in Britain.

INPUT 1

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN BRITAIN

▪ The English language belongs to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European
family of languages. The closest undoubted living relatives of English are Scots
and Frisian. Frisian is a language spoken by approximately half a million people in
the Dutch province of Friesland, in nearby areas of Germany, and on a few islands
in the North Sea.
▪ The history of the English language has traditionally been divided into three main
periods: Old English (450-1100 AD), Middle English (1100-circa 1500 AD) and
Modern English (since 1500). Over the centuries, the English language has been
influenced by a number of other languages.
OLD ENGLISH (450-1100 AD)
▪ During the 5th Century AD, three Germanic tribes (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes)
came to the British Isles from various parts of northwest Germany as well as
Denmark. These tribes were warlike and pushed out most of the original, Celtic-
speaking inhabitants from England into Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. One group
migrated to the Brittany Coast of France where their descendants still speak the
Celtic Language of Breton today.
▪ Through the years, the Saxons, Angles and Jutes mixed their different Germanic
dialects. This group of dialects forms what linguists refer to as Old English or
Anglo-Saxon. The word "English" was in Old English "Englisc", and that comes

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 from the name of the Angles. The Angles were named from Engle, their land of

origin. Before the Saxons the language spoken

in what is now England was a mixture of Latin and various Celtic languages which
were spoken before the Romans came to Britain (54-5BC). The Romans brought
Latin to Britain, which was part of the Roman Empire for over 400 years. Many of
the words passed on from this era are those coined by Roman merchants and
soldiers. These include win (wine), candel (candle), belt (belt), weall (wall).
("Language Timeline", The British Library Board)
▪ The influence of Celtic upon Old English was slight. In fact, very few Celtic words
have lived on in the English language. But many of place and river names have
Celtic origins: Kent, York, Dover, Cumberland, Thames, Avon, Trent, Severn.
▪ The arrival of St. Augustine in 597 and the introduction of Christianity into Saxon
England brought more Latin words into the English language. They were mostly
concerned with the naming of Church dignitaries, ceremonies, etc. Some, such as
church, bishop, baptism, monk, eucharist and presbyter came indirectly through
Latin from the Greek.
▪ Around 878 AD Danes and Norsemen, also called Vikings, invaded the country
and English got many Norse words into the language, particularly in the north of
England. The Vikings, being Scandinavian, spoke a language (Old Norse) which,
in origin at least, was just as Germanic as Old English/
▪ Words derived from Norse include: sky, egg, cake, skin, leg, window (wind eye),
husband, fellow, skill, anger, flat, odd, ugly, get, give, take, raise, call, die, they,
their, them. ("The Origin and History of the English Language", Kryss
Katsiavriades)
▪ Several written works have survived from the Old English period. The most famous
is a heroic epic poem called "Beowulf". It is the oldest known English poem and it
is notable for its length - 3,183 lines. Experts say "Beowulf" was written in Britain

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 more than one thousand years ago. The name of the person who wrote it is
unknown.

Part of
Beowulf,
a poem
written in
Old
English

MIGRATION
• Irish missionaries came to England
• Brought the Latin alphabet
ROMAN INVASION
• 597 AD: Roman invader Augustine attempted to Christianize England
• Established kingdoms all over England
RESULTS
• The Latin alphabet became the basis of English alphabet
• Romans spread and popularized English throughout England

CHANGES IN OLD ENGLISH

• æ
Pronounced as ai
Changed to e
Example: næver is now spelled never
• Feminine/Masculine word form dropped
• Indefinite articles, a and an were introduced
• Verb placement
755 AD: verb is placed at the end of a sentence
at he… na justise ne dide
Translation: that he no justice did (Nielsen 203)
1137: verb is placed after the pronoun
til hi iafen up here castles
Translation: till they surrendered their castles (Nielsen 203)

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 RESULTS
English children became bilingual
Materials written in English became very scarce
Many French words were borrowed
tax, estate, trouble, duty, pay, table, boil, serve, roast, dine, religion, savior, pray,
and trinity
French was England’s official language up until the beginning of 14th
century

CHANGES
Three different words with one meaning
kingly (Old English), royal (French), and regal (Latin). meaning of “relating to a
king”
More French Influence
More borrowed words
Borrowed words, cellar and place affected the way c was pronounced
Cene, cyssan, and cneow (Old English)
Lice and mice

MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100-CIRCA 1500 AD)

▪ After William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered
England in 1066 AD with his armies and became king, he brought his nobles, who
spoke French, to be the new government. The Old French took over as the
language of the court, administration, and culture. Latin was mostly used for written
language, especially that of the Church. Meanwhile, the English language, as the
language of the now lower class, was considered a vulgar tongue.
▪ By about 1200, England and France had split. English changed a lot, because it
was mostly being spoken instead of written for about 300 years. The use of Old
English came back, but with many French words added. This language is called
Middle English. Most of the words embedded in the English vocabulary are words
of power, such as crown, castle, court, parliament, army, mansion, gown, beauty,
banquet, art, poet, romance, duke, servant, peasant, traitor and governor.
("Language Timeline", The British Library Board)
▪ Because the English underclass cooked for the Norman upper class, the words for
most domestic animals are English (ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, deer) while the
words for the meats derived from them are French (beef, veal, mutton, pork, bacon,
venison). ("The Origin and History of the English Language", Kryss Katsiavriades

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 ▪ The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales",
a collection of stories about a group of thirty people who travel as pilgrims to
Canterbury, England. The portraits that he paints in his Tales give us an idea of
what life was like in fourteen century England.

An example of Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer

MODERN ENGLISH (1500 TO THE PRESENT)
▪ Modern English developed after William Caxton established his printing press at
Westminster Abbey in 1476. Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press in
Germany around 1450, but Caxton set up England's first press. The Bible and
some valuable manuscripts were printed. The invention of the printing press made
books available to more
people. The books became
cheaper and more people
learned to read. Printing also
brought standardization to
English.
▪ By the time of Shakespeare's
writings (1592-1616), the
language had become
clearly recognizable as
Modern English. There were
three big developments in

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 the world at the beginning of Modern English period: the Renaissance, the
Industrial Revolution, and the British Colonialism.
Hamlet’s Famous “To be or not To Be” lines, by Shakespeare

Early Modern English

Great Vowel Shift
Happened between 1400 and 1500
Sudden and major change how vowels are pronounced
a is pronounced as /ei/
e as /ei/ and/or /i/
i as /ai/
o as /ou/or /u/
and u as /au/

CHANGES AND DIFFICULTIES

Many English words are not pronounced as they used to be
A person born in 1400 would have difficulty understanding a person from the
1500s
Very careful listening and analysis of written documents were done for better
understanding
Example: House and mouse used to rhyme with moose

OTHER FACTORS THAT CHANGED EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

William Shakespeare
Began writing his sonnets and novels
Created words, such as critical, leapfrog, majestic, pedant, and
dwindle
Created clichés, such as flesh and blood, and vanish into thin air

William Caxton
Introduced the printing press to England in 1476
Began printing English textbooks
Were sold at cheap prices
English grammar, spelling, and vocabulary were standardized
1604: dictionary was published

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ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
▪ It was during the English Renaissance that most of the words from Greek and
Latin entered English. This period in English cultural history (early 16th century to
the early 17th century) is sometimes referred to as "the age of Shakespeare" or
"the Elizabethan era", taking the name of the English Renaissance's most
famous author and most important monarch, respectively.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
▪ England began the Industrial Revolution (18th century) and this had also an
effect on the development of the language as new words had to be invented or
existing ones modified to cope with the rapid changes in technology.
▪ New technical words were added to the vocabulary as inventors designed
various products and machinery. These words were named after the inventor or
given the name of their choice (trains, engine, pulleys, combustion, electricity,
telephone, telegraph, camera etc).
BRITISH COLONIALISM
▪ Britain was an Empire for 200 years between the 18th and 20th centuries and
English language continued to change as the British Empire moved across the
world - to the USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa.
▪ They sent people to settle and live in their conquered places and as settlers
interacted with natives, new words were added to the English vocabulary. For
example, 'kangaroo' and 'boomerang' are native Australian Aborigine words,
'juggernaut' and 'turban' came from India.

EXAMPLES OF TEXTS WRITTEN DURING DIFFERENT ENGLISH

PERIODS

Beowulf

Originally written in Old

English/Translation

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Ða wæs on burgum Beowulf Scyldinga, Ða wæs on burgum Beowulf Scyldinga,
leof leodcyning, longe þrage leof leodcyning, longe þrage

55 folcum gefræge (fæder ellor hwearf, aldor of 55 folcum gefræge (fæder ellor hwearf,
earde), oþþæt him eft onwoc aldor of earde), oþþæt him eft onwoc
heah Healfdene; heold þenden lifde, heah Healfdene; heold þenden lifde,
gamol ond guðreouw, glæde Scyldingas. gamol ond guðreouw, glæde
ðæm feower bearn forð gerimed Scyldingas.
ðæm feower bearn forð gerimed
60 in worold wocun, weoroda ræswan,
Heorogar ond Hroðgar ond Halga til; 60 in worold wocun, weoroda ræswan,
hyrde ic þæt wæs Onelan cwen, Heorogar ond Hroðgar ond Halga til;
hyrde ic þæt wæs Onelan cwen,
Heaðoscilfingas healsgebedda.
Heaðoscilfingas healsgebedda.
þa wæs Hroðgare heresped gyfen,
þa wæs Hroðgare heresped gyfen,
65 wiges weorðmynd, þæt him his winemagas
65 wiges weorðmynd, þæt him his
georne hyrdon, oðð þæt seo geogoð winemagas
geweox, georne hyrdon, oðð þæt seo geogoð
magodriht micel. Him on mod bearn geweox,
þæt healreced hatan wolde, magodriht micel. Him on mod bearn
medoærn micel, men gewyrcean þæt healreced hatan wolde,
70 þonne yldo bearn æfre gefrunon, medoærn micel, men gewyrcean
ond þær on innan eall gedælan 70 þonne yldo bearn æfre gefrunon,
geongum ond ealdum, swylc him god ond þær on innan eall gedælan
sealde, geongum ond ealdum, swylc him god
buton folcscare ond feorum gumena. sealde,
ða ic wide gefrægn weorc gebannan buton folcscare ond feorum gumena.
ða ic wide gefrægn weorc gebannan
75 manigre mægþe geond þisne middangeard,
folcstede frætwan. Him on fyrste gelomp, 75 manigre mægþe geond þisne
ædre mid yldum, þæt hit wearð ealgearo, middangeard,
healærna mæst; scop him Heort naman folcstede frætwan. Him on fyrste
se þe his wordes geweald wide hæfde. gelomp,
ædre mid yldum, þæt hit wearð
80 He beot ne aleh, beagas dælde, ealgearo,
sinc æt symle. Sele hlifade, healærna mæst; scop him Heort naman
heah ond horngeap, heaðowylma bad, se þe his wordes geweald wide hæfde.
laðan liges; ne wæs hit lenge þa gen
80 He beot ne aleh, beagas dælde,
þæt se ecghete aþumsweorum
sinc æt symle. Sele hlifade,
heah ond horngeap, heaðowylma bad,
laðan liges; ne wæs hit lenge þa gen
þæt se ecghete aþumsweorum

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Beowulf bode in the burg of the Nor far was that day when father
Scyldings, and son-in-law stood in feud for
leader beloved, and long he ruled in warfare and hatred that woke again.
fame with all folk, since his father had With envy and anger an evil spirit
goneaway from the world, till awoke an endured the dole in his dark abode,
heir, haughty Healfdene, who held that he heard each day the din of
through life, sage and sturdy, the revel high in the hall: there harps
Scyldings glad. rang out, clear song of the singer.
Then, one after one, there woke to him, He sang who knew tales of the early
to the chieftain of clansmen, children time of man, how the Almighty made
four: the earth, fairest fields enfolded by
Heorogar, then Hrothgar, then Halga water, set, triumphant, sun and
brave; moon for a light to lighten the land-
and I heard that -- was --'s queen, the dwellers,
Heathoscylfing's helpmate dear. and braided bright the breast of
To Hrothgar was given such glory of war, earth with limbs and leaves, made
such honor of combat, that all his kin life for all of mortal beings that
obeyed him gladly till great grew his breathe and move.
band of youthful comrades. It came in his So lived the clansmen in cheer and
mind to bid his henchmen a hall uprear, revel a winsome life, till one began
a master mead-house, mightier far than to fashion evils, that field of hell.
ever was seen by the sons of earth, and Grendel this monster grim was
within it, then, to old and young he would called, march-riever mighty, in
all allot that the Lord had sent him, save moorland living, in fen and fastness;
only the land and the lives of his men. fief of the giants the hapless wight a
Wide, I heard, was the work while had kept since the Creator his
commanded, for many a tribe this mid- exile doomed.
earth round, to fashion the folkstead. It On kin of Cain was the killing
fell, as he ordered, in rapid achievement avenged by sovran God for
that ready it stood there, of halls the slaughtered Abel.
noblest: Heorot he named it whose Ill fared his feud,6 and far was he
message had might in many a land. driven, for the slaughter's sake, from
Not reckless of promise, the rings he sight of men.
dealt, Of Cain awoke all that woful breed,
treasure at banquet: there towered the Ettins and elves and evil-spirits, as
hall, well as the giants that warred with
high, gabled wide, the hot surge waiting God weary while: but their wage was
of furious flame. paid them!

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 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Originally written in Middle English/Translation
Written by an Anonymous person
First published in 1925

Passus I
SIÞEN þe sege and þe assaut watz On mony bonkkes ful brode Bretayn
sesed at Troye, Þe bor brittened and he settez wyth wynne,
brent to bronde and askez, Þe tulk Where werre and wrake and wonder
þat þe trammes of tresoun þer wrot Bi syþez hatz wont þerinne,
Watz tried for his tricherie, þe trewest And oft boþe blysse and blunder
on erthe: Hit watz Ennias þe athel, Ful skete hatz skyfted synne.
and his highe kynde, Þat siþen Ande quen þis Bretayn watz bigged bi
depreced prouinces, and patrounes þis burn rych,
bicome Welnee of al þe wele in þe Bolde bredden þerinne, baret þat
west iles. lofden,
Fro riche Romulus to Rome ricchis In mony turned tyme tene þat wroten.
hym swyþe, Mo ferlyes on þis folde han fallen
With gret bobbaunce þat bure he here oft
biges vpon fyrst, Þen in any oþer þat I wot, syn þat ilk
And neuenes hit his aune nome, as tyme.
hit now hat; Bot of alle þat here bult, of Bretaygne
Tirius to Tuskan and teldes bigynnes, kynges,
Langaberde in Lumbardie lyftes vp Ay watz Arthur þe hendest, as I haf
homes, herde telle.
And fer ouer þe French flod Felix
Brutus

The siege and assault having ceased at Troy as its blazing battlements blackened
to ash, the man who had planned and plotted that treason had trial enough for the
truest traitor!
Then Aeneas the prince and his honored line plundered provinces and held in
their power nearly all the wealth of the western isles.
Thus Romulus swiftly arriving at Rome sets up that city and in swelling pride gives
it his name, the name it now bears; and in Tuscany Tirius raises up towns, and in
Lombardy Langoberde settles the land, and far past the French coast Felix Brutus
founds Britain on broad hills, and so bright hopes
begin, where wonders, wars, misfortune and troubled times have been, where
bliss and blind confusion have come and gone again.

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 ACTIVITY 1

Compare and contrast the three-major periods of English language in Britain. You should
highlight each feature and their commonalities.
Old English
Middle English

Middle English Modern English

Modern English Old English

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 INPUT 2

Differences between British and American English

History
The British actually introduced the language to the Americas when they reached these
lands by sea between the 16th and 17th centuries. At that time, spelling had not yet been
standardised. It took the writing of the first dictionaries to set in stone how these words
appeared. In the UK, the dictionary was compiled by London-based scholars. Meanwhile,
in the United States, the lexicographer was a man named Noah Webster. Allegedly, he
changed how the words were spelled to make the American version different from the
British as a way of showing cultural independence from its mother country.

In terms of speech, the differences between American and British English actually took
place after the first settlers arrived in America. These groups of people spoke using what
was called rhotic speech, where the ‘r’ sounds of words are pronounced. Meanwhile, the
higher classes in the UK wanted to distinguish the way they spoke from the common
masses by softening their pronunciation of the ‘r’ sounds. Since the elite even back then
were considered the standard for being fashionable, other people began to copy their
speech, until it eventually became the common way of speaking in the south of England.
Spelling differences

British and American English have some spelling differences. The common ones are
presented in the table below.
Vocabulary differences

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The Americans and the British also have some words that differ from each other. The table below
lists some of the everyday objects that have different names, depending on what form of English
you are using.

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Grammar differences
Aside from spelling and vocabulary, there are certain grammar differences between
British and American English. For instance, in American English, collective nouns are
considered singular (e.g. The band is playing). In contrast, collective nouns can be either
singular or plural in British English, although the plural form is most often used (e.g. The
band are playing).
The British are also more likely to use formal speech, such as ‘shall’, whereas Americans
favour the more informal ‘will’ or ‘should’.
Americans, however, continue to use ‘gotten’ as the past participle of ‘get’, which the
British have long since dropped in favour of ‘got’.
‘Needn’t’, which is commonly used in British English, is rarely, if at all used in American
English. In its place is ‘don’t need to’.
In British English, ‘at’ is the preposition in relation to time and place. However, in American
English, ‘on’ is used instead of the former and ‘in’ for the latter.

Final point
While there may be certain differences between British and American English, the key
takeaway is that the two have more similarities. Accidentally using one instead of the
other will not automatically lead to miscommunication. Americans and Brits can usually
communicate with each other without too much difficulty, so don’t be too hard on yourself
if you are unable to memorize the nuances of both languages.

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 EVALUATION

Write at least 10 loanwords from the different periods of English Language in Britain that
we are still using up to these days.
Old English Middle English
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.

Modern English
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Question to Ponder: (no less than 100 words)

In the three major periods of English language in Britain, what do you think is the most
influential to your English today?
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 Lesson 4: The English
Language in America

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Discuss the English language in America;
b. Know the settlement in America;
c. Name the dialects of America; and
d. Identify different words from American English to British English.

INPUT 1

English Language in America

▪ America’s Language. American English is a set of dialects of the English language
used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the world's native
speakers of English live in the United States. English is the most common
language in the United States. Though the U.S. federal government has no official
language, English is the common language used by the federal government and
is considered the de facto language of the United States because of its widespread
use.
▪ The Settlement of America. America originally had no white people. The original
or natural inhabitants are the Natives. Native Americans in the United States are
the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day
continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are
composed of numerous, distinct Native American tribes and ethnic groups, many
of which survive as intact political communities.
▪ When the European settlers came, they brought with them European disease
which the Natives had no immunity to. Many Natives were kill by foreign disease
like small pox that were brought by the Europeans. Later on, the European settlers
put much pressure on the Native Americans as the invaders took over their lands
and at times attempted to exploit the Natives. Many fights broke out between the
ambitious Europeans and the stressed Natives.

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 ACTIVITY 1

Provide a list of common American English and British English vocabulary word
equivalents, write those most familiar to you.
American English British English

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 EVALUATION

Question to ponder: (no less than 300 words)

What do you think is the greatest contribution of the American English to the language
today?
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 Lesson 5: The English
Language in the Philippines

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Explain the development of the English language in the
Philippines;
b. Analyze the usage of grammar, vocabulary, idioms, and
other technicalities in English language in the Philippines;
and
c. Defend the importance of studying the English language
aside from mastering the first language.

INPUT 1

The Development of English Language in the Philippines

▪ The English language is a result of invasions of the island of Britain over many
hundred of years. The invaders live along the northern coast of Europe.
▪ The history of the English language continues as middle English becomes Modern
English, which is spoken today.
▪ English is the major foreign language taught in most schools in south America and
Europe.
▪ School children in the Philippines and Japan begin learning English at an early
age.
▪ English is the official language of more than seventy-five countries including
Britain, Canada, the United Sates, Australia, and South Africa.
▪ The first significant exposure of Filipinos to the English language occurred in 1762
when the British invaded Manila, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting
influence.
▪ English later became more important and widespread during the American
occupation between 1898 and 1946, and remains an official language of the
Philippines.
▪ The linguistic background and colonial history of the Philippines provides an
illuminating example of the development of a new variety of English. The
Philippines is made up of a population of some 72 million people who together

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 speak some 85 Malayo-Polynesian languages and live on some 7,000 islands. . .
. [I]t was a colony of Spain from 1521 until it came under American rule in 1895.“
▪ English-medium education began in the Philippines in 1901 after the arrival of
some 540 US teachers. English was made the language of education and as its
use extended it became indigenized through the inclusion of vocabulary from local
languages, the adaptation of English words to local needs, and modifications in
pronunciation and grammar. English was also adopted for newspapers and
magazines, the media, and literary writing.
▪ Spanish was the national and official language of the country for more than three
centuries under Spanish colonial rule, and became the lingua franca of the
Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Under the U.S. occupation and
civil regime, English began to be taught in schools. By 1901, public education used
English as the medium of instruction.
▪ The 1935 Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish. A
provision in this constitution also called for Congress to "take steps toward the
development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the
existing native languages. On November 12, 1937, the First National Assembly
created the National Language Institute.
▪ President Manuel L. Quezón appointed native Waray-Waray speaker Jaime C. De
Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of other regional languages. Their aim was
to select a national language among the other regional languages. Ultimately,
Tagalog was chosen as the base language December 30, 1937.
▪ Over the decades, Philippine English began to develop a “variety” of English in its
own right, associated with a distinct accent, a localized vocabulary, and even a
body of creative writing by Philippine writers in English.

The beginnings of the English language in the Philippines (1898- 1920)

▪ Even during the Spanish Period, individual Philippine scholars studied English on
their own. Jose Rizal learned English on his own and in his letters he urged his
sister Saturnina to learn English. Apolinario Mabini, initially the brains of the
emerging Philippine Republic, prescribed the study of English in his second level
academy (Majul, 1967)
▪ When the Military Chaplain of General Elwell Otis, W. D. McKinnon (a Catholic
priest from California), took the initiative soon after 1898 to teach English to the
locals, he and his team of soldiers were welcomed.
▪ They taught English via the direct method and found ready and willing pupils
(Churchill,2003). Later, when the elementary schools were established and a more
regular system of teaching English was in place, the method was initially the direct
method followed by the grammar analysis and translation method as used in the
public schools in the United States.
The second generation (1920– 1941)
▪ By 1921, at the end of the administration of the Democrat Francis Burton Harrison
as Governor General, the civil service of the colony had become completely

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 Filipino except for the military leadership and its top echelons, including the
Department of Public Instruction.
▪ The Thomasites who had come to the Philippines in the twenty years from 1901 to
1921 had returned to the United States or had chosen to remain in the Philippines
as private employees marrying into local families (Gonzalez, 2003a)
▪ The people who spread the Philippine variety of English among Filipinos were
Filipino teachers under the tutelage of their American mentors.
▪ In this period, a total of 209 Filipinos were sent as scholars to the United States as
pensionados (supported fellows) to pursue their college degrees, including some
graduate studies in law, medicine, and veterinary science.
▪ This period was likewise the golden age of young writers of English who had grown
up and improved on the skills of the first generation and saw young writers of the
College Folio develop further as English teachers and mature in their craft as
poets, essayists, and fiction writers.
▪ The writers in English began to manifest an identity of their own and began to
constitute themselves into a ‘school’ that would be clearly identifiable once the
beginnings of a history of Philippine literature in English began to be outlined in the
post-war period.
Post-war developments (1946– 1980)
▪ The main characteristic of the period from the late 1940s to the 1960s was the
introduction of the Teaching of English as a Second Language approach, based
on the technology learned by the American structuralist linguists in teaching foreign
languages to Americans during World War II.
▪ The same techniques and approaches were adopted for the teaching of English
as a second language and were then incorporated into a theory, a psychology, and
a set of practices and materials (a methodology) which were introduced in the
Philippines initially by Clifford Praetor of UCLA and spread systemically as a result
of the establishment of the Philippine Center for Language Study with funding from
the Rockefeller Foundation at the Department of Education, later, at Philippine
Normal College, the latter institution supported by the Ford Foundation (Prator,
1950).

The linguistic repertoire of the Filipino

▪ As far as prehistory is concerned, the inhabitants of this archipelago have been
multilingual, speaking their local vernaculars but likewise speaking a regional
lingua franca which allowed intertribal communication. With the coming of the
Spaniards, the elites especially of Manila and the main urban centers began to add
Spanish to their repertoire. With the Americans, still another foreign language was
added, English.
▪ With the development of the national language beginning in 1937, the use of
Tagalog, renamed Pilipino and later Filipino ,became widespread so that the latest
census (National Statistics Office, 2000)indicates that more than 85% of Filipinos
now speak at least a colloquial variety of this language or what we in

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 psycholinguistic terminology would call Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills
(BICS
▪ The stable domains of English continue to be higher education, business
transactions in multinational and internationally-oriented companies, diplomacy
and international relations, and as a global lingua franca for relations with the
world.
▪ The work of Chaplain McKinnon and his initial group of soldier-teachers of English
began a process which eventually resulted in the creation of a new variety of
English which has by now become a permanent feature of the communicative
repertoire and culture of the Filipino.

English-based creole languages

▪ An English-based creole language (often shortened to English creole) is a creole
language derived from the English language – i.e., for which English is the lexifier.
Most English creoles were formed in British colonies, following the great expansion
of British naval military power and trade in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.
▪ It is disputed to what extent the various English-based creoles of the world share
a common origin. The monogenesis hypothesis (Hancock 1969, Gilman 1978)
posits that a single language, commonly called proto–Pidgin English, spoken along
the West African coast in the early sixteenth century, was ancestral to most or all
of the Atlantic creoles (the English creoles of both West Africa and the Americas).
List
▪ Asian
▪ Southeast Asian
Manglish: An English based creole spoken in Malaysia.
Singlish: A language spoken in Singapore that includes elements of various
Chinese languages, Malay and a host of others that are spoken on the island
nation.
Taglish: An English based mesolect creole spoken in the Philippines. Filipino
English
▪ The English language as used in the Philippines, a state of South-East Asia
consisting of more than 7,000 islands. The 1980 census counted the number of
Filipinos with some competence in English as around 65%: some 35m people.
Ability ranges from a smattering of words and phrases through passive
comprehension to near-native mastery.
▪ Filipino experience of Western colonialism and its linguistic effects has been
unique, in that there have been two colonizers in succession: Spain from the 16c
and the US from 1898, when English arrived in the islands. It spread rapidly, to the
detriment of SPANISH, because it was the new language of government,
preferment, and education.
▪ In the Philippines there are some 85 mutually unintelligible though genetically
related languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, such as TAGALOG, Cebuano,
Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, and Bicol. These languages of the home serve as

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 SUBSTRATES whose features have variously influenced the development of
Philippine English.
Pronunciation
(1) Philippine English is RHOTIC, but the local /r/ is an alveolar flap, not an AmE
retroflex.
(2) It is syllabletimed, following the rhythm of the local languages; full value is
therefore given to unstressed syllables and SCHWA is usually realized as a full
vowel.
(3) Certain polysyllables have distinctive stress patterns, as withelígible, establísh,
cerémony.
(4) Intonation is widely characterized as ‘singsong’. (5) Educated Filipinos aim at
an AmE accent, but have varying success with the vowel contrasts in sheep/ship,
full/fool, and boat/bought.
(6) Few Filipinos have the /æ/ in AmE mask; instead, they use /ɑ/ as in AmE father.
(7) The distinction between /s, z/ and /ʃ, ʒ/ is not made: azure is ‘ayshure’, pleasure
‘pleshure’, seize ‘sees’, cars ‘karss’.
(8) Interdental /ɵ, ð/ are often rendered as /t, d/, so that three of these is spoken
as ‘tree of dese’.
Grammar
▪ The following features occur at all social levels:
▪ (1) Loss of the singular inflection of verbs: The family home rest on the bluff of a
hill; One of the boys give a report to the teacher every morning.
▪ (2) Use of present perfect for simple past (I have seen her yesterday I saw her
yesterday) and past perfect for present perfect (He had already gone home He has
already gone home).
(3) Use of the continuous tenses for habitual aspect: He is going to school regularly
He goes to school regularly.
(4) Use of the present forms of auxiliary verbs in subordinate noun clauses rather
than past forms, and vice versa: He said he has already seen you He said he had
already seen you; She hoped that she can visit you tomorrow She hoped that she
could visit you tomorrow; He says that he could visit you tomorrow He says that he
can visit you tomorrow.
(5) An apparent reversal of the norms for the use of the definite article: He is
studying at the Manuel Quezon University; I am going to visit United States.
(6) Verbs that are generally transitive used intransitively: Did you enjoy?; I cannot
afford; I don't like.

Vocabulary and idioms

(1) Loans from Spanish: asalto a surprise party, bienvenida a welcome
party,despedida a farewell party, Don/Doña title for a prominent man/woman,
estafa a fraud, scandal, merienda mid-afternoon tea, plantilla faculty assignments

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 and deployment in an academic department, querida a mistress, viand (from
viandaprovisions for a journey) a dish served to accompany rice in a Filipino meal.
(2) LOAN-WORDS from Tagalog: boondock (from bundok) mountain (compare the
AmE extension: the boondocks), carabao (from kalabaw) a water
buffalo,kundiman a love song, sampaloc (from sampalok) the fruit of the tamarind,
tao man (as in the common tao).
(3) LOAN TRANSLATIONS from local usages:open the light/radio turn on the
light/radio (also found in IndE), since before yetfor a long time, joke only I'm teasing
you, you don't only know you just don't realize, he is playing and playing he keeps
on playing, making foolishness (of children) misbehaving, I am ashamed to you I
am embarrassed because I have been asking you so many favours.
(4) Local NEOLOGISMS: agrupation (from Spanish agrupación) a group, captain-
ball team captain in basketball, carnap to steal (kidnap) a car, cope up to keep up
and cope with (something), hold-uppersomeone who engages in armed holdups,
jeepney (blending jeep and jitney, AmE a small bus) a jeep converted into a
passenger vehicle.
Lexicon and Semantics
▪ In addition to the use of native words for objects or
concepts with no appropriate existing English term (for example, ninang
‘godmother’). Filipino English freely created new English compounds. Examples
include the verb eagle-spread ‘to stretch out one’s limbs’, bed-spacer ‘someone
who rents a bed, without board, in a dormitory’, and captain ball ‘a team captain
in basketball’.
▪ The use of colgate to mean toothpaste is an example of the conversion of a
brand name into a common noun. Filipino English career can mean ‘college
course’, an instance of Spanish influence (Sp. carrera). Semantic shift can be
illustrated by grandfather for ‘great-uncle’ and bold for naughty films (roughly
equivalent to “X-rated”)
Written models
▪ Because of the influence of reading and writing and the academic context
in which English is learned, local speech tends to be based on written
models. Filipinos generally speak the way they write, in a formal style based
on Victorian prose models.
▪ Because of this, spelling pronunciations are common, such as ‘lee-o-pard’
for leopard, ‘subtill’ for subtle, and ‘worsester-shire sauce’for
Worcestershire sauce.
▪ Style is not differentiated and the formal style in general use has been called
the classroom compositional style. When style differentiation is attempted
there may be effects that are comical from the point of view of a native
speaker of English: ‘The commissioners are all horse owners, who at the
same time will appoint the racing stewards who will adjudicate disputes
involving horses. Neat no?’ (from a newspaper column).
Code-switching

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 ▪ A register has developed for rapport and intimacy that depends on CODE-
MIXING AND CODE-SWITCHING between Filipino and English. It is
largely confined to Metro Manila and other urban centres and used
extensively in motion pictures and on television and radio as well as in
certain types of informal writing in daily newspapers and weekly magazines
▪ Examples: (1) ‘Peks man,’ she swears, ‘Wala pang nangyayari sa amin ni
Marlon. We want to surprise each other on our honeymoon.’ [‘Cross my
heart,’ she swears. ‘Nothing yet has happened between Marlon and me
…’] (from a movie gossip column).
▪ (2) Donna reveals that since she turned producer in 1986, her dream was
to produce a movie for children: ‘Kaya, nang mabasa ko ang Tuklaw sa
Aliwan Komiks, sabi ko, this is it. And I had the festival in mind when finally
I decided to produce it. Pambata talaga kasi ang Pasko,’ Donna says.
[‘That is why when I read the story “Snake-Bite” in the Aliwan Comic Book,
I told myself, this is it …. Because Christmas is really for children’] (from a
movie gossip column)

Social issues
▪ Philippine English is currently competing in certain domains with the rapidly
spreading and developing Filipino, which is in a process of register-building
sometimes called intellectualization.
▪ Filipino is not fully developed for academic discourse, especially in the
sciences, and there is an ongoing debate on the use of Filipino instead of
English for school work and official purposes.
▪ There is also conflict between the learning of Filipino for symbolic purposes
and the learning of English for utilitarian, largely economic, purposes. The
two official languages are propagated through a bilingual education scheme
begun in 1974: mathematics and science continue to be taught in English
although it is envisaged that when possible the teaching of these subjects
at certain grade levels shall be in Filipino. The print media are dominated
by English, but television, radio, and local movies are dominated by Filipino.
▪ Philippine English has developed a vigorous literature. It is in the process
of standardization, with a variety no longer marked by regional accents
associated with regional languages, but a converging variety that originates
in Manila. This form is propagated largely through the school system, the
mass media, and tourism. Because of code-switching, it seems unlikely that
a colloquial variety of English alone will develop.
▪ On the one hand, code-switching may end up in code-mixing, resulting in
a local creole. On the other hand, the need for international relations, the
dominance of the print media, and the continued use of English in education
may exercise a standardizing role, making it possible for the Philippine
variety to be mutually intelligible with other varieties of English. It is also

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 possible that the present system of bilingual education will be converted into
a purely monolingual Filipino scheme in which English is taught as a foreign
language and becomes available only to an élite.
English as a language of power
▪ The power of English is of a worldly nature which is termed the “vehicular
load” of a language. English is considered as the “primary medium for 20th
century science and technology.”
▪ Important Markers of English power: demographic distribution, native &
non-native users across all cultures, use in world forums, and it’s rich literary
tradition.
▪ Power resides in: its uses, the roles users can play, its perceived
importance in that English exceeds other languages on all counts.
▪ The English language is a tool of power, dominance, communication and
elitist identity across the world.
▪ More than this, English is the language of power and progress. In the
Philippines, it is highly valued not only because it is functional and practical
and washes over us constantly, but more importantly, because it is an
affordable item, a skill that can be used to increase one's position,
respectability and marketability.
▪ In most cases, the better one's ability to understand and use English, the
better one's chances of career advancement. This is true for both extremes
of the socio-economic ladder. English is as important to the Harvard-
educated Filipino working in Manila's cosmopolitan business district as it is
to the overseas contract worker working as a domestic helper in Saudi
Arabia.
English as a colonial language
▪ Due to the political power of the British in the India and the Americans in
the Philippines and Puerto Rico, the colonists had to adopt a pose fitting
their new status. English became a marker of power.
▪ Because English was clearly a powerful language the Natives tried to adopt
the language and pose the same status as the colonists. This made the
colonists uncomfortable.
▪ Thus the term “non-native” English is coined. It is the transplanted varieties
of English that are acquired as a second language.
▪ English is used as a tool of power to connect those with similar cultures
and norms as the politically elite.
▪ In 1898 America’s power spread to the Philippines and President McKinley
considered it the American’s duty to educate, civilize, and Christianize the
Filipinos so that they would be fitting of citizenship.
▪ Throughout South Asia the same was true, many English speakers were
trying to Christianize and change the “natives.”

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 ▪ English has become a tool of civilization and light. Use of said tool is
considered to the colonists contribution and duty.
▪ English also became the medium for understanding technology and
scientific developments.
▪ Eventually the Indians (as well as Filipinos or Africans) who did become
skilled in professional roles were called “Westernized” or to be more neutral
“modernized.”
▪ English acquired a strong non-native base and local languages lost their
prestige and power.
▪ In time the elite language was used against the Englishmen and their roles
and intentions; it became the language of a resurging nationalism and
political awakening.
▪ The linguistic and cultural pluralism in Africa and South Asia aided with the
spread of English and thus fostered staying power for the language.
▪ By the 1920’s English had become the language of politics, intranational
administration, law, and was associated with liberal thinking. Even after the
colonial period ended English maintained its power over local language.

The Philippine English System

▪ English is very unique in the Philippines because we use it as the language of
instruction, but not the language of home. (O’Connor, 1955) Not only that, we also
use English in the government during political sessions or meetings, and in law
firms and during prosecution hearings and documentation, English is always the
common language. This shows that English is part of our culture and rivals the
importance of the other languages in the Philippines.
▪ We became an English-speaking nation through the help of our teachers whom
themselves had learned English as a second language. The Thomasites arrived in
the Philippines on August 21, 1901 to set up a new public school system to teach
basic education, and to train Filipino teachers with English as the medium of
instruction. Our Filipino teachers, during that time, were exposed and immersed
with native speaking pronunciations and comprehension. (Wikipedia)
▪ The destruction caused by the war has been great. O’Connor cites that most of the
native English teachers and non-native English teachers died during the war.
Some of them lost their professions because they did not return to their classrooms
when the war came to an end. Since the spoken language is learned by imitation
of native speakers of the language, the lack of native speaker models has effected
certain English sounds as enunciated by English-speaking Filipinos today.
▪ The English language in the Philippines is often used along with Tagalog. As a
result you will find that people mix English with Tagalog. This is commonly called
Taglish.
▪ In the Philippine islands different languages are spoken, therefore, Filipinos who
travel to another region of the country where a different dialect or language is

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 spoken will find that they can communicate with fellow Filipinos using either the
Filipino language (Tagalog) or the English language. That is if they do not speak
the local language.
▪ Some words used in Filipino were borrowed from English. Some borrowed words
cannot be directly translated into Filipino so they are used as is but may be spelled
in Filipino according to their pronunciation. Some of the English words that are
used in Filipino include words such as: printer, fax, bar, and cell phone. Other
commonly used English words in Tagalog include: hello, hi, escalator, and so on..
▪ In the Tagalog language, there are also English words that are spelled according
to their pronunciation when used in Filipino. Examples of these words are
telebisyon (television), oben (oven), and kamera (camera). There are countless
others but here are a few more: traysikel (tricycle), dyip (jeep), and miting
(meeting).
▪

ACTIVITY 1

List down all the vocabulary, idioms and indicate their semantics that has been originally
coined by Philippine English and explain one by one.
Vocabulary/Lexicon Idioms

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 EVALUATION

Language diversity in English is steeped in the history of the Philippines. Discuss the past
and growing language diversity in your local area. (no less than 200 words)

What are the pros of increasing language diversity?

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What are the cons? How does ethnic diversity impact our state and our community?
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______________________________________________________________________
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Based from the discussions above, why do you think is it important to study the English
language aside from our native language? Emphasized your points.
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 Lesson 6: The Importance of
English Language in Today’s
World

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

a. Discuss the importance of English language in today’s
world.
b. Point out facts that emphasize the importance of English
language;
c. Value the importance of English language in Today’s
world.

INPUT 1

Language
▪ Language is our primary source of communication. It’s the method through which
we share our ideas and thoughts with others.
▪ There are thousands of languages in this world. Countries have their own national
languages in addition to a variety of local languages spoken and understood by
their people in different regions. Some languages are spoken by millions of people,
others by only a few thousand.

English language
▪ Nowadays English has been an important role in our daily life. It is the massive
means of communication.
▪ Learning to speak English well may be the best way to improve our life.
▪ English is spoken in more than 100 countries.

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Why Lean English?

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 ▪ Most of the world’s commercial entertainment is in English.
▪ English connect us all over the world
English is the most commonly used language among foreign language speakers.
Throughout the world, when people come together they commonly use English to
communicate.
▪ Use of English to increase our level in society.
▪ English is the language of Hollywood.
▪ English is the language of international banking and business.
Education
▪ English is also essential to the field of education. In many countries, children are
taught and encouraged to learn English as a second language. Even in countries
where it is not an official language.
▪ At the university level, students in many countries study almost all their subjects in
English in order to make the material more accessible to international students.
The Internet and the Press
▪ On the Internet, the majority of websites are written and created in English. Even
sites in other languages often give you the option to translate the site. It's the
primary language of the press: more newspapers and books are written in English
than in any other language, and no matter where in the world you are, you will find
some of these books and newspapers available. In fact, because it is so dominant
in international communication, you will find more information regarding nearly
every subject if you can speak this language.

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Travel around the Globe
▪ With good understanding and communication in English, you can travel around the
globe. Because it is the international language for foreigners, it's easy to get
assistance and help in every part of world. You can test it by online travel. Any
travel booking site you can find will have English as a booking option.
Statistics
▪ Survey reported that 72% of Men did not speak any English, 28% spoke some
English, and 5% spoke fluent English. Among Women, the corresponding
percentages were 83% speaking no English, 17% speaking some English, and 3%
speaking English fluently.

ACTIVITY 1

Research a study that point out the importance of English Language. Write the title of the
study and your synopsis to it (no less than 500 words)
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______________________________________________________________________
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EVALUATION

Reflective Journal: Write your realizations in learning the History of English language.
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______________________________________________________________________
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RESOURCES:

Bakken, William. Dec. 1998. Anglo-Saxon England. 12 Oct. 2004

<http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/vikings/angsaxe.html>.

Ball, Catherine. Old English Pages: Texts and MSS. 1996. 21 Jan. 2005
<http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~beowulf/main.html>.

Millard C.M., Hayes M. (2012). A Biography of the English Language, Third Edition.
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. United States of America

https://www.slideshare.net/sarthiankush/importance-of-english-language

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/the-languages-of-europe/

https://www.englishclub.com/history-of-english/

https://www.lingualearnenglish.com/blog/featured/a-short-history-of-the-english-
language/

https://www.slideserve.com/sharne/english-language-in-america

https://www.slideserve.com/ivy/merican-english

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