2 Outline

2.1
Current and
Voltage

Electricity 2.5 dc Supplies

2.2 Atoms and Their Structure 2.6 Conductors and Insulators
2.3 Current 2.7 Semiconductors
2.4 Voltage 2.8 Ammeters and Voltmeters

Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, you will be able to
• describe the structure of atoms
• relate atomic structure to electric charge and force
• define electric charge in relation to electric force
• define potential difference in terms of work on charges
• explain potential difference and its relation to voltage
• explain electric current in relation to charge
• describe a number of dc sources, such as batteries, generators, and solar cells
• explain how atomic structure relates to insulators, conductors, and semiconductors
• describe how ammeters and voltmeters are used to measure circuit quantities

Ke y Te r m s
ammeter 31 direct current (dc) 26 potential difference 24
ampere 22 electron 19 potential energy 24
battery 26 electron current flow 23 proton 19
cell 26 electromotive force (emf ) semiconductor 31
conductor 30 26 volt (V) 24
conventional current free electron 21 voltage 24
flow 23 insulator 30 voltage difference 26
copper 21 neutron 19 voltmeter 31
coulomb 20 nucleus 19 volt-ohm-milliammeter
Coulomb’s law 20 positive ion 21 (VOM) 32
current 22 potential 25 work 24
digital multimeter (DMM)
32
 ATO M S A N D T H E I R S T R U C T U R E 19

2.1 ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a form of energy with a greater versatility than any other
form. It can be produced by the transformation of many other forms of
energy: chemical energy in batteries, mechanical energy in generators,
or light energy in solar cells.
Electrical energy can be stored in batteries or transmitted great dis-
tances along transmission lines. When you have it where you want it, you
can use electricity to run power tools, illuminate large buildings, operate
complex machinery, communicate instantaneously around the world, and
perform the many computations inside our computers.
To work in the electrical industry, you need an understanding of a
number of concepts, quantities, and relations. In this chapter, we will
examine the basic ideas of voltage and current, and their connections
with the atomic structure of matter.

2.2 ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and volt-
age requires a degree of familiarity with the atom and its structure. The
simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom, made up of two basic parti-
cles, the proton and the electron, in the relative positions shown in Fig.
2.1 (a). The nucleus of the hydrogen atom is the proton, a positively
charged particle. The orbiting electron carries a negative charge that is
equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the proton. In all other ele-
ments, the nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly heavier
than protons and have no electrical charge. The helium atom, for exam-
ple, has two neutrons in addition to two electrons and two protons, as
shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). In all neutral atoms the number of electrons is
equal to the number of protons. The mass of the electron is 9.09

1028 g, and that of the proton is 1.673
1024 g. The mass of the pro-
ton (or neutron) is therefore approximately 1837 times that of the elec-
tron. The radii of the proton, neutron, and electron are all of the order
of magnitude of 2
1015 m.
For the hydrogen atom, the radius of the smallest orbit followed by
the electron is about 5
1011 m. The radius of this orbit is approxi-
mately 25 000 times that of the radius of the electron, proton, or neu-
tron. This is approximately equivalent to a sphere the size of a dime
revolving about another sphere of the same size more than a quarter of
a mile away.

Electron Electron
– –
Protons Neutrons
Nucleus
+
+ +
Proton
Nucleus
Electrons –

(a) Hydrogen atom (b) Helium atom

FIG. 2.1
The hydrogen and helium atoms.
 20 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

Different atoms will have various numbers of electrons in the con-

centric shells about the nucleus. The first shell, which is closest to the
nucleus, can contain only two electrons. If an atom should have three
electrons, the third must go to the next shell. The second shell can con-
tain a maximum of eight electrons; the third, 18; and the fourth, 32; as
determined by the equation 2n2, where n is the shell number. These
shells are often denoted by letters (k, l, m, . . .).
Each shell is then broken down into subshells, where the first sub-
shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons; the second subshell, 6 elec-
trons; the third, 10 electrons; and the fourth, 14; as shown in Fig. 2.2.
The subshells are usually denoted by the letters s, p, d, and f, in that
order, outward from the nucleus.

2 electrons (2 e) 2e 6e 2e 6e 10 e 2e 6e 10 e 14 e

s s p s p d s p d f

1st shell 2nd shell 3rd shell 4th shell

Nucleus
k l + m n

1 subshell 2 subshells 3 subshells 4 subshells

FIG. 2.2
Shells and subshells of the atomic structure.

The unit for charge is the coulomb (C), named after Charles
Augustin de Coulomb (Fig. 2.3). Section 2.3 discusses the definitions
for charge and current units. It has been determined by experimentation
that unlike charges attract, and like charges repel. The force of attrac-
tion or repulsion between two charged bodies, Q1 and Q2, can be deter-
mined by Coulomb’s law:

L U M I N A R I E S kQ1Q2
F (attraction or repulsion)   (newtons, N) (2.1)
r2

French (Angoulème,
where F is in newtons, k = a constant = 9.0
109 N . m2/C2, Q1 and Q2
Paris)
are the charges in coulombs (in Section 2.3) and r is the distance in
Scientist and Inventor
Military Engineer in the
metres between the two charges. In particular, note the squared r term in
West Indies the denominator, resulting in rapidly decreasing levels of F for increas-
ing values of r. (See Fig. 2.3).
In the atom, therefore, electrons will repel each other, and protons
FIG. 2.3 and electrons will attract each other. Since the nucleus consists of many
Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806)
positive charges (protons), a strong attractive force exists for the electrons
Coulomb attended the engineering school at in orbits close to the nucleus [note the effects of a large charge Q and a
Mezieres, the first such school of its kind. He small distance r in Eq. (2.1)]. As the distance between the nucleus and the
formulated Coulomb’s law, which defines the
orbital electrons increases, the binding force diminishes until it reaches its
force between two electrical charges and is, in
fact, one of the principal forces in atomic reac- lowest level at the outermost subshell (largest r). Due to the weaker bind-
tions. He also performed extensive research on ing forces, less energy must be expended to remove an electron from an
the friction encountered in machinery and outer subshell than from an inner subshell. Also, it is generally true that
windmills, and the elasticity of metal and silk electrons are more readily removed from atoms having outer subshells
fibres.
with few electrons. These properties of the atom that permit the removal
Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Photo No. 52,597 of electrons under certain conditions are essential for electric current.
 CURRENT 21

Copper is the most commonly used metal in the electrical/electron-

ics industry. An examination of its atomic structure will help identify
why it has such widespread applications. The copper atom (Fig. 2.4) has
one more electron than needed to complete the first three shells. The
incomplete outermost shell, possessing only one electron, and the dis-
tance between this electron and the nucleus cause the twenty-ninth elec-
tron to be loosely bound to the copper atom. If this twenty-ninth electron
gains sufficient energy from the surrounding medium to leave its parent
atom, it is called a free electron. In one cubic centimetre of copper at
room temperature, there are approximately 8.5
1022 free electrons.
Other metals that exhibit the same properties as copper, but to a differ-
ent degree, are silver, gold, aluminum, and tungsten. Additional discus-
sion of conductors and their characteristics can be found in Section 3.2.

1e
2e 2e 6e 2e 6e 10 e (29th)
s s p s p d s p d f

+ 1st shell
k
2nd shell
l –
3rd shell
m
4th shell
n
Nucleus

Remaining subshells empty

FIG. 2.4
The copper atom.

Imaginary plane
Copper wire
2.3 CURRENT
e Consider a short length of copper wire cut with an imaginary perpen-
e
dicular plane, producing the circular cross-section shown in Fig. 2.5.
At room temperature with no external forces applied, there exists
e
e within the copper wire the random motion of free electrons created by
the thermal energy that the electrons gain from the surrounding
medium. When an atom loses its free electron, it acquires a net posi-
FIG. 2.5 tive charge and is referred to as a positive ion. The free electron is
Random motion of electrons in a copper wire able to move among these positive ions and leave the general area of
with no external “pressure” (voltage) applied. the parent atom, while the positive ion can only oscillate in a mean
fixed position. For this reason,
the free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire or any other
+ solid conductor of electricity.
+ e
Ion
Ion An array of positive ions and free electrons is shown in Fig. 2.6.
e Within this array, the free electrons are continually gaining or losing
e
+ energy by virtue of their changing direction and velocity. Some of the
e Ion factors responsible for this random motion include (1) the collisions with
+ positive ions and other electrons, (2) the attractive forces of the positive
+ Ion
e ions, and (3) the force of repulsion that exists between electrons. This
Ion
e + random motion of free electrons is such that over a period of time, the
Ion number of electrons moving to the right across the circular cross-section
of Fig. 2.5 is exactly equal to the number passing over to the left.
FIG. 2.6
Random motion of free electrons in an atomic With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in a conductor
structure. in any one direction is zero.
22 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

Let us now connect copper wire between two battery terminals and
a light bulb, as shown in Fig. 2.7, to create the simplest of electric cir-
cuits. The battery places a net positive charge at one terminal and a net
negative charge on the other. The instant the final connection is made,
the free electrons (of negative charge) will drift toward the positive ter-
minal, while the positive ions left behind in the copper wire will simply
oscillate in their mean fixed positions. The negative terminal is a “sup-
ply” of electrons to be drawn from when the electrons of the copper
wire drift toward the positive terminal.
As shown in Fig. 2.7, the conventional direction for current is cho-
sen to be away from the positive terminal of the battery and toward the
negative terminal (that is, opposite to the direction of electron drift).

Iconventional
e e
e Copper wire
e
e Ielectron

Battery
e

Chemical
activity Imaginary plane

L U M I N A R I E S
FIG. 2.7
Basic electric circuit.
French (Lyon, Paris)
Mathematician and
Physicist The rate of flow of charge in a conductor is called the current. The
Professor of unit of current is the ampere (A), named in honour of André Marie
Mathematics, École Ampère (Fig. 2.8). Current is defined by the rate of flow of charge in
Polytechnique in Paris coulombs per second (C/s).

FIG. 2.8 A current of 1 A produces a force of 2
107 N/m when flowing

André Marie Ampère (1775–1836) through two parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible
diameter 1 m apart in a vacuum.
On September 18, 1820 Ampère introduced a
new field of study, electrodynamics, devoted to A coulomb is equal to an ampere-second, which corresponds to the
the effect of electricity in motion, including the
charge on about 6.242
1018 electrons.
interaction between currents in adjoining con-
ductors and the interplay of the surrounding You can see that 1 A is the flow of 6.24
1018 electrons per sec-
magnetic fields. He constructed the first sole-
ond. The symbol I for current was chosen from the French word for
noid and demonstrated how it could behave like
a magnet (the first electromagnet). He also sug- current, intensité. In equation form, for charge (Q) in coulombs, and
gested the name galvanometer for an instrument time (t) in seconds, the current is
designed to measure current levels.
Q
Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Photo No. 76,524 I  
t (amperes, A) (2.2)
 CURRENT 23

Through algebraic manipulations, the other two quantities can be deter-

mined as follows:

Q  It (coulombs, C) (2.3)

Q
and t   (seconds, s) (2.4)
I

EXAMPLE 2.1
The charge flowing through the imaginary surface of Fig. 2.7 is 0.16
C every 64 ms. Determine the current in amperes.
Solution: Eq. (2.2):

Q 0.16 C 160
103 C

I     3    2.5 A
t 64
10 s 64
103 s

EXAMPLE 2.2
Determine the time required for 4.0
1016 electrons to pass through
the imaginary surface of Fig. 2.7 if the current is 5.0 mA.
Solution: Determine Q:

1C


4.0
1016 electrons 
6.242
1018 electrons 
 0.641
102 C

 6.41 mC
Calculate t [Eq. (2.4)]:
Q 6.41
103 C
t      1.23 s
I 5.0
103 A

A second glance at Fig. 2.7 will reveal that two directions of charge flow
have been indicated. One is called conventional current flow, and the
other is called electron current flow. This text will deal only with con-
ventional current flow for a variety of reasons, including the fact that it is
the most widely used at educational institutions and in industry, it is
employed in the design of all electronic device symbols, and it is the pop-
ular choice for all major computer software packages. The flow contro-
versy is a result of an assumption made at the time electricity was dis-
covered that the positive charge was the moving particle in metallic
conductors. Be assured that the choice of conventional current flow will
not create great difficulty and confusion in the chapters to follow. Once
the direction of I is established, the issue is dropped and the analysis can
continue without confusion.

Safety Considerations
It is important to realize that even small levels of current through the
human body can cause serious, dangerous side effects. Experimental
results reveal that the human body begins to react to currents of only a
24 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

few milliamperes. Although most individuals can withstand currents

up to perhaps 10 mA for very short periods of time without serious
side effects, any current over 10 mA should be considered dangerous.
In fact, currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock, and currents of over
100 mA can be fatal. In most cases the skin resistance of the body
when dry is high enough to limit the current through the body to rela-
tively safe levels for voltages typically found in the home. However, be
aware that when the skin is wet due to perspiration, bathing, etc., or
the skin barrier is broken due to an injury, the skin resistance drops
dramatically and current levels could rise to dangerous levels for the
same voltage shock. In general, therefore, simply remember that water
and electricity are a dangerous mixture. Granted, there are safety
devices in the home today that are designed specifically for use in wet
areas such as the bathroom and kitchen, but accidents can happen.
Treat electricity with respect—not fear.

2.4 VOLTAGE
An electric force produces electrical energy when it moves a charge
through a distance. This process can be understood by comparison with
the action of mechanical forces. Suppose an average force of F  50 N
is required to compress a spring by d  0.3 m. The force does an
amount of work
W=Fd ( joules, J) (2.5)
or 50 N (0.3 m)  15 J. That work, or energy, is thereby stored in the
spring as potential energy. The energy can be transferred to an object
placed on the spring when it is released.
Compressing the spring by another distance will create a different
amount of potential energy. There is a potential energy difference
L U M I N A R I E S between the two distances of spring compression.
For electricity, consider the chemical energy found in the materials
of a battery. Chemical action in the battery will create a surplus of elec-
Italian (Como, Pavia) trons at the negative terminal, and a deficit of electrons at the positive
Physicist terminal. These charge accumulations will exert electric forces on elec-
Professor of Physics, trons in a wire connected between the two terminals (Fig. 2.7). You can
Pavia, Italy say that there is an electric potential difference between the two termi-
nals. Just as the spring can transfer energy to an object, the cell can trans-
fer energy to electric charges. The potential difference between the two
FIG. 2.9 terminals is defined by the energy transferred per unit charge. The SI unit
Count Alessandro Volta (1745–1827)
for potential difference is the volt (V).
Volta began electrical experiments at the age of
18 working with other European investigators. A potential difference of 1 V exists between two points if 1 J of energy
His major contribution was the development of is transferred in moving 1 C of charge between the two points.
an electrical energy source from chemical
action in 1800. For the first time electrical The volt is named for Alessandro Volta (Fig. 2.9) who developed the
energy was available on a continuous basis and voltaic cell in 1800.
could be used for practical purposes. Volta Consider a dry cell with a potential difference between its termi-
developed the first condenser known today as nals of 1 V. Each coulomb of charge gains 1 J of energy in the cell and
the capacitor. He was invited to Paris to
transfers 1 J of energy to the lamp. Each coulomb rises through a
demonstrate the voltaic cell to Napoleon. The
International Electrical Congress meeting in potential difference of 1 V in the cell (Fig. 2.10), and falls through a
Paris in 1881 honoured his efforts by choosing potential difference of 1 V in the lamp. The medium of electricity has
the volt as the unit of measure for electromo- transformed 1 J of chemical energy in the cell to 1 J of heat and light
tive force. energy in the lamp. The potential difference is usually called voltage.
Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Photo No. 55,393 Note in the above discussion that two points are always involved when
 V O LTA G E 25

W= 1 J talking about voltage or potential difference. In the future, therefore, it

is very important to keep in mind that
1C
a potential difference or voltage is always measured between two
points in the system. Changing either point may change the potential
difference between the two points under investigation.
x y
In general, the potential difference between two points is determined by
Vxy= 1 volt
W
V   (volts, V) (2.6)
FIG. 2.10 Q
Defining the unit of measurement for voltage.
Through algebraic manipulations, we have

W  QV (joules, J) (2.7)

W
and Q   (coulombs, C) (2.8)
V

EXAMPLE 2.3
Find the potential difference between two points in an electrical sys-
tem if 60 J of energy are expended by a charge of 20 C between
these two points.
Solution: Eq. (2.6):
W 60 J
V      3.0 V
Q 20 C

EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 mC through
a potential difference of 0.6 V.
Solution: Eq. (2.7):
W  QV  (50
106 C)(0.6 V)  30
106 J  30 mJ

To distinguish between sources of voltage (batteries and the like)

and losses in potential across dissipative elements, the following nota-
tion will be used:
E for voltage sources (volts)
V for voltage drops (volts)
The normal usage for various terms associated with voltage can be
seen in the following definitions:
Potential: The voltage at a point with respect to another point in the
electrical system. Typically the reference point is ground, which is at
zero potential.

Potential difference: The algebraic difference in potential (or voltage)

between two points of a network.
26 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

Voltage: When isolated, like potential, the voltage at a point with

respect to some reference such as ground (0 V).

Voltage difference: The algebraic difference in voltage (or potential)

between two points of the system. A voltage rise is positive and a volt-
age drop is negative.

Electromotive force (emf): The force that establishes the flow of charge
(or current) in a system due to the application of a difference in poten-
tial. This term is primarily associated with sources of energy.
The applied potential difference (in volts) of a voltage source in an
electric circuit is the “pressure” that causes the flow of charge through
the circuit. A mechanical analogy for the applied voltage is the pressure
applied to the water in a hose. The resulting flow of water through the
system is comparable to the current through an electric circuit. Without
the applied pressure from the spigot, the water will simply sit in the
hose, just as the electrons of a copper wire do not have a general direc-
tion of drift without an applied voltage.

2.5 dc SUPPLIES
The term dc is an abbreviation for direct current, found in electrical
systems having a unidirectional (“one direction”) flow of charge.

dc Voltage Sources
 
The symbol used for all dc voltage supplies in this text appears in Fig.
E 2.11. The relative lengths of the bars indicate the terminals they represent.
Sources of dc voltage can be divided into three broad categories:
FIG. 2.11 (1) batteries (chemical action), (2) generators (electromechanical), and
Symbol for a dc voltage source. (3) power supplies (rectification).

B a t t e ri e s
G E N E R A L I N F O R M AT I O N Batteries are the most common dc
sources. A battery consists of a combination of two or more similar
cells. A cell is the basic source of electrical energy produced by the
conversion of chemical or solar energy. All cells can be divided into the
primary or secondary types. The secondary is rechargeable; the primary
is not. That is, the chemical reaction of the secondary cell can be
reversed to restore its capacity. The two most common rechargeable
batteries are the lead-acid unit (used primarily in automobiles) and the
nickel-cadmium battery (used in calculators, tools, photoflash units,
shavers, and so on). The obvious advantage of the rechargeable unit is
the reduced cost associated with not having to continually replace dis-
charged primary cells.
All the cells appearing in this chapter except the solar cell, which
absorbs energy from incident light in the form of photons, establish a
potential difference at the expense of chemical energy. In addition,
each has a positive and a negative electrode and an electrolyte to com-
plete the circuit between electrodes within the battery. The electrolyte
is the contact element and the source of ions for conduction between
the terminals.
 dc SUPPLIES 27

The
A L K A L I N E A N D L I T H I U M – I O D I N E P R I M A RY C E L L S
popular alkaline primary battery uses a powdered zinc anode (); a
potassium (alkali metal) hydroxide electrolyte; and a manganese diox-
ide, carbon cathode () as shown in Fig. 2.12(a). In particular, note in
Fig. 2.12(b) that the larger the cylindrical unit, the higher the current
capacity. The lantern battery or cell is designed primarily for long-term
use. Figure 2.13 shows two lithium–iodine primary units used in
devices where frequent replacement is inconvenient.

Positive
cover — Can — steel
plated steel
Metallized . .
plastic film [7.2 A h] [16.0 A h] Capacity
label (0–1 A) (0–1 A) Continuous
Electrolyte — Current
potassium Anode —
hydroxide powdered
zinc 1.5 V 9V
“AAA” transistor
Current cell
Cathode — collector —
manganese brass
dioxide,
carbon Inner cell
cover —
steel
Separator —
non-woven Seal — nylon 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V 6V
fabric “C” cell “D” cell “AA” lantern
cell
Negative
Metal cover — .
[1.1 A h] [2.5 A h] . . .
[520 mA h] [22.0 A h] Capacity
washer plated steel (0–300 mA) (0–500 mA) (0–250 mA) (0–1.5 A) Continuous
Metal spur Rivet — brass Current
(a) (b)

FIG. 2.12
(a) Cutaway of cylindrical Energizer alkaline cell; (b) Eveready Energizer
primary cells. (Courtesy of Eveready Battery Company, Inc.)

FIG. 2.13
Lithium–iodine primary cells. (Courtesy of Catalyst Research Corp.)

N I C K E L – C A D M I U M S E C O N DA RY C E L L The nickel–cadmium
battery is a rechargeable battery that has been receiving enormous inter-
est and development in recent years. For applications such as flashlights,
shavers, portable televisions, power drills, and so on, the nickel–
cadmium (Ni-Cad) battery of Fig. 2.14 is the secondary battery of choice.
Although the current levels are lower, the period of continuous drain is
usually longer. A typical nickel–cadmium battery can survive over 1000
charge/discharge cycles over a period of time that can last for years.
 28 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

1.2 V 1.2 V 7.2 V 1.2 V 1.2 V

.
4A h .
1.2 A h . . .
100 mA h 500 mA h 180 mA h
(a)

Eveready BH 500 cell

1.2 V, 500 mA h .
App: Where vertical height is severe
limitation
(b)

FIG. 2.14
Rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries. (Courtesy of Eveready Batteries.)

SOLAR CELL A high-density, 40-W solar array appears in Fig. 2.15.

Since the maximum available wattage in an average bright sunlit day is
40-W high-density solar module: 100-mm
100- 100 mW/cm2 and conversion efficiencies are currently between 10% and
mm square cells are used to provide maximum 14%, the maximum available power per square centimetre from most
power in a minimum of space. The 33 series-cell commercial units is between 10 mW and 14 mW. For a square metre,
module provides a strong 12-V battery charging cur-
rent for a wide range of temperatures (40°C to however, the return would be 100 W to 140 W. A more detailed descrip-
60°C). tion of the solar cell will appear in your electronics courses. For now it
FIG. 2.15 is important to realize that a fixed illumination of the solar cell will pro-
Solar module. (Courtesy of Motorola vide a fairly steady dc voltage for driving various loads, from watches to
Semiconductor Products.) automobiles.

Generators
The dc generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electri-
cal energy (Fig. 2.16). When the shaft of the generator is rotating at the
nameplate speed due to the applied torque of some external source of
mechanical power, a voltage of rated value will appear across the exter-
nal terminals. The terminal voltage and power-handling capabilities of
+ the dc generator are typically higher than those of most batteries, and its
120 V lifetime is determined only by its construction. Commercially used dc
– generators are typically of the 120-V or 240-V variety. For the purposes
FIG. 2.16 of this text, no distinction will be made between the symbols for a bat-
dc generator. tery and a generator.

Po w e r S u p p l i e s
The dc supply encountered most often in the laboratory uses the recti-
fication and filtering processes to obtain a steady dc voltage. Both
processes will be covered in detail in your basic electronics courses. A
dc laboratory supply of this type appears in Fig. 2.17.
 C O N D U C TO R S A N D I N S U L ATO R S 29

Most dc laboratory supplies have a regulated, adjustable voltage out-

put with three available terminals, as indicated in Figs. 2.17 and 2.18(a).
The symbol for ground or zero potential (the reference) is also shown in
Fig. 2.18(a). If 10 V above ground potential are required, then the con-
nections are made as shown in Fig. 2.18(b). If 15 V below ground poten-
tial are required, then the connections are made as shown in Fig. 2.18(c).
If connections are as shown in Fig. 2.18(d), we say we have a “floating”
voltage of 5 V since the reference level is not included. The configuration
of Fig. 2.18(d) is not often used since it fails to protect the operator by
providing a direct low-resistance path to ground and to establish a com-
mon ground for the system. In any case, the positive and negative termi-
nals must be part of any circuit configuration.

+ + 10 V + (+ 10 V)

Gnd (0 V) 10 V
– – Jumper
FIG. 2.17 –
(a) (b)
dc laboratory supply. (Courtesy of Leader
Instruments Corporation.)
+ Jumper – (– 15 V) + +

15 V 5V 5V
15 V
(“Floating”)
– + – –

(c) (d)

FIG. 2.18
dc laboratory supply: (a) available terminals; (b) positive voltage with respect
to (w.r.t.) ground; (c) negative voltage w.r.t. ground; (d) floating supply.

dc Current Sources
The wide variety of types of, and applications for, the dc voltage source
have made it a rather familiar device, the characteristics of which are
understood, at least basically, by the layperson. For example, it is com-
mon knowledge that a 12-V car battery has a terminal voltage (at least
approximately) of 12 V, even though the current drain by the automobile
may vary under different operating conditions. In other words,
Voltage
a dc voltage source will provide, ideally, a fixed terminal voltage, even
though the current demand from the electrical/electronic system may
vary,
as shown in Fig. 2.19(a). A dc current source
0 Current
will supply, ideally, a fixed current to an electrical/electronic system,
Current (a)
even though there may be variations in the terminal voltage as deter-
mined by the system,
as shown in Fig. 2.19(b).

0 Voltage 2.6 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

(b)
Different wires placed across the same two battery terminals will allow
FIG. 2.19 different amounts of charge to flow between the terminals. Many fac-
Terminal characteristics: (a) ideal voltage tors, such as the density, mobility, and stability characteristics of a mate-
source; (b) ideal current source. rial, account for these variations in charge flow. In general, however,
30 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

conductors are those materials that permit a generous flow of elec-

trons with very little external force (voltage) applied.
In addition,
The atoms of good conductors typically have only one electron in
their outermost shell.
Since copper is used most often, it serves as the standard of com-
parison for the relative conductivity in Table 2.1. Note that aluminum,
which has seen some commercial use, has only 61% of the conductiv-
ity level of copper, but keep in mind that this must be weighed against
the cost and weight factors.

TA B L E 2 . 1
Relative conductivity of various materials.

Metal Relative Conductivity (%)

Silver 105
Copper 100
Gold 70.5
Aluminum 61
Tungsten 31.2
Nickel 22.1
Iron 14
Constantan 3.52
Nichrome 1.73
Calorite 1.44

Insulators are those materials that have very few free electrons and
require a large applied potential (voltage) to establish a measurable
current level.
A common use of insulating material is for covering current-carry-
ing wire that would be dangerous if not insulated. Power-line repair
people wear rubber gloves and stand on rubber mats as safety measures
when working on high-voltage transmission lines. A number of differ-
ent types of insulators and their applications appear in Fig. 2.20.

FIG. 2.20
Different types of insulators. (Photo courtesy of Daburn
Electronics & Cable Corp.)

It must be pointed out that even the best insulator will break down
(permit charge to flow through it) if a sufficiently large potential is
applied across it. The breakdown strengths of some common insulators
are listed in Table 2.2. According to this table, for insulators with the
same geometric shape, it would require 270/30  9 times as much poten-
tial to pass current through rubber as compared to air and approximately
67 times as much voltage to pass current through mica as through air.
 A M M E T E R S A N D V O LT M E T E R S 31

TA B L E 2 . 2
Breakdown strength of some common insulators.
Average
Breakdown
Material Strength (kV/cm)

Air 30
Porcelain 70
Oils 140
Bakelite 150
Rubber 270
Paper (paraffin-coated) 500
Teflon 600
Glass 900
Mica 2000

2.7 SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor has fewer free electrons than a conductor, but more
than an insulator. Materials such as silicon and germanium are semi-
conductors that are used in diodes and transistors, which can control
currents in circuits. Semiconductors are at the heart of the integrated
circuits so important in computers and many control devices.

2.8 AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

DMM It is important to be able to measure the current and voltage levels of an
voltmeter mode
I operating electrical system to check its operation, isolate malfunctions,
and investigate effects impossible to predict on paper. As the names
imply, ammeters are used to measure current levels, and voltmeters,
+ the potential difference between two points. If the current levels are
E usually of the order of milliamperes, the instrument will typically be
– referred to as a milliammeter, and if the current levels are in the
microampere range, as a microammeter. Similar statements can be
made for voltage levels. Throughout the industry, voltage levels are
FIG. 2.21 measured more frequently than current levels primarily because volt-
Voltmeter connection for an up-scale () meters do not require that the network connections be disturbed.
reading. The potential difference between two points can be measured by
simply connecting the leads of the meter across the two points, as indi-
DMM cated in Fig. 2.21. An up-scale reading is obtained by placing the posi-
ammeter mode tive lead of the meter to the point of higher potential of the network and
the common or negative lead to the point of lower potential. The
reverse connection will result in a negative reading or a below-zero
+ –
indication.
Ammeters are connected as shown in Fig. 2.22. Since ammeters
measure the rate of flow of charge, the meter must be placed in the net-
I work so that the charge will flow through the meter. The only way this
+ can be accomplished is to open the path in which the current is to be mea-
E System
– sured and place the meter between the two resulting terminals. For the
configuration of Fig. 2.22, the voltage source lead () must be discon-
nected from the system and the ammeter inserted as shown. An up-scale
reading will be obtained if the polarities on the terminals of the ammeter
FIG. 2.22 are such that the current of the system enters the positive terminal.
Ammeter connection for an up-scale () The introduction of any meter into an electrical/electronic system
reading. raises a concern about whether the meter will affect the behaviour of
 32 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

the system. This question and others will be examined in Chapters 5

and 6 after additional terms and concepts have been introduced. For the
moment, let it be said that since voltmeters and ammeters do not have
internal sources, they will affect the network when introduced for mea-
surement purposes. They are both designed, however, so that the impact
is minimized.
There are instruments designed to measure just current or just
voltage levels. However, the most common laboratory meters include
the volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) of Fig. 2.23, and the digital multi-
meter (DMM) of Fig. 2.24. Both instruments will measure voltage and
current and a third quantity, resistance, to be introduced in the next
chapter. The VOM uses an analog scale, which requires interpreting
the position of a pointer on a continuous scale, while the DMM pro-
vides a display of numbers with decimal point accuracy determined by
the chosen scale. Comments on the characteristics and use of various
meters will be made later in the text.

FIG. 2.23 FIG. 2.24

Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) analog meter. (Courtesy of Simpson Electric Co.) Digital multimeter (DMM). (Courtesy of John
Fluke Mfg. Co. Inc.)
 P R A C T I C A L A P P L I C AT I O N S 33

Practical Applications
Electric circuits and the water cycle S R1
In circuit analysis we often talk of a closed path, whether
we are talking about simple electric circuits such as a
flashlight, some complex power system grid, or even a
magnetic device such as a relay. People often have diffi- + Itot
E
culty visualizing this concept of a closed path or process.  R2
The earth’s water cycle is a good example of such a sys-
tem. It also illustrates the basic properties of electric cir-
cuits: voltage, current, and resistance, as well as kinetic R3
and potential energy. The man-made water systems used
in our homes and businesses are also good illustrations of
a closed cycle. Closed electric circuit.

Sun Condensation The electrical analogy to this water cycle is an elec-

Sanitation Shower (Rain)
Filter Head Light/Heat Snow tric circuit. A source of stored energy (battery or electri-
Pump Energy
Wind blows/
cal outlet) is connected through conductors (like pipes) to
Reservoir Drain Clouds form electrical components (maybe a toaster or electric razor)
or Lake
Waste Evaporation River or Stream to perform some useful function. This passage of energy
Treatment finds some opposition (called resistance) to its passage.
Man-made w ater system Lake Natural water system
In order that the energy may be converted from its elec-
trical form to some other useful form, such as heat, light
Rain, which we all see and feel, is just one phase of or motion, the electric charge that flows to make the cur-
earth’s natural water cycle. This cycle begins with the rent must have a closed circuit. If it did not, the process
evaporation of water from rivers, lakes, and oceans, up into would be like pumping water into a closed container–—
the clouds. The kinetic energy for this process, and all once it is full, there can be no more flow unless the con-
other processes on earth, comes from the sun. So, when we tainer bursts and permits the water to flow onto the floor
are enjoying a sunny, warm day, the sun is also providing and eventually back to some stream or river.
energy to water storage reservoirs and causing evaporation, We can see the current in a river which results from
which will eventually bring rain. The water that is stored in the flow of the water; although we cannot see it, there is
the clouds is comparable to the potential energy stored in a a flow of charges, which is also called current, past a
battery. When the clouds cool, and the water in them con- given point in an electric circuit.
denses sufficiently, this energy will come back to the earth In the water system, there can be no flow unless there
in the form of rain, flowing into the streams and rivers to is some source of pressure or energy; similarly, there can
begin the process all over again. We see the effects of this be no electrical current without electrical pressure, called
potential energy from the clouds when it is unleashed as voltage or electromotive force (emf). Water flow in a
kinetic energy in floods and torrents. stream meets some resistance in the form of obstacles, and
In our man-made systems, we find elements such as friction from the stream bed and sides. Water flowing in a
swimming pools and water heaters acting as the reservoirs pipe meets opposition, or resistance, as well. In an electri-
at the consumption end, with wells, rivers and lakes provid- cal circuit, all the components the current encounters pre-
ing the original source of our water. To get the water from sent some resistance to this flow of electrical charge.
the source to the consumer, we must provide energy to To get water to a pool or a bathtub, we must turn on
pumps to fill our pools and water tanks. This corresponds to a tap. In an electric circuit, we must close a switch to per-
the evaporation process in nature. We use pipes to contain mit the flow of charge. The reservoirs of our cities and
the water as it flows along under pressure from the pumps. towns, our lakes and rivers, and even the oceans would
The pipes present some resistance to the flow of the water, eventually dry up without a closed system to return the
with smaller pipes providing more flow resistance than water to its source. Similarly, we must have closed paths
larger ones. Along the way, the water probably passes for our electric charges, or the sources of electrical energy
through some filtration process that removes unwanted would cease to function. To put it another way, if we send
components from it, and indeed may add components such current in one direction, we must get it back in the other—
as chlorine and fluorine to it for our safety and health. we must have a closed path to have an electric circuit.
 34 CHAPTER 2 C U R R E N T A N D V O LTA G E

PROBLEMS SECTION 2.3 Current

8. Find the current in amperes if 650 C of charge pass
SECTION 2.2 Atoms and Their Structure through a wire in 50 s.
1. Calculate the force of repulsion between two adjacent 9. If 465 C of charge pass through a wire in 2.5 min, find
protons in an atomic nucleus, with a distance between the current in amperes.
their centres of 1.0
10–15 m. 10. If a current of 40 A exists for 1 min, how many
coulombs of charge have passed through the wire?
2. Find the force of attraction between a proton and an
electron separated by a distance equal to the radius of 11. How many coulombs of charge pass through a lamp in
the smallest orbit followed by an electron (5
1011 m) 30 min if the current is constant at 750 mA?
in a hydrogen atom. 12. If the current in a conductor is constant at 2 A, how
much time is required for 4600
106 C to pass
3. Plot the force of attraction in newtons between the
through the conductor?
charges Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 2.25 when r 
a. 1 m b. 5 m 13. If 21.847
1018 electrons pass through a wire in 7 s,
find the current.
c. 8 m d. 10 m
(Note how quickly the force drops with an increase in r.) 14. How many electrons pass through a conductor in 30 s if
the current is 1 A?
15. Will a fuse rated at 1 A “blow” if 86 C pass through it in
1
C 2
C 1.0 min?
+ – *16. If 0.784
1018 electrons pass through a wire in 643
Q1 r Q2 ms, find the current.
*17. Which would you prefer?
a. A penny for every electron that passes through a wire
FIG. 2.25 in 0.01 ms at a current of 2mA, or
Problem 3. b. A dollar for every electron that passes through a wire
in 1.5 ns if the current is 100 mA.
*4. Plot the force of repulsion in newtons between Q1 and
Q2 in Fig. 2.26 when r  SECTION 2.4 Vo l t a g e
a. 1 m b. 0.5 m 18. What is the voltage between two points if 96 mJ of
c. 0.25 m d. 0.125 m energy are required to move 50
1018 electrons
between the two points?
19. If the potential difference between two points is 42 V,
8
C 40
C how much work is required to bring 6 C from one point
+ + to the other?
Q1 r Q2 20. Find the charge Q that requires 1205 J of energy to be
moved through a potential difference of 25 V.
21. How much charge passes through a battery of 22.5 V if
FIG. 2.26
the energy expended is 90 J?
Problem 4.
22. If a conductor with a current of 200 mA passing through
it converts 40 J of electrical energy into heat in 30 s,
*5. Plot the force of attraction (in newtons) versus separa- what is the potential drop across the conductor?
tion (in metres) for two charges of 2 mC and 4 mC. Set
*23. Charge is flowing through a conductor at the rate of
r to 0.5 m and 1 m, followed by 1-m intervals to 10 m.
420 C/min. If the potential drop across the conductor is
Comment on the shape of the curve. Is it linear or non-
3.53 V, how much energy is converted to heat in 30 s?
linear? What does it tell you about the force of attraction
between charges as they are separated? What does it tell SECTION 2.5 dc Supplies
you about any function plotted against a squared term in 24. Discuss briefly the difference among the three types of
the denominator? dc voltage supplies (batteries, rectification, and genera-
6. Determine the distance between two charges of 30 mC if tors).
the force between the two charges is 3.6
104 N. 25. Suggest an application where each of the three types of
*7. Two charged bodies, Q1 and Q2, when separated by a dc supply could be used to advantage.
distance of 2 m, experience a force of repulsion equal to 26. Compare the characteristics of a dc current source with
1.8 N. those of a dc voltage source. How are they similar and
a. What will the force of repulsion be when they are how are they different?
10 m apart? 27. Explain the difference between a primary and a sec-
b. If the ratio Q1/Q2  1/2, find Q1 and Q2 (r  10 m). ondary cell.
 PROBLE MS 35

S E C T I O N 2 . 6 Conductors and Insulators SECTION 2.8 Ammeters and Voltmeters

28. Discuss the properties of copper that have contributed to 35. What are the significant differences in the way ammeters
its role as a commonly used conductor. and voltmeters are connected?
29. Discuss the properties of the atomic structure of gold 36. Explain why a voltmeter must be connected across two
that make it a good conductor. points in an electric circuit in order to obtain a correct
30. Name two materials not listed in Table 2.1 that are good reading.
conductors of electricity. 37. Explain why an ammeter must be connected across a
31. Explain the terms insulator and breakdown strength. break in a conductor.
32. List three uses of insulators not mentioned in Section 2.6. 38. If an ammeter reads 2.5 A for a period of 2 min, deter-
mine the charge that has passed through the meter.
S E C T I O N 2 . 7 Semiconductors
33. What is a semiconductor? How does it compare with a 39. Between two points in an electric circuit, a voltmeter
conductor and an insulator? reads 12.5 V for a period of 20 s. If the current measured
by an ammeter is 10 A, determine the energy expended
34. Consult a semiconductor electronics text and note the and the charge that flowed between the two points.
extensive use of germanium and silicon semiconductor
materials. Report the main characteristics of each material.