Chapter 2 - Operating Systems

This chapter will cover the following exam objectives:

1.1 : Linux Evolution and Popular Operating Systems

Weight: 2

Knowledge of Linux development and major distributions.

Key Knowledge Areas:

 Distributions
Section 2.4
 Embedded Systems
Section 2.4.2

4.1: Choosing an Operating System

Weight: 1

Knowledge of major operating systems and Linux distributions.

Key Knowledge Areas:

 Differences between Windows, OS X and Linux

Section 2.2 | Section 2.3 | Section 2.4
 GUI versus command line
Section 2.4
 Distribution life cycle management
Section 2.4

Key terms:

Chapter 2 - Operating Systems

Android

A Linux distribution that provides a platform for mobile users but lacks the traditional GNU/Linux packages to
make it compatible with desktop Linux distributions.
Section 2.4.1

CentOS

A Linux distribution that is compatible with Red Hat Enterprise Linux but does not offer the paid support that Red
Hat does.
Section 2.4.1

Debian

An operating system that uses the Linux kernel. It that promotes the use of open source software and adherence
to standards.
Section 2.4.1

Linux Mint
A Linux distribution that is a derivative of Ubuntu and still relies upon the Ubuntu repositories.
Section 2.4.1

Raspberry Pi

A hardware platform used in training for programmers and hardware designers at all levels. Its low cost and ease
of use have made it popular with educators.
Section 2.4.1

Raspbian

A specialized Linux distribution optimized to run on Raspberry Pi hardware.

Section 2.4.1

Red Hat

A Linux distribution that introduced Red Hat Package Manager (RPM). The developer formed a company by the
same name which specializes in open source software.
Section 2.4.1

SUSE

One of the first comprehensive Linux distributions. It is derived from Slackware which offers many similarities with
Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
Section 2.4.1

Scientific Linux

A specific use distribution based on Red Hat. It was designed to enable scientific computing.
Section 2.4.1

Ubuntu

The most popular Debian derived distribution. It has several different variants for desktop, server, and various
specialized applications as well as an LTS version.
Section 2.4.1

beta

A software release that has many new features that haven’t been tested.
Section 2.1.1

command line interface (CLI)

A text based interface in which the user enters commands. Feedback, output and programs are presented in text
format only.
Section 2.1.1

desktop configuration

Desktop are preferred if the user interacts with the system directly. Desktop system primarily run a GUI for the
ease of use of its user.2.1.1
Section 2.1.1

graphical user interface (GUI)

A visual user interface that allows the user to interact with the system using windows, icons, a cursor, etc.
Section 2.1.1
long-term support (LTS)

Associated with the life cycle of distributions, this feature states that software is supported for 5 years or more.
Section 2.4

maintenance cycles

The period of time vendors support older versions of software before not offering any updates.
Section 2.1.1

openSUSE

A Linux distribution that is a completely open, free version of SUSE Linux Enterprise with multiple desktop
packages similar to CentOS and Linux Mint.
Section 2.4.1

stable

A software release whose updates have been tested in the field.

Section 2.1.1

Content:

2.1 Operating Systems

An operating system is software that runs on a computing device and manages the hardware and software
components that make up a functional computing system.

Modern operating systems don’t just manage hardware and software resources, they schedule programs to run in
a multi-tasking manner (sharing the processor so that multiple tasks can occur apparently simultaneously), provide
standard services that allow users and programs to request something happen (for example a print job) from the
operating system, and provided it’s properly requested, the operating system will accept the request and perform
the function needed.

Desktop and server operating systems are by nature more complex than an operating system that runs on a single-
purpose device such as a firewall, or a mobile phone. From a simple set-top box that provides a menu interface for
a cable provider, to supercomputers and massive, parallel computing clusters, the generic term operating system
is used to describe whatever software is booted and run on that device.
Computer users today have a choice mainly between three major operating systems: Microsoft Windows, Apple
macOS, and Linux.

Of the three major operating systems listed only Microsoft Windows is unique in its underlying code. Apple’s
macOS is a fully-qualified UNIX distribution based on BSD Unix (an operating system distributed until 1995),
complemented by a large amount of proprietary code. It runs on hardware specifically optimized to work with
Apple software. Linux can be any one of hundreds of distribution packages designed or optimized for whatever
task is required. Only Microsoft Windows is based on a proprietary code base that isn’t either UNIX- or Linux-
based.

A user can easily interact with any of these systems by pointing and clicking their way through everyday
productivity tasks that all behave similarly regardless of the underlying operating system. Except for Windows,
which is mostly administered via the GUI, most system administration tasks are performed using typed commands
in a terminal. An administrator that is familiar with UNIX can typically perform tasks on a Linux system and vice
versa. Many Linux command line functions also have Microsoft equivalents that administrators use to do their
work efficiently.
2.1.1 Decision Points
Role
The first decision when specifying any computer system is the machine’s role. Will you be sitting at the console
running productivity applications or web browsing? If so, a familiar desktop is best. Will the machine be accessed
remotely by many users or provide services to remote users? Then it’s a server.

Servers typically sit in a rack and share a keyboard and monitor with many other computers, since console access
is generally only used for configuration and troubleshooting. Servers generally run as a CLI, which frees up
resources for the real purpose of the computer: serving information to clients (any user or system that accesses
resources remotely). Desktop systems primarily run a GUI for the ease of use of their users.

Function
Next, determine the functions of the machine. Is there specific software it needs to run, or specific functions it
needs to perform? Will there be hundreds, even thousands, of these machines running at the same time? What is
the skill-set of the team managing the computer and software?

Life Cycle
The service lifetime and risk tolerance of the server also needs to be determined. Operating systems and software
upgrades come on a periodic basis, called a release cycle. Vendors only support older versions of software for a
certain period of time before not offering any updates; this is called a maintenance cycle or life cycle.

In an enterprise server environment, maintenance and release cycles are critical considerations because it is time-
consuming and expensive to do major upgrades. Instead, the server hardware itself is often replaced because
increased performance is worth the extra expense, and the resources involved are often many times more costly
than the hardware.

Consider This

There is a fair amount of work involved in upgrading a server due to specialized configurations, application
software patching and user testing, so a proactive organization will seek to maximize their return on investment in
both human and monetary capital.

Modern data centers are addressing this challenge through virtualization. In a virtual environment, one physical
machine can host dozens, or even hundreds of virtual machines, decreasing space and power requirements, as
well as providing for automation of many of the tasks previously done manually by systems administrators.
Scripting programs allow virtual machines to be created, configured, deployed and removed from a network
without the need for human intervention. Of course, a human still needs to write the script and monitor these
systems, at least for now.

The need for physical hardware upgrades has also been decreased immensely with the advent of cloud services
providers like Amazon Web Services, Rackspace, and Microsoft Azure. Similar advances have helped desktop
administrators manage upgrades in an automated fashion and with little to no user interruption.
‌Stability
Individual software releases can be characterized as beta or stable depending on where they are in the release
cycle. When a software release has many new features that haven’t been tested, it’s typically referred to as beta.
After being tested in the field, its designation changes to stable.

Users who need the latest features can decide to use beta software. This is often done in the development phase
of a new deployment and provides the ability to request features not available on the stable release.

Production servers typically use stable software unless needed features are not available, and the risk of running
code that has not been thoroughly tested is outweighed by the utility provided.

Software in the open source realm is often released for peer review very early on in its development process, and
can very quickly be put into testing and even production environments, providing extremely useful feedback and
code submissions to fix issues found or features needed.

Conversely, proprietary software will often be kept secret for most of its development, only reaching a public beta
stage when it’s almost ready for release.

Compatibility
Another loosely-related concept is backward compatibility which refers to the ability of later operating systems to
be compatible with software made for earlier versions. This is usually a concern when it is necessary to upgrade an
operating system, but an application software upgrade is not possible due to cost or lack of availability.

The norm for open source software development is to ensure backward compatibility first and break things only as
a last resort. The common practice of maintaining and versioning libraries of functions helps this greatly. Typically,
a library that is used by one or more programs is versioned as a new release when significant changes have
occurred but also keeps all the functions (and compatibility) of earlier versions that may be hard-coded or referred
to by existing software.

Cost
Cost is always a factor when specifying new systems. Microsoft has annual licensing fees that apply to users,
servers and other software, as do many other software companies. Ultimately, the choice of operating system will
be affected by available hardware, staff resources and skill, cost of purchase, maintenance, and projected future
requirements.

Virtualization and outsourced support services offer the modern IT organization the promise of having to pay for
only what it uses rather than building in excess capacity. This not only controls costs but offers opportunities for
people both inside and outside the organization to provide expertise and value.

Interface
The first electronic computer systems were controlled by means of switches and plugboards similar to those used
by telephone operators at the time. Then came punch cards and finally a text-based terminal system similar to the
Linux command line interface (CLI) in use today. The graphical user interface (GUI), with a mouse and buttons to
click, was pioneered at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) in the early 1970s and popularized by Apple
Computer in the 1980s.

Today, operating systems offer both GUI and CLI interfaces, however, most consumer operating systems
(Windows, macOS) are designed to shield the user from the ins and outs of the CLI.
2.2 Microsoft Windows
Microsoft offers different operating systems according to the machine’s role: desktop or server? The desktop
version of Windows has undergone various naming schemes with the current version (as of this writing) being
simply Windows 10. New versions of this OS come out every 3-5 years and tend to be supported for many years.
Backward compatibility is a priority for Microsoft, even going so far as to bundle virtual machine technology so
that users can run older software.

Windows Server currently (as of this writing) is at version 2019 to denote the release date. The server can run a
GUI but recently Microsoft, largely as a competitive response to Linux, has made incredible strides in its command
line scripting capabilities through PowerShell. There is also an optional Desktop Experience package which mimics
a standard productivity machine. Microsoft also actively encourages enterprise customers to incorporate its Azure
cloud service.

2.3 Apple macOS

Apple makes the macOS operating system, which is partially based on software from the FreeBSD project and has
undergone UNIX certification. macOS is well known for being “easy to use”, and as such has continued to be
favored by users with limited access to IT resources like schools and small businesses. It is also very popular with
programmers due to its robust UNIX underpinnings.

On the server side, macOS Server is primarily aimed at smaller organizations. This low-cost addition to macOS
desktop allows users to collaborate, and administrators to control access to shared resources. It also provides
integration with iOS devices like the iPhone and iPad.

Some large corporate IT departments allow users to choose macOS since users often require less support than
standard Microsoft productivity deployments. The continued popularity of macOS has ensured healthy support
from software vendors. macOS is also quite popular in the creative industries such as graphics and video
production. For many of these users, application choice drives the operating system decision. Apple hardware,
being integrated so closely with the operating system, and their insistence on adherence to standards in
application programming gives these creative professionals a stable platform to perform many computing-intense
functions with fewer concerns about compatibility.

2.4 Linux
Linux users typically obtain an operating system by downloading a distribution. A Linux distribution is a bundle of
software, typically comprised of the Linux kernel, utilities, management tools, and even some application software
in a package which also includes the means to update core software and install additional applications.

The distribution takes care of setting up the storage, building the kernel and installing hardware drivers, as well as
installing applications and utilities to make a fully functional computer system. The organizations that create
distributions also include tools to manage the system, a package manager to add and remove software, as well as
update programs to provide security and functionality patches.
The number of Linux distributions available numbers in the hundreds, so the choice can seem daunting at first.
However, the decision points are mostly the same as those highlighted for choosing an operating system.

Role
With Linux, there are multiple options to choose from depending on organizational needs. The variety of
distributions and accompanying software allows the operating system to be significantly more flexible and
customizable. Distributions are available for a much wider variety of systems, from commercial offerings for the
traditional server or desktop roles, to specialized distributions designed to turn an old computer into a network
firewall; from distributions created to power a supercomputer, to those that enable embedded systems. These
might focus on running application or web servers, productivity desktops, point-of-sale systems, or even tools
dedicated to electronics design or statistical computing.

Function
Governments and large enterprises may also limit their choices to distributions that offer commercial support
because paying for another tier of support may be better than risking extensive outages. For the most part,
concerns over security have been addressed through the large open source community, which monitors kernel
changes for vulnerabilities and provides bug reporting and fixes at a much larger scale than closed source vendors
can achieve.

Support for necessary applications may vary and is, therefore, an additional consideration. Often application
vendors choose a subset of distributions to support. Different distributions have different versions of key libraries,
and it is difficult for a company to support all these different versions. However, some applications like Firefox and
LibreOffice are widely supported and available for all major distributions.

Life Cycle
Most distributions have both major and minor update cycles to introduce new features and fix existing bugs.
Additionally, there are development packages where users can contribute code and submit patches for possible
inclusion into new releases.

Linux distributions can be broadly classed in two main categories: enthusiast and enterprise. An enthusiast
distribution such as openSUSE’s Tumbleweed has a fast update cycle, is not supported for enterprise and may not
contain (or drop) features or software in the next version that are in the current one. Red Hat’s Fedora project
uses a similar method of development and release cycle, as does Ubuntu Desktop.

Enterprise distributions are almost the exact opposite, in that they take care to be stable and consistent, and offer
enterprise-grade support for extended periods, anywhere from 5-13 years in the case of SUSE. Enterprise
distributions are fewer by far, being offered mainly by Red Hat, Canonical and SUSE.

Application software may be written such that it only supports a specific release of a distribution, requiring users
to remain on an older, less secure operating system than they might like. Therefore, some Linux releases are
considered to have long-term support (LTS) of 5 years or more while others are only supported for two years or
less.

Stability
Some distributions offer stable, testing, and unstable releases. When choosing an unstable release for required
features, consideration must be given to the fact that those features may change at any point during the
development cycle. When features have been integrated into the system for a long time, with most of the bugs
and issues addressed, the software moves through testing into the stable release.

Other releases depend on beta distributions. For instance, the Fedora distribution releases beta or pre-releases of
its software ahead of the full release to minimize bugs. Fedora is often considered the community-oriented beta
release of RedHat. Features are added and changed in the Fedora release before finding their way into the
enterprise-ready RedHat distribution.

openSUSE and its enterprise counterpart SLES (SUSE Linux Enterprise Server) are similar, in that the community
edition is used as a testing ground for the features and functions that will eventually be migrated into the
enterprise version. Previously somewhat dissimilar, later versions of the openSUSE and SLES distribution
codebases are nearly identical, allowing for easier migration of features and code from one to the other.

Consider This

The Debian distribution warns users about the pitfalls of using the “sid” (unstable) release with the following
warning:

‘"sid" is subject to massive changes and in-place library updates. This can result in a very "unstable" system which
contains packages that cannot be installed due to missing libraries, dependencies that cannot be fulfilled, etc. Use
it at your own risk!’

Cost
Your chosen Linux distribution itself might be zero cost, but paying for support may be worthwhile depending on
organizational needs and capabilities.

Interface
Like most operating systems, Linux can be used in one of two ways: graphical (GUI) and non-graphical (CLI). Below
is an example of a graphical desktop, with a menu bar of popular applications to the left, a LibreOffice document
being edited in the foreground, and a web browser in the background.

In graphical mode, users can have several different windows with terminal applications (shells) open, which is very
helpful when performing tasks on multiple remote computers. Administrators and users can log-in with their
username and password through a graphical interface.

The second type of interface, the CLI, is a text-based interface to the computer, where the user types in a
command and the computer then executes it. The CLI environment is provided by an application on the computer
known as a terminal. ‌ The terminal accepts what the user types and passes to a shell. The shell interprets what the
user has typed into instructions that can be executed by the operating system. If output is produced by the
command, then this text is displayed in the terminal. If problems with the command are encountered, then an
error message is displayed.

The CLI starts with a text-based login as shown below. In a successful login, after being prompted for a username
and password, you are taken CLI shell customized for the particular user.

In CLI mode there are no windows to move around. Text editors, web browsers, and email clients are all presented
in text format only. This is how UNIX operated before graphical environments were the norm. Most servers run in
this mode too, since people don’t log into them directly, making a graphical interface a waste of resources. Here is
an example of a CLI screen after logging in:

The original login prompt is at the top, with newer text added below. During login there may be some text
displayed called the message of the day (MOTD). This is an opportunity for the systems administrator to pass
information to users, or just make a silly joke. Following the MOTD is the command prompt, in the example above,
the user has entered the w command which shows who is logged in. As new commands are entered and
processed, the window scrolls up and older text is lost across the top. The terminal itself is responsible for keeping
any history, such as to allow the user to scroll up and see previously entered commands. As far as Linux is
concerned, what is on the screen is all that there is. There’s nothing to move around.
2.4.1 Linux Distributions
Red Hat
Red Hat started as a simple distribution that introduced the Red Hat Package Manager (RPM). The developer
eventually formed a company around it, which tried to commercialize a Linux desktop for business. Over time, Red
Hat started to focus more on the server applications, such as web- and file-serving and released Red Hat
Enterprise Linux (RHEL), which was a paid service on a long release cycle. The release cycle dictates how often
software is upgraded. A business may value stability and want long release cycles, while a hobbyist or a startup
may want the latest software and opt for a shorter release cycle. To satisfy the latter group, Red Hat sponsors the
Fedora Project which makes a personal desktop comprising the latest software but is still built on the same
foundations as the enterprise version.

Because everything in Red Hat Enterprise Linux is open source, a project called CentOS came to be. It recompiled
all the RHEL packages (converting their source code from the programming language they were written into
language usable by the system) and gave them away for free. CentOS and others like it (such as Scientific Linux)
are largely compatible with RHEL and integrate some newer software, but do not offer the paid support that Red
Hat does.

Scientific Linux is an example of a specific-use distribution based on Red Hat. The project is a Fermilab-sponsored
distribution designed to enable scientific computing. Among its many applications, Scientific Linux is used with
particle accelerators including the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

SUSE
SUSE, originally derived from Slackware, was one of the first comprehensive Linux distributions, it has many
similarities to Red Hat Enterprise Linux. The original company was purchased by Novell in 2003, which was then
purchased by the Attachmate Group in 2011. The Attachmate group then merged with Micro Focus International
in 2014, and in 2018 SUSE announced plans to go forward as an independent business. Through all of the mergers
and acquisitions, SUSE has managed to continue and grow.

While SUSE Linux Enterprise contains proprietary code and is sold as a server product, openSUSE is a completely
open, free version with multiple desktop packages similar to CentOS and Linux Mint.

Debian
Debian is more of a community effort, and as such, also promotes the use of open source software and adherence
to standards. Debian came up with its own package management system based on the .deb file format. While
Red Hat leaves non-Intel and AMD platform support to derivative projects, Debian supports many of these
platforms directly.

Ubuntu is the most popular Debian-derived distribution. It is the creation of Canonical, a company that was made
to further the growth of Ubuntu and makes money by providing support. Ubuntu has several different variants for
desktop, server and various specialized applications. They also offer an LTS version that is kept up-to-date for 3
years on desktops and 5 years on servers, which gives developers and the companies they work for confidence to
build solutions based on a stable distribution.

L‌ inux Mint was started as a fork of Ubuntu Linux, while still relying upon the Ubuntu repositories. There are
various versions, all free of cost, but some include proprietary codecs, which cannot be distributed without license
restrictions in certain countries.
Android
Linux is a kernel, and many of the commands covered in this course are actually part of the GNU package. That is
why some people insist on using the term GNU/Linux instead of Linux alone.

Android, sponsored by Google, is the world’s most popular Linux distribution. It is fundamentally different from its
counterparts. Android uses the Dalvik virtual machine with Linux, providing a robust platform for mobile devices
such as phones and tablets. However, lacking the traditional packages that are often distributed with Linux (such
as GNU and Xorg), Android is generally incompatible with desktop Linux distributions.

This incompatibility means that a Red Hat or Ubuntu user cannot download software from the Google Play store.
Likewise, a terminal emulator in Android lacks many of the commands of its Linux counterparts. It is possible,
however, to use BusyBox with Android to enable most commands to work.

Other
Raspbian is a specialized Linux distribution optimized to run on Raspberry Pi hardware. This combination has seen
significant use in training for programmers and hardware designers at all levels. Its low cost and ease of use have
made it a favorite of educators worldwide, and many add-on devices are available to extend its capabilities into
the physical world. There is a multitude of labs and projects available that teach everything from environmental
monitoring to circuit design, machine learning, and robotics.

Linux From Scratch (LFS) is more of a learning tool than a working distribution. This project consists of an online
book, and source code, with “step-by-step instructions” for building a custom Linux distribution from the source
code up. This “distribution” embodies the true spirit of Linux whereby users can modify any aspect of the
operating system and learn how all the pieces work together. It’s also a good starting point for anyone who needs
specialized functionality or an ultra-compact build for an embedded system project.

We have discussed the distributions explicitly mentioned in the Linux Essentials objectives. Be aware that there are
hundreds, if not thousands more that are available. While there are many different distributions of Linux, many of
the programs and commands remain the same or are very similar.

2.4.2 Embedded Systems

Linux started out as something that would only run on a computer like Linus Torvald's: an Intel 386 PC with a
specific hard drive controller, but since anyone could add to or change Linux, people started building support for
other hardware. Eventually, Linux started supporting other chips with an emphasis on small size and low power
consumption.

Because of this flexibility, a significant number of device makers have used Linux as the operating system for their
hardware products. Today we call these embedded systems because they are designed to do a specific task on
hardware optimized for only that purpose. These systems encompass a tremendous diversity of devices that are
used today, from cell phones to smart TVs and appliances, to remote monitoring systems for pipelines and
factories.

As Linux evolved, specialized processor chips were developed for consumer and industrial devices to take
advantage of its capabilities. Support for Linux has become so ubiquitous that it is possible to prototype and bring
to market new devices using off-the-shelf components. The rise of cheap, small, adaptable single-board computers
like the Raspberry Pi has given experimenters and entrepreneurs everywhere tools to quickly build custom
solutions, powered by Linux, that would have taken months of work by specialized teams just a few years ago.

While consumers are familiar with embedded Linux entertainment devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) and
“smart TVs,” the real impact of embedded Linux is just starting to be realized. The internet of things (IoT) is just
ramping up with cheap, ubiquitous devices being deployed on everything from oil wells to solar generating farms.
These networks of smart sensors and controllers enable engineers to adjust critical processes in real time while
monitoring and reporting back to central control stations. As more processes are being monitored and more data
is being integrated with machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) we can anticipate gains in efficiency, safety
and productivity only dreamed of by past generations.