Head Loss in Pipe Systems

Laminar Flow and Introduction to Turbulent Flow

ME 322 Lecture Slides, Winter 2007

Gerald Recktenwald∗

January 23, 2007

∗ Associate Professor, Mechanical and Materials Engineering Department Portland State University, Portland, Oregon,
[email protected]
 Typical Pipe System

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.1, p. 402

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 Classification of Pipe flows

• Open channel versus Pipe Flow

• Fully Developed flow
• Laminar versus Turbulent flow.

Laminar: Re < 2000

Turbulent: Re > 2000

ρV L VL
Re = =
µ ν
V is a characteristic velocity
L is a characteristic length

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 Conditions for an (Easy) Analytical Solution

Analytical solution is possible for following reasonable assumptions

• Steady
• Incompressible
• Pipe cross-section doesn’t change with axial position
• Flow is fully-developed

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 Developing Flow in a Pipe

• Flow becomes fully developed

after an entrance length
• Velocity profile is independent of
axial position
• Pressure gradient is constant

dp
= constant
dx
=⇒ p(x) is linear in x

• Applies to laminar and turbulent

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.6, p. 407
flow

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 Entrance Length

3
10
Laminar flow: (Red < 2000)

Le 2
10
≈ 0.06Red L /d = 4.4 Re1/6
d e d
Le/d = 0.06 Red

Turbulent flow: (Red > 2000)

L/D
1
10

Le 1/6
≈ 4.4Red 0
10
d
See Munson, Young and Okiishi −1
10 1 2 3 4 5
§8.1.2, pp. 405–406 10 10 10
Re
10 10

In most design calculations, the flow in straight sections is assumed to be fully developed.
The entrance length correlations are used to check to see whether this is a good
assumption.

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 Tools

• Mass conservation for incompressible flow

X
Qi = 0 Qi = ViAi

• Energy conservation (MYO, Equation (5.84), p. 280)

V2 V2
» – » –
p p
+ +z = + +z + hs − hL
γ 2g out γ 2g in

NOTE : All “h” terms on right hand side are positive.

• Semi-empirical information: Darcy-Weisbach equation and Moody chart

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 Force Balance on a Control Volume in a Pipe (1)

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.8, p. 409

Force balance on a plug-shaped element of fluid gives

2 2
(p1)πr − (p1 − ∆p)πr − (τ )2πr` = 0 (1)

The pressure is assumed to decrease in the flow direction, hence the pressure on the right
hand side is p1 − ∆p.

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 Force Balance on a Control Volume in a Pipe (2)

Rearrange Equation (1)

∆p 2τ
= (2)
` r

Equation (1) shows that the pressure drop exists because of shear stress on the
circumpherential surface of the fluid element. Ultimately this shear stress is transmitted
to the wall of the pipe.

Solve Equation (2) for τ

∆p
τ = r (3)
2`

Thus, if ∆p/` is constant, i.e. if the flow is fully-developed then the shear stress varies
linearly with r . This result applies for laminar or turbulent flow.

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 Force Balance on a Control Volume in a Pipe (3)

Evaluate Equation (3) at r = R, i.e. at the wall

∆p
τw = R (4)
2`

Summary so far:
• Force balance applies to laminar or turbulent flow
• For fully-developed flow, dp/dx is constant. As a consequence the shear stress profile
is linear: τ = 0 at the centerline and τ = τw at r = R.
• We need a relationship between τ and u to obtain the velocity profile.

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (1)

Introduce modified form of Newton’s

Law. This applies to laminar flow only
r du < 0: u decreases as
du dr r increases
τ = −µ (5) x
dr
The minus sign gives positive τ (as
shown in original control volume) when
du/dr < 0.

Since the pressure gradient is constant for fully-developed flow

∆p dp
= (6)
` dx

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (2)

Substitute formulas for τ and dp/dr into Equation (3)

du 1 dp
−µ = r
dr 2 dx
Since dp/dx is constant (for fully developed flow), the preceding ODE can be rearranged
and integrated
du 1 dp
=− r = Kr
dr 2µ dx
where K = −(1/2µ)(dp/dx).

Integrate twice
du 1 2
= Kr =⇒ u= Kr + C1
dr 2

D 2 dp
Apply B.C. that u = 0 and r = D/2 to get C1 =
16µ dx

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (3)

The analytical solution for velocity profile in laminar flow is

" «2#
2 „
D dp r
u(r) = − 1−
16µ dx R

Note that dp/dx < 0 for flow in the positive x direction.

Also remember that dp/dx is constant. In MYO, dp/dx = ∆p/`.

Summary so far:
• Apply a force balance to a differential control volume to get an ODE.
• Integrate the ODE analytically to get the velocity profile.

Next: Use the velocity profile to derive formulas useful for practical engineering design.

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (4)

The solution to the velocity profile enables us to compute some very important practical
quantities

The maximum velocity in the pipe is at the centerline

D 2 dp
Vc = u(0) = −
16µ dx

" „ «2#
r
=⇒ u(r) = Vc 1 −
R

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (5)

The average velocity in the pipe

Q = VA V = average velocity A = cross sectional area

The total flow rate, and hence the average velocity, can be computed exactly because the
formula for the velocity profile is known.
R R
Q 1
Z Z
Q= u(r) dA =⇒ V = = u(r) dA
0 A A 0

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (6)

Carry out the integration. It’s easy!

dA = 2π rdr
R
Z R
Q= u(r) 2πr dr
0 r
" «2# dr
R „ sc
r
Z
= 2πVc 1− r dr
0 R
" #R
2 4
r r πR2Vc
= 2πVc − 2
=
2 4R 2
0

Therefore
Q Vc
V = =
A 2

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 Analytical Solution for Laminar Flow (7)

Total flow rate is

πR2Vc πR2 D 2 πD 4
„ « „ «
dp dp
Q= = − = −
2 2 16µ dx 128µ dx

Now, for convenience define ∆p as the pressure drop that occurs over a length of pipe L.

dp ∆p
In other words, let − ≡
dx L
Then
πD 4 ∆p
Q= (7)
128µ L

So, for laminar flow, once we know Q and L, we can easily compute ∆p and vice versa.

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 Implications of the Energy Equation

Apply the steady-flow energy equation

V2 V2
» – » –
p p
+ +z = + +z + hs − hL
γ 2g out γ 2g in

For a horizontal pipe (zout − zin) with no pump (hs = 0), and constant cross section
(Vout = in), the energy equation reduces to

pin − pout ∆p
hL = =
γ γ

Solve Equation (7) for ∆p

128µQL 128µQL
∆p = =⇒ hL = (8)
πD 4 πγD 4

These formulas only apply to laminar flow. We need a more general approach.

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 Dimensional Analysis

The pressure drop for laminar flow in a pipe is

128µQL
∆p = (8)
πD 4
or, in the form of a dimensional analysis

∆p = φ(V, L, D, µ)

where φ( ) is the function in Equation (8). Note that ρ does not appear. For turbulent
flow, fluid density does influence pressure drop.

For turbulent flow the dimensional form of the equation for pressure drop is

∆p = φ(V, L, D, µ, ρ, ε)

where ε is the length scale determining the wall roughness.

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 Turbulent Flow in Pipes (1)

Consider the instantaneous velocity at a point in a pipe when the flow rate is increased
from zero up to a constant value such that the flow is eventually turbulent.

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.11, p. 418

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 Turbulent Flow in Pipes (2)

Reality: Engineering Model:

Turbulent flows are unsteady: Flow is “Steady-in-the-Mean”
fluctuations at a point are caused by
convection of eddies of many sizes.
As eddies move through the flow the
velocity field at a fixed point changes.
Model:
When measured with a “slow” sensor
(e.g. Pitot tube) the velocity at a
point is apparently steady. Treat flow
variables (velocitie components,
pressure, temperature) as time
averages (or ensemble averages).
Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.1,
These averages are steady.
p. 402

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 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in a Pipe

A power-law function fits the shape of

the turbulent velocity profile

r 1/n
„ «
ū
= 1−
Vc R

where ū = ū(r) is the mean axial

velocity, Vc is the centerline velocity, and
n = f (Re). See Figure 8.17, p. 4.26

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi,

Figure 8.18, p. 427

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 Structure of Turbulence in a Pipe Flow

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.15, p. 424

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 Roughness and the Viscous Sublayer

Source: Munson, Young and Okiishi, Figure 8.19, p. 431

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 Head Loss Correlations (1)

For turbulent flow the dimensional form of the equation for pressure drop is

∆p = φ(V, L, D, µ, ρ, ε)

where ε is the length scale determining the wall roughness.

Form dimensionless groups to get

„ «
∆p ρV D L ε
1 2
= φ̃ , ,
2 ρV µ D D

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 Head Loss Correlations (2)

From practical experience we know that the pressure drop increases linearly with pipe
length, as long as the entrance effects are negligible.

Factor out L/D „ «

∆p L ρV D ε
1 2
= φ̃2 , (9)
2 ρV D µ D

The φ̃2 function is universal: it applies to all pipes. It’s called the friction factor, and
given the symbol f „ «
ρV D ε
f = φ̃2 , (10)
µ D

Combine Equation (9) and Equation (10) to get a working formula for the Darcy friction
factor
∆p D
f = 1 2L
(11)
2 ρV

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 Friction Factor for Laminar Flow

The pressure drop for fully-developed laminar flow in a pipe is

128µQL
∆p = (8)
πD 4

Divide both sides by (1/2)ρV 2 and rearrange

∆p 1 128µQL 1 128µV (π/4)D 2L 64µ L 64 L

1 2
= 1 2
= 1
= =
2 ρV 2 ρV πD 4 2 ρV
2 πD 4 ρV D D ReD D

Therefore, for laminar flow in a pipe

64
flam =
ReD

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 Colebrook Equation

Nikuradse did experiments with artificially roughened pipes

Colebrook and Moody put Nikuradse’s data into a form useful for engineering calculations.

The Colebrook equation

„ «
1 ε/D 2.51
√ = −2 log10 + √ (12)
f 3.7 Re f

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 Moody Diagram

Wholly turbulent
f
ε/D
increases
Laminar
Transition

Sm
oo
th

ReD

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