CHAPTER 2

The Analysts of a Text

READING THE TEXT

You begin the job by reading the original for two purposes: first, to understand what it
is about; second, to analyse it from a 'translator's* point of view, which is not the same
as a linguist's or a literary critic's. You have to determine its intention and the way it is
written for the purpose of selecting a suitable translation method and identifying
particular and recurrent problems,
Understanding the text requires both general and close reading. General reading
to get the gist; here you may have to read encyclopaedias, textbooks, or specialist
papers to understand the subject and the concepts, always bearing in mind that for the
translator the function precedes the description - the important thing about the neutrino
in context is not that it is a stable elementary particle-preserving the law of
conservation of mass and energy, but that now the neutrino has been found to have
mass, the Universe is calculated to be twice as large as previously thought, lChair',
chaise* Stuhl, Sessel7 sedia, silla? siul - they all present somewhat different images,
lax bundles of shapes that differ in each culture, united primarily by a similar function,
an object for a person to sit on plus a few essential formal features, such as a board
with a back and four legs. A knife is for cutting with, but the blade and the handle are
important too - they distinguish the knife from the scissors.
Close reading is required, in any challenging text, of the words both out of and
in context. In principle, everything has to be looked up that does not make good sense
in its context; common words like serpent (F), to ensure they are not being used
musically or figuratively (sly, deceitful, unscupulous) or technically (EEC currency) or
colloquially; neologisms - you will likely find many if you are translating a recent
publication (for 'non-equivalent1 words, see p. 117); acronyms, to find their TL
equivalents, which may be non-existent (you should not invent them, even if you note
that the SL author has invented them); figures and measures, convening to TL or
Systime International (SI) units where appropriate; names of people and places, almost
all words beginning with capital letters -'encyclopaedia* words are as important as
'dictionary1 words, the distinction being fuzzy- (Words like 'always*, 'never', *ali\
'must1 have no place in talk about

//
12 I'RLNCIPI.hK

translation - there are 'always' exceptions.) You can compare the translating activity to an
iceberg: the tip is the translation - what is visible, what is written on the page - the iceberg,
the activity, is all the work you do, often ten times as much again, much of which you do not
even use.

THE INTENTION OF THE TEXT

In reading, you search for the intention of the text, you cannot isolate this from
understanding it, they go together and the title may be remote from the content as well as
the intention. Two texts may describe a battle or a riot or a debate, stating the same facts and
figures, but the type of ianguageused and even the grammatical structures (passive voice,
impersonal verbs often used to disclaim rcsponsibilitv) in each case may be evidence of
different points of view. The intention of the text represents the SL writer's attitude to the
subject matter.
A piece about floors may be 'pushing1 floor polishes; about newspapers, a
condemnation of the press; about nuclear weapons, an advertisement for them -always there
is a point of view, somewhere, a modal component to the proposition, perhaps in a word- *
unfortunately', 'nevertheless', 'hopefully1,
What is meant by 'That was clever of him1? Is it ironical, openly or implicitly? {In a
text showing that BBC Radio 2 is a pale imitation of commercial radio, the irony may only
be implicit and obscure to a non-British reader, and the translator may want to make the
point more explicitly,) "CUmenie, noire justice repressive?*, writes a journalist meaning
L
Our repressive judicial system is far from lenient1, or is it a bluff, mainly nonsense, for
amusement? It may be 'iceberg1 work to find out, since the tone mav come through in a
literal translation, but the translator has to be aware of it,
Again, in a detailed, confused piece about check-ups on elderly patients who may
have to undergo chemotherapy the author's intention is to show that patients must have a
thorough physical check-up before they start a course of drugs: if physical problems are
cleared up first, there may be no need for psychiatry.
A summary of this nature, which uses only a few key words from the original, appears
to be isolated from the language, simply to show what happens in real life, and it is
indispensable to the translator. But he still has to 'return 1 to the text. He still has to translate
the text, even if he has to simplify, rearrange, clarify, slim it of its redundancies, pare it
down.

THE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR

Usually, the translator's intention is identical with that of the author of the SI - text. But he
may be translating an advertisement, a notice, or a set of instructions to show his client how
such matters are formulated and written in the source language,
THE ANALYSIS OF A TEXT 13

rather than how to adapt them in order to persuade or instruct a new TL reader-ship. And
again, he may be translating a manual of instructions for a less educated readership, so thac
the explanation in his translation mav be much larger than the 'reproduction'.

TEXT STYLES

Following Nida, we distinguish four types of (literary or non-literary) text:

(1) Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs or. for
English, 'dummy' or 'empty' verbs plus verb-nouns or phrasal verbs ('He made a sudden
appearance', lHe burst in1).
(2) Description, which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival
nouns.
(3) Discussion, a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts), verbs of
thought, mental activity ('consider1, 'argue', etc.), logical argument and connectives,
(4) Dialogue, with emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.

THE READERSHIP

On the basis of the variety of language used in the original, you attempt to characterise the
readership of the original and then of the translation, and to decide how much attention you
have to pay to the TL readers, (In the case of a poem or any work written primarily as
self-expression the amount is, I suggest, very little,) You may try to assess the level of
education, the class, age and sex of the readership if these are 'marked \
The average text for translation tends to be for an educated, middle-class readership in
an informal, not colloquial style. The most common variety of 'marked' error in register
among student translators tends to be Colloquial' and 'intimate 1, e.g. useofphrasessuchas
'more and more'for'increasingly' (de plus en plus), 'above air for 'particularly' (surwut); 'job'
for 'work1; 'got well1 for 'recovered' and excessively familiar phrasal verbs ('get out of, 'get
rid of). TrTe other common error, use of formal or official register (e.g. 'decease' for 'death*),
also shows signs of translationese. These tokens of language typify the student-translators
instead of the readership they are translating for; they may epitomise their degree of
knowledge and interest in the subject and the appropriate culture, i.e. how motivated they are.
All this will help you to decide on the degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and
emotional tone you must express when you work on the text.
14 PRINCIPLES

STYLISTIC SCALES

The scale of formality has been variously expressed, notably by Martin Joos and
Strevens. I suggest *
Officialese The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categoric-
ally prohibited in this establishment.'
Official The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.'
Formal Tou are requested not to consume food in this establishment.'
Neutral "Eating is not allowed here.1
Informal Tlease don't eat here.'
Colloquial 'You can't feed your face here/
Slang 'Lay off the nosh/
Taboo 'Lay off the fucking nosh/
As always, the distinctions are fuzzy. In not so informaHanguage, translate demoms en
moins by 'decreasingly1, tout a fait by 'entirely', d'un seut coup by 'at one attempt' or
'simultaneously.1
Similarly, I suggest the following scale oi generality or difficulty:
Simple
The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains and deep pits.1
Popular
The floor of the oceans is covered with great mountain chains and deep
trenches.'
Neutral (using basic vocabulary only)
l
A graveyard of animal and plant remains lies buried in the earth's crust/
Educated
The latest step in vertebrate evolution was the tool-making man/
Technical
'Critical path analysis is an operational research technique used in management/
Opaquely technical (comprehensible only to an expert)
'Neuraminic acid in the form of its alkali-stable methoxy derivative was first
isolated by Klenk from gangliosides/ (Letter to Nature^ November 1955, quoted
in Quirk, 1984.)
I suggest the following scale of emotional tone:
Intense (profuse use of intensifers) ('hot')
'Absolutely wonderful. . . ideally dark bass . . . enormously successful. . .
superbly controlled1 Warm
'Gentle, soft, heart-warming melodies'
Factual ('cool')
'Significant, exceptionally well judged, personable, presentable, considerable1
THE ANALYSIS OF A TEXT /5

Understatement ('cokT)
'Not. . . undignified'
Note that there is some correlation between formality and emotional tone, in that
an official style is likely to be factual, whilst colloquialisms and slang tend to be
emotive. In translating, the effusiveness of Italian, the formality and stiffness of
German and Russian, the impersonality of French, the informality and understatement
of English have to be taken into account in certain types of corresponding passage.

ATTITUDE

In passages making evaluations and recommendations, you have to assess the

standards of the writer. If he writes 'good', 'fair*, 'average', 'competent 1, 'adequate1,
'satisfactory1, 'middling', 'poor1, 'excellent', are his standards-relative to the context -
absolute, generally accepted in his culture, or arbitrary? Often there is only a thin line
in the critical difference between a positive and a negative opinion, which is not
clarified by the 'middle' words I have listed.
Similarly, approximately the same referent may often be expressed positively,
neutrally or negatively in many languages; thus 'plump/fat*; rondeletjgras; mollig/dkh;
'slim/slender/thin1; svelte Imincelmaigre; schlankldiinnfmager. (The process develops
as writers become more aware of their language.) Regime ('government') is neutral in
French but negative in English.

SETTING

You have to decide on the likely setting: Where would the text be published in the TL?
What is the TL equivalent of the SL periodical, newspaper, textbook, journal, etc?, or
Who is the client you are translating for and what are his requirements? You may have
to take account of briefer titles, absence of sub-titles and sub-headings, shorter
paragraphs and other features of the TL house-style,
You have to make several assumptions about the SL readership. From the
setting of the SL text, as well as the text itself, you should assess whether the
readership is likely to be motivated (keen to read the text), familiar with the topic and
the culture, and 'at home' in the variety of language used. The three typical reader
types are perhaps the expert, the educated layman, and the uninformed. You then have
to consider whether you are translating for the same or a different type of TL
readership, perhaps with less knowledge of the topic or the culture, or a lower standard
of linguistic education. Finally, if you are translating a poem or an important
authoritative statement, should you consider the TL reader at all, apart from
concessions or cultural ^scraps' to help him out (e.g, translating 'a half-holiday1 as un
apris-midi litre)}
16 PRINCIPLES

THE QUALITY OF THE WRITING

Vou have to consider the quality of the writing and the authority of the text, two critical
factors in the choice of translation method. The quality of the writing has to be judged in
relation to the author's intention and/or the requirements of the subject-matter. If the text is
well written, i , e . T the manner is as important as the matter, the right words arc in the right
places, with a minimum ot redundancy, vou have to regard every nuance of the author's
meaning (particularly if it is subtle and difficult) as having precedence over the reader's
response - assuming they are not required to act or react promptly; on the contrary, assuming
hopefully that they will read your translation at least twice. Deciding what is good writing is
sometimes criticised as 'subjective1 but it is a decision, like many others, not subjective but
with a subjective element ('the area of taste! which you have to make, using any experience
of literary criticism you may have had but bearing in mind that the criterion here is meaning:
to what extent does the web of words of the SL text correspond to a clear representation of
facts or images? If a text is well written, the svntax will reflect the writer's personality -
complex syntax will reflect subtlety (Proust, Mann) - plain syntax, simplicity. Words will be
freshly used with unusual connotations. A badly written text will be cluttered w Tith
stereotyped phrases, recently fashionable general words and probably poorly structured.
Note that language rules and prescriptions have nothing much to do with good writing. What
matters is a fresh reflection of the reality outside language or of the writer's mind.
The authority of the text is derived from good writing; but also independently,
unconnectedly, from the status of the SL writer. If the SI. writer is recognised as important
in his field, and he is making an ex-cathedra or official statement, the text is also
authoritative. The point is that 'expressive* texts, i.e. serious imaginative literature and
authoritative and personal statements, have to be translated closely, matching the writing,
good or bad, of the original. Informative texts, siarements that relate primarily to the truth, to
the real facts of the matter, have to be translated in the best style that the translator can
reconcile with the style of the original.

CONNOTATIONS AND DENOTATIONS

Bear in mind that whilst all texts have connotations, an aura of ideas and feelings suggested
by lexical words (crudely, 'run' may suggest 'haste', 'sofa1 may suggest 'comfort'), and all
texts have an 'underlife' (viz. as much of the personal qualities and private life of the writer
as can be derived from an intuitive/analytical reading of a text), in a non-literary text the
denotations of a word normally come before its connotations. But in a literary text, you have
to give precedence to its connotations, since, if it is any good, it is an allegory, a comment on
society, at the time and now, as well as on its strict setting.
From a translator's point of view this is the only theoretical distinction
THE ANALYSIS OF A TEXT 17

between a non-literary and a literary text. In fact, the greater the quantity of a
language's resources (e.g. polysemy, word-play, sound-effect, metre, rhyme) expended
on a text, the more difficult it is likely to be to translate, and the more worthwhile. A
satisfactory restricted translation of any poem is always possible, though it may work
as an introduction to and an interpretation of rather than as a recreation of the original.

THE LAST READING

Finally, you should note the cultural aspect of the SL text; you should underline all
neologisms, metaphors, cultural words and institutional terms peculiar to the SI. or
third language, proper names, technical terms and Untranslatable' words.
Untranslatable words are the ones that have no ready one-to-one equivalent in the TL;
they are likely to be qualities or actions - descriptive verbs, or mental words -words
relating to rhe mind, that have no cognates in the TL, e.g. words like 'fuzzy', 'murky1,
'dizzy', lsnug\ lsnub'; many such English words arise from Dutch or from dialect. You
underline words that you have to consider om of as well as within context, in order to
establish their semantic range, their frontiers; unlike Humptv, you cannot normally
decide to make any word mean what you want, and there are normally limits to the
meaning of any word. The purpose of dictionaries is to indicate the semantic ranges of
words as well as, through collocations, the main senses.
I should say here whilst the meaning of a completely context-determined word
may appear to be remote from its no n-con textual (core) meaning there must be some
link between the two meanings. Thus it might appear to be beyond reason that the
French word communication could possibly mean 'fistula1, but it can be translated as
such if the fistula is a way of communication between the aorta and the pulmonary
artery. Sometimes the link is a secret code.
I am not claiming that you should carry out this analysis on every part of the
text; much of it may be intuitive or unnecessary in the case of a particular text.
Underline only the items where you see a translation problem, and bear in mind that it
is often helpful to study such an item first in context, then in isolation, as though it
were a dictionary or an encyclopaedia entry only, and finally in context again.

CONCLUSION

In principle, a translational analysis of the SL text based on its comprehension is the

first stage of translation and the basis of the useful discipline of translation criticism.
Tn fact, such an analysis is, I think, an appropriate training for translators, since by
underlining the appropriate words they will show they are aware of difficulties they
might otherwise have missed. Thus you relate translation theory to
18 PRINCIPLES

its practice. A professional translator would not usually make such an analysis
explicitly, since he would need to take only a sample in order to establish the
properties of a texi. A translation critic, however, after determining the general
properties - first of the text and secondly of the translation (both these tasks would
centre in the respective intentions of translator and critic) - would use the underlined
words as a basis for a detailed comparison of the two texts.
To summarise, you have to study the text not for itself but as something that
may have to be reconstituted for a different readership in a different culture.