Water Conservation and Management -3677

Assignment # 01 Autumn 2019

Submitted By: Sehrish Shafi

Roll # BX502968 2nd Semester

Submitted To: Sir Husnain Afzal

Department of Environmental Design, Health & Nutritional Sciences, AIOU

Q.1.Why is it necessary to conserve water? Explain various water
conservation techniques.

Ans. Water Conservation is the practice of using water efficiently to reduce unnecessary water
usage. According to Fresh Water Watch, Water conservation is important because fresh clean
water is a limited resource, as well as a costly one. As a homeowner, you are probably already
well aware of the financial costs of inefficient water use. Conversation of this natural resource is
critical for the environment.

Why Conserve Water?

In addition to saving money on your utility bill, water conservation helps prevent water pollution
in nearby lakes, rivers, and local watersheds. Conserving water also prevents greenhouse gas
emissions associated with treating and distributing water. Conserving water can also extend the
life of your septic system by reducing soil saturation and reducing pollution due to leaks.
Overloading municipal sewer systems can also cause untreated sewage to flow to lakes and
rivers. The smaller the amount of water flowing through these systems, the lower the likelihood
of pollution. In some communities, costly sewage system expansion has been avoided by
community-wide household water conservation.

Water Conservation in the Home:

The most effective way to save water is to upgrade to efficient fixtures. But there are other ways
to help reduce the amount of water you use at home.
Toilets:
 Don’t Use the Toilet as an Ashtray or Wastebasket:
Every time you flush a cigarette butt, facial tissue, or other small bit of trash, you’re wasting
gallons of water. Put them in the garbage, or better yet, recycle.
 Put Plastic Bottles or a Float Booster in Your Toilet Tank:
To cut down on water waste, put an inch or two of sand or pebbles inside each of two plastic
bottles. Fill the bottles with water, screw the lids on, and put them in your toilet tank, safely
away from the operating mechanisms. Or, buy an inexpensive tank bank or float booster. This
may save ten or more gallons of water per day. Be sure at least three gallons of water remain in
the tank so it will flush properly. If there is not enough water to get a proper flush, users will
hold the lever down too long or do multiple flushes to get rid of waste. Two flushes at 1.4
gallons are worse than a single 2 gallon flush.
 Buy an Adjustable Toilet Flapper:
Installing an adjustable toilet flapper will allow for adjustment of each per flush use; the user can
adjust the flush rate to the minimum per flush setting that achieves a single good flush each time.
 Install Low or Dual Flush Models:
Federal regulations state that new toilets must use no more than 1.6 gallons per flush. Replacing
an old toilet with an ultra-low volume (ULV) 1.6 gallon flush model represents a 70% savings in
water and will cut indoor water use by about 30%. Alternatively, consider purchasing a dual
flush toilet or installing a dual flush converter that turns a standard toilet into a dual flush toilet,
saving an average family 15,000 gallons of water each year. More water can be used when it’s
needed, but for most flushes you’ll be using 70% less, adding up to some significant water
savings.
 Install Composting Toilets:
Composting toilets are the most effective way to cut water waste from your bathroom since they
require no water at all! Better still, they keep all the nutrients and pollutants out of waterways
and make them available for use in non-food landscapes. Check codes in your area to be sure
they’re legal before installing one. Read our article about composting toilets to find out if they’re
right for you.
Laundry:
 Use Clothes Washer for Only Full Loads:
With clothes washers, avoid the permanent press cycle, which uses an added 5 gallons (20 liters)
for the extra rinse. For partial loads, adjust water levels to match the size of the load.
 Consider a High Efficiency Washing Machine:
The most efficient washing machines use as little as seven gallons per load, compared to a
whopping 54 for a traditional washer. A high efficiency (HE) washer should easily pay for itself
over its lifetime in water and energy savings. New Energy Star rated washers use 35 – 50% less
water and 50% less energy per load. If you’re in the market for a new clothes washer, read our
article about water-saving frontload washers.

Shower:
 Install Water-Saving Showerheads, Shower Timers, and Low-Flow Faucet
Aerators:
Inexpensive water-saving low-flow showerheads or restrictors are easy for the homeowner to
install. Long showers can use five to ten gallons every unneeded minute. “Low-flow” means it
uses less than 2.5 gallons per minute. You can easily install a Shower Start, or add a Shower
Start converter to existing showerheads, which automatically pauses a running shower once it
gets warm.
 Take Shorter Showers:
One way to cut down on water use is to turn off the shower after soaping up, then turn it back on
to rinse. A four-minute shower uses approximately 20 to 40 gallons of water. You can also install
a simple shower timer, available from Earth easy or your local water utility.
Faucets and Sinks:
 Fit Household Faucets with Aerators:
This easy and effective home water conservation method is also the cheapest! A simple low-flow
aerator saves water in the bathroom, while a swiveling aerator can serve multiple purposes in the
kitchen
 Turn Off the Water After You Wet Your Toothbrush:
There is no need to keep the water running while brushing your teeth. Just wet your brush and
fill a glass for mouth rinsing.

 Rinse Your Razor in the Sink:

Fill the sink with a few inches of warm water. This will rinse your razor just as well as running
water, with far less waste of water.
 Minimize Use of Kitchen Sink Garbage Disposal Units:
In-sink ‘garburators’ require lots of water to operate properly, and also add considerably to the
volume of solids in a septic tank, which can lead to maintenance problems. Start a compost
pile as an alternate method of disposing food waste.
 Opt for the Dishwasher Over Hand Washing:
It may seem counterintuitive, but it turns out washing dishes by hand uses a lot more water than
running the dishwasher, even more so if you have a water-conserving model. The EPA estimates
an efficient dishwasher uses half as much water, saving close to 5,000 gallons each year.
 When Washing Dishes by Hand, Don’t Leave the Water Running for Rinsing:
If you have a double-basin, fill one with soapy water and one with rinse water. If you have a
single-basin sink, gather washed dishes in a dish rack and rinse them with a spray device or a pan
full of hot water. Dual-swivel aerators are available to make this easier. If using a dishwasher,
there is usually no need to pre-rinse the dishes.
 Don’t Let the Faucet Run While You Clean Vegetables:
Just rinse them in a stoppered sink or a pan of clean water. Use a dual-setting aerator.
 Keep a Bottle of Drinking Water in the Fridge:
Running tap water to cool it off for drinking water is wasteful. Store drinking water in the fridge
in a safe drinking bottle. If you are filling water bottles to bring along on outdoor hikes, consider
buying a personal water filter, which enables users to drink water safely from rivers or lakes or
any available body of water.
Leaks:
 Check Faucets and Pipes for Leaks:
A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20 gallons of water per day. Larger leaks can
waste hundreds of gallons. Some faucet leaks are easily spotted, but others take a little more
effort to locate. Dry sinks and tubs thoroughly and allow to sit for an hour. If you notice wetness,
you’ve found a leak. To find leaks from faucet handles, dry the area around them before running
water. You’ll see water collecting next to them if there’s a leak.
 Check Your Toilets for Leaks:
Put a little food coloring in your toilet tank. If, without flushing, the color begins to appear in the
bowl within 30 minutes, you have a leak that should be repaired immediately. Most replacement
parts are inexpensive and easy to install.
 Use Your Water Meter to Check for Hidden Water Leaks:
Read the house water meter before and after a two-hour period when no water is being used. If
the meter does not read exactly the same, there is a leak.

Extending Your Conservation Measures:

 Insulate Your Water Pipes:
It’s easy and inexpensive to insulate your water pipes with pre-slit foam pipe insulation. You’ll
get hot water faster plus avoid wasting water while it heats up.

 Recycle Your Water Where You Can:

Collect the cold water you run before it’s hot enough to shower and use it to water plants or flush
the toilet (known as a bucket flush). Rinse water from dishes and food preparation can be
collected and used to soak other dishes.
 Eat Less Water-Intensive Foods:
Our diets account for roughly half of all the water we use. All food has a water footprint, but
some are much larger than others. Eating less beef, one of the most water-intensive foods, is a
smart place to start. Shifting away from animal products to a plant-based diet can shrink your
water footprint significantly.
 Buy Less:
Consumer products are an often-overlooked source of water use, accounting for up to a third of
most people’s water footprint. Buying less of everything—from clothing to electronics to
household goods—can dramatically decrease your water footprint.
Q.2.Why is it necessary to treat grey water? Explain in detail the available
technologies to treat grey water?

Ans. Grey water or sullage is all the wastewater generated in households or office buildings
from streams without fecal contamination, i.e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets.
Sources of grey water include sinks, showers, baths, clothes washing machines or dishwashers.
As grey water contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle
and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-
potable uses.
The application of grey water reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both
the water supply subsystem by reducing the demand for fresh clean water and for the wastewater
subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated. Treated
grey water has many uses, for example, toilet flushing or irrigation.

Benefits of Greywater Re-use:

Demand on conventional water supplies and pressure on sewage treatment systems is reduced by
the use of grey water. Re-using grey water also reduces the volume of sewage effluent entering
watercourses which can be ecologically beneficial. In times of drought, especially in urban areas,
grey water use in gardens or toilet systems helps to achieve some of the goals of ecologically
sustainable development.
The potential ecological benefits of grey water recycling include:
 Reduced freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers
 Less impact from septic tank and treatment plant infrastructure
 Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatment
 Groundwater recharge
  Reclamation of nutrients
 Greater quality of surface and ground water when preserved by the natural purification in
the top layers of soil than generated water treatment processes[8]
In the U.S. Southwest and the Middle East where available water supplies are limited, especially
in view of a rapidly growing population, a strong imperative exists for adoption of alternative
water technologies.
The potential economic benefits of grey water recycling include:

 Can reduce the demand for fresh water, and when people reduce the use of fresh water,
the cost of domestic water consumption is significantly reduced, while alleviating the
pressure of global water resources.
 Can reduce the amount of wastewater entering the sewer or on-site treatment system.
Re-using water does not diminish our quality of life; however it can provide benefits on many
levels.
Two major benefits of greywater use are:
 Reducing the need for fresh water. Saving on fresh water use can significantly reduce
household water bills, but also has a broader community benefit in reducing demands on
public water supply.
 Reducing the amount of wastewater entering sewers or on-site treatment systems. Again,
this can benefit the individual household, but also the broader community.

Grey Water treatment:

Primary Treatment:
The first step in wastewater treatment is used to remove most materials that float or will settle.
Primary treatment removes about 30 percent of the carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand
from domestic sewage.
Sedimentation ponds:
Sedimentation ponds can be used as first faecal sludge treatment step. Solids settle and
accumulate at the bottom of the pond while the clarified liquid flows out of the pond. Ponds are
usually designed with a high retention time.
Septic Tanks:
They consist of an underground sedimentation tank having 2 to 3 compartments, in which settled
sludge is stabilized by anaerobic digestion. Dissolved and suspended matter leave the tank
untreated. They are used for wastewater containing settleable solids, especially domestic
wastewater. The settled sludge must be pumped out periodically.
Rotating biological contactor:
The RBC process involves allowing the wastewater to come in contact with a biological medium
in order to remove pollutants in the wastewater. It consists of a series of closely spaced, parallel
discs mounted on a rotating shaft which is supported just above the surface of the waste water.
Microorganisms grow on the surface of the discs where biological degradation of the wastewater
pollutants takes place.

Biological growth is attached to the surface of the disc and forms a slime layer. The discs contact
the wastewater with the atmospheric air for oxidation as it rotates. The rotation helps to slough
off excess solids.

UV disinfection:
UV disinfection is a physical process that instantaneously neutralizes microorganisms as they
pass by ultraviolet lamps submerged in the effluent. The process adds nothing to the water but
UV light, and therefore, has no impact on the chemical composition or the dissolved oxygen
content of the water.
Secondary treatment systems:
During the second stage, bacteria consume the organic parts of the waste. Bringing together
waste, bacteria, and oxygen accomplish it. This treatment removes floating and settleable solids
and about 90 percent of the oxygen-demanding substances and suspended solids. Disinfection is
the final stage of secondary treatment
Baffled septic tank:
These tanks are an improvement of septic tanks and can treat heavily polluted wastewater like
industrial wastewater or all kind of other wastewaters.
They consist of 2 to 5 serial chambers with eventually an anaerobic filter in the last part. The
first compartment is always a settling chamber followed by a series of up flow chambers. There
is an intensive contact occurring between fresh influent and resident sludge. The process taking
place in the chambers is the anaerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved solids. This
process leads to a COD removal of 65 – 90 %.

Trickling Filter:
Pre-settled wastewater is continuously 'trickled' or sprayed over the filter. The wastewater
trickles through a circular bed of coarse stones or plastic material. The microorganisms in the
wastewater attach themselves to the bed (also known as the filter media), which is covered with
bacteria. The bacteria break down the organic waste and remove pollutants from the wastewater
Tertiary Treatment:
The last step consists of an advanced cleaning of wastewater that goes beyond the secondary or
biological stage. It is removing nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and most BOD and
suspended solids.
Constructed wetlands:
This system is used for the treatment of pre – settled domestic or industrial wastewater.
Wastewater flows horizontally through a filter, which is permanently soaked with water. Plants
grow on the filter media in order to assimilate nutrients. Bacteria in the media degrade solids and
soluble BOD to inorganic nutrients (ammonia and phosphorous). The granular media filters out
solids.
Grey water recycling:
The separate treatment of grey water falls under the concept of source separation, which is one
principle commonly applied in ecological sanitation approaches. The main advantage of keeping
grey water separate from toilet wastewater is that the pathogen load is greatly reduced, and the
grey water is therefore easier to treat and reuse.
When grey water is mixed with toilet wastewater, it is called sewage or black water and should
be treated in sewage treatment plants or an onsite sewage facility, which is often a septic system.
Grey water from kitchen sinks contains fats, oils and grease, and high loads of organic matter. It
should undergo preliminary treatment to remove these substances before discharge into a grey
water tank. If this is difficult to apply, it could be directed to the sewage system or to an existing
sewer.
Most grey water is easier to treat and recycle than sewage because of lower levels of
contaminants. If collected using a separate plumbing system from black water, domestic grey
water can be recycled directly within the home, garden or company and used either immediately
or processed and stored. If stored, it must be used within a very short time or it will begin to
putrefy due to the organic solids in the water. Recycled grey water of this kind is never safe to
drink, but a number of treatment steps can be used to provide water for washing or flushing
toilets.
The treatment processes that can be used are in principle the same as those used for sewage
treatment, except that they are usually installed on a smaller scale (decentralized level), often at
household or building level:
Biological systems such as constructed wetlands or living walls and bioreactors or more compact
systems such as membrane bioreactors which are a variation of the activated sludge process and
is also used to treat sewage.
Mechanical systems (sand filtration, lava filter systems and systems based on UV radiation)
In constructed wetlands, the plants use contaminants of grey water, such as food particles, as
nutrients in their growth. However, salt and soap residues can be toxic to microbial and plant life
alike, but can be absorbed and degraded through constructed wetlands and aquatic plants such as
sedges, rushes, and grasses.

Grey water recycling with membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology:

Grey water (also spelled gray water, grey water, gray water) or sullage is all wastewater
generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination. By
definition greywater is generally waste water from showers, baths, basins, and washing
machines. Greywater treatment is easier than municipal wastewater treatment, generating a large
interest in its reuse and recycling. Typical applications for greywater recycling and re-use are
toilet flushing, irrigation and other non-potable uses.
Reusing wastewater is a crucial part of the sustainable management of water resources.
Greywater can be an important alternative water source, especially in arid and touristic areas,
where the biggest water demand is usual in the dry period. The potential ecological benefits of
greywater recycling include:

 Reduced freshwater extraction from rivers and aquifers,

 Less environmental impact from septic tanks and water treatment plants,
 Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from water treatment,
 Groundwater recharge and reclamation of nutrients.

However, greywater can be contaminated with different kinds of soluble and insoluble
substances and must be treated properly. Contaminants in greywater include traces of dirt, food,
grease, hair, and certain household cleaning products. Typically, aerobic and biological
treatments are used as primary greywater treatment to remove dissolved and suspended
biological matter, followed by ultra-filtration to prevent particles, bacteria and viruses of passing
through. Ultimately, greywater can be disinfected with ultraviolet and/or chlorination, to ensure
residual disinfection at point-of-use.
In densely urbanized touristic areas, where space is short and has a high value, compact and
reliable solutions are required, turning the membrane bioreactor technology into a very attractive
option. The MBR process is a combination of the activated sludge process with membrane
filtration (ultrafiltration or microfiltration). MBR has some distinctive advantages compared with
conventional treatment systems (Figure 1 and 2):

 Very stable process and compact design,

 High effluent quality and low sludge production.

Membrane bioreactors replace clarifiers, media filters and reduce reactor size by combining
physical membrane barriers with biological treatment. These characteristics make MBR the
perfect solution for a greywater treatment system and for greywater recycling. Greywater
systems usually comprise of plumbing, pumps and a bioreactor tank where the biological
treatment occurs and the water passes through a membrane filter.
 Figure 1 Greywater treatment with membrane bioreactor technology

Figure 2 Greywater treatment with conventional technologies

Lenntech provides sustainable and complete solutions for greywater recycling considering a
wide range of technologies and strategies. With worldwide growing water demand and water
scarcity, reclaiming greywater is a suitable solution for reducing our water footprint and water
costs.
Q.3.What is the concept of Rain water harvesting? What environmental benefits
can be extracted from rainwater harvesting in Pakistan.

Ans. Rain water harvesting is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater into natural
reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers (before it is lost as
surface runoff). One method of rainwater harvesting is rooftop harvesting. With rooftop
harvesting, most any surface — tiles, metal sheets, plastics, but not grass or palm leaf — can be
used to intercept the flow of rainwater and provide a household with high-quality drinking water
and year-round storage. Other uses include water for gardens, livestock, and irrigation, etc.
Farmers in Pakistan’s Punjab province are greening their lands and combating weather
vagaries through rainwater harvesting using small dams:

Rainwater harvesting is a relatively new and innovative concept for many farmers in the region
who are delighted to have water for crops and livestock throughout the year.
“Rainwater harvesting has also helped raise the groundwater table from 450 feet to 200 feet in
the village,” “This is also inspiring people of nearby villages to pool money for building mini
dams so they can reap the benefits of modern agriculture.”

To construct a mini dam for rainwater harvesting, a natural stream or nullah (water channel) near
farmland is identified and then choked by building a wall in the front. An engine is installed and
water supplied to farms through a pipeline. The small dam, which is 15 feet in height, is built on
government land in the village and has a catchment area of one square kilometer, a command
area of 250 kanals (about 500 square metres) and storage capacity 29.21 acres/feet. The cost of
the $4,279 project, which has changed so many lives, was shared by 20 families of the village
and by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), both sides paying $2,139,
an official said. The importance of harvesting water is underscored by a research paper published
by the Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, which estimates that the Potohar Plateau,
including the Chakwal, Jhelum, Attock and Rawalpindi districts of Punjab province, covers an
area of 2.2 million hectares and receives as much as 70% of its precipitation in just the monsoon
season. On top of this, groundwater supplies are depleting at 16 to 55 centimeters (6 to 21
inches) a year across Punjab province, according to a study by the International Waterlogging
and Salinity Research Institute.
Going macro:
An estimated 64% of the country’s population lives in rural areas and earns a living from
agricultural activities such as crop cultivation and livestock rearing, according to the
2010 agricultural census carried out by Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. There are 50,588 villages in
Pakistan but all may not have terrain suitable for rainwater harvesting. The Potohar Plateau is
believed to be the most suitable area in the country for natural places for rainwater harvesting
with experts identifying 74 sites.

Around 145 million acre feet of water flows through Pakistan each year, but the country’s
existing storage capacity is only 14 million acre feet. “Small dams and rainwater harvesting
techniques could help the country increase its water storage capacity from 30 days to the
international standard of 120 days,” said Dr. Pervaiz Amir, country director for the Pakistan
Water Partnership.

The adverse impacts of climate change could exacerbate the crisis in a country on the verge of
being classified as ‘water scarce’ with per capita water availability falling to 1,000 cubic metres,
he added. The government, Amir stressed, needs to come up with feasible rainwater harvesting
programmers for arid areas of the country. “Otherwise, growing water stress could turn into a
catastrophe.”

Rainwater harvesting techniques not only supplement irrigation but also provide sufficient
drinking water for livestock and population in the area, he said. It has multiple advantages and
should be prioritized at the government level, agreed Dr. Bilal Anwar, senior manager at the
Centre for Climate Research and Development of COMSATS Institute of Information
Technology, Islamabad. “There is huge potential for rainwater harvesting across the country.
Moreover, this doesn’t require huge investment and infrastructure unlike big water storages.”

Rainwater harvesting techniques could help irrigate more land, improve the groundwater table,
provide drinking water and increase incomes of subsistence farmers. “This could also prove a
better adaptation strategy in the face of the adverse impact of climate change if farmers are
trained in using drip and sprinkle irrigation techniques to conserve water,” he suggested.

The ripple effect:

Encouraged by the success of the project in Thoa Mehram Khan, many other farmers in the area
have started building small dams on their lands to harvest rainwater on a self-help basis. Amir
Abdullah, a local activist and farmer, who is building a mini dam on his farmland in Dhok
Sherjangyall, a village in Talagang, and hopes it will help store enough water during the
monsoon to be utilised for irrigation round the year.

“Rainwater harvesting is a new concept for us but I hope it will help increase my agricultural
yield by around 50%,” he said, urging the government to invest in construction of mini dams in
the Potohar Plateau.

Punjab’s Small Dams Organisation constructed 20 mini dams during the year 2000 and 2010,
including 12 in Chakwal district, to help farmers irrigate more than 27,000 acres of land, an
official said. Each dam costs about $4,000, but the tricky bit is finding an appropriate location
and maintaining quality control. Experts suggest that nine of the 20 dams are of no use due to
structural flaws and substandard construction and only 2,000 acres of land could be irrigated. No
doubt as Pakistan continues along this path the success rate will improve, brightening the lives of
Pakistani farmers.

Q.4. Agriculture sector is the major consumer of surface and ground water
reserves of Pakistan, Explain in detail, what measures could be adopted to
make the irrigation network water efficient from source to Farm level.
 Problems and issues of irrigation system in Pakistan:

Water economy is a term used in the Pakistan agriculture as the crops are highly dependent on
water and for the development and proper functionality of this prodigious system, maintenance
of existing infrastructure and new construction is undoubtedly the need of the hour. In Pakistan
capital cost for the development of irrigation system is recovered from the user.

Operation and maintenance charged are linked to the water charges collected by the provincial
governments but due to the incompetence and malpractices of the government institutions they
are not enough for what is required. The short fall in funds is above 30% for each province.
Provincial governments and federal institutions are also responsible for the operational and
maintenance.

 Improvement and up gradation

 Salinity and water logging issues
 Irrigation system turning during rainy weather
 water pressure issues
 over watering and under watering
 water runoff and polling
 Over exploitation of fresh ground water
 Insufficient cost recovery
 Government policy
 Wara bandi system
 Water losses in field
 Evaporation losses

Ways to Improve Irrigation Level:

Drip Irrigation:

Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to a plant’s roots, reducing the evaporation that
happens with spray watering systems. Timers can be used to schedule watering for the cooler
parts of the day, further reducing water loss. Properly installed drip irrigation can save up to 80
percent more water than conventional irrigation, and can even contribute to increased
crop yields.
 Capturing and Storing Water

Many farms rely on municipal water or wells (groundwater), while some have built their own
ponds to capture and store rainfall for use throughout the year. Properly managed ponds can also
create habitat for local wildlife. Marin Roots Farm relies on two ponds for all of their water
needs, helping to minimize their impact on the surrounding watershed. 

Irrigation Scheduling:
Smart water management is not just about how water is delivered but also when, how often, and
how much. To avoid under- or overwatering their crops, farmers carefully monitor the weather
forecast, as well as soil and plant moisture, and adapt their irrigation schedule to the current
conditions. Tory Farms, which uses flood irrigation in their orchards, waters at night to slow
down evaporation, allowing water to seep down into the soil and replenish the water table.

Drought-Tolerant Crops:
Growing crops that are appropriate to the region’s climate is another way that farmers are getting
more crop per drop. Crop species that are native to arid regions are naturally drought-tolerant,
while other crop varieties have been selected over time for their low water needs. 

Dry Farming:
Dry Farmer don’t irrigate, relying on soil moisture to produce their crops during the dry season.
Special tilling practices and careful attention to microclimates are essential. Dry farming tends to
enhance flavors, but produces lower yields than irrigated crops. Dirty Girl Produce is known for
their dry-farmed Early Girl tomatoes. Wine grapes, olives, potatoes, and apple trees can also be
successfully dry farmed.

Rotational Grazing:
Rotational grazing is a process in which livestock are moved between fields to help promote
pasture regrowth. Good grazing management increases the fields’ water absorption and decreases
water runoff, making pastures more drought-resistant. Increased soil organic matter and better
forage cover are also water-saving benefits of rotational grazing. 

Compost and Mulch:

Compost, or decomposed organic matter used as fertilizer, has been found to improve soil
structure, increasing its water-holding capacity. Mulch is a material spread on top of the soil to
conserve moisture. Mulch made from organic materials such as straw or wood chips will break
down into compost, further increasing the soil’s ability to retain water. 
Farmers may also use black plastic mulch as a soil cover to suppress weeds and
reduce evaporation.

Cover Crops:

Landed to protect soil that would otherwise go bare, cover crops reduce weeds, increase soil
fertility and organic matter, and help prevent erosion and compaction. This allows water to more
easily penetrate the soil and improves its water-holding capacity.
Q.5.What is Per Capita Water Consumption of Pakistan? Compare your
findings with Asian countries and suggest ways for improvement.

Ans. According to the international standard, the average availability of water per person is
1,800 cubic metres. If it is less than 1,000 cubic metres, a country is declared suffering from
water shortage. Pakistan currently ranks 23rd among 167 countries facing water scarcity.

Water availability per capita in Pakistan has depleted to a level of 1017 cubic meter tons in
Pakistan – very close to 1000 cubic meters, which is considered as an alarming situation and is
called scarcity threshold.
“Per capita, water availability has been decreasing in Pakistan and it has reached to 1017 cubic
meters while 1000 tons per capita availability is considered alarming for a country. Moreover,
this low 1200 tons per capita availability is not evenly distributed. People in Thar may not even
be having a 100-ton per capita availability,” said Nestle Karachi Factory Manager Nasir Mansoor
while speaking to a group of journalists on ‘World Water Day’ at Nestle’s Karachi Plant.
World Water Day is celebrated across the globe on March 22 to highlight the importance of
clean water availability.
According to Nestle Public Affairs Manager Madiha Javed Qureshi, the company has put
Pakistan among its top prioritised countries with 80,000 people getting free clean water out of
the total of 440,000 people worldwide. Nestle has installed eight free clean water facilities in
Pakistan- each having a capacity to provide clean water to 10,000 people every day.
Nasir Mansoor also highlighted that 90% of the available water is used in agriculture in Pakistan
and 50% of the total water is wasted due to old techniques of farming in Pakistan.
Separately in Lahore, a “Together for Water” seminar was jointly held by Nestlé Pakistan and
Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) on World Water Day, at LUMS’ Centre of
Water Informatics and Technology where experts discussed how technology can be used in
agriculture for efficient water management. The stressed the need for industry working to work
with the academia to find solutions to reduce water usage and subsequently conserve water.

The country’s water availability has reduced to 935 cubic metres per capita (per person per year)
from 5,260 cubic metre per capita in the last 70 years. If an effective strategy is not chalked out
to conserve water, it will further fall to 860 cubic metres per capita. Experts believe that in 2040,
it is expected to decline to 500 cubic metres per capita.
According to the international standard, the average availability of water per person is 1,800
cubic metres. If it is less than 1,000 cubic metres, a country is declared suffering from water
shortage. Pakistan currently ranks 23rd among 167 countries facing water scarcity. It is also on
the list of 33 countries which are predicted to face acute water shortage in the future. Other
countries on this list include Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Singapore, UAE, Palestine, Israel, Iraq,
Armenia, Chile, Kyrgyzstan, Greece, Jordan, Libya, Yemen, Macedonia, Azerbaijan, Morocco,
Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Spain and Tanzania. According to the experts, Pakistan
is in need of emergency reserves to avoid water scarcity and increase the level of underground
water. They have also stressed the need for installing water meters to prevent wastage and
improve the supply system. Besides, it has also been suggested to spread awareness among the
citizens about the conservation of water.
Actors contributing to increased water demand include rapid increase in population, low water-
usage efficiency, an extremely water-intensive economy and poor management of water
resources and absence of a national water policy.
As is the case in most countries of the world, Pakistan’s agriculture sector is the largest
consumer of water and hence, a major cause of water shortage. Resultantly, it is extremely
important to devise mechanisms and methods for making crop irrigation more efficient to leave
room for domestic and industrial supply.
By 2025, the demand for water is expected to increase up to 274 MAF with the supply remaining
constant at 191 MAF, causing a demand-supply gap of 83 MAF.
Pakistan has the world’s fourth-highest water-usage rate. Pakistan’s economy is the world’s most
water-intensive economy; which means that the amount of water utilised in cubic metres per unit
of GDP is the world’s highest, which signifies that productivity/efficiency is the lowest in the
world.
As Pakistan uses 93% of its freshwater resources on agriculture; there is a need to improve the
efficiency rate which currently stands at 50%. Some studies suggest efficiencies as low as 33%,
for canal irrigation. This means that only 33% of the water released into canals reaches from the
farm gate. Water infrastructure and weak project implementation are a few examples of what
causes efficiencies to be low.
Despite this situation, Pakistan still has substantial potential of increasing water-usage efficiency.
The country can increase productivity of water without increasing water supply. Increasing
pressure on irrigation departments by farmers to become accountable and efficient, emergence of
progressive farmers, introducing high-value crops and using latest agricultural technologies can
greatly increase the efficiency of irrigation-water.

Current Situation:

The current water supply in Pakistan is not only limited, but also quite erratic in nature. More
importantly, the overall availability faces significant risks from increasing pollution and climate
change. The water demand, on the other hand, is rising rapidly on account of growing population
and urbanization.Thus, the resulting imbalance is pushing the country towards severe water
shortage. Water supplies are vulnerable and suffer from extensive.
River Flows and Water Availability (1979-2015)
million acre feet
Average
Total river inflows (a) 143.3
Ground water available (b) 50.0
Total water supply (a+b) 193.3
Average withdrawal through canals 101.0
Escapage below Kotri 26.7
Evaporation and other losses 15.6
Water availability (agriculture)
Average withdrawal through canals 101.0
Losses (from canal head to farm gate) 24.3
Water available at farm gate (c) 76.7
Groundwater withdrawal (d) 47.0
Overall water availability (c+d) 123.7
Data source: Water and Power Development Authority

Water Availability – A Regional Comparison:

A comparison with South Asian countries reveals that Pakistan, being an arid country, derives
most of its water supplies from river flows. Other South Asian countries are comforted with
tropical monsoon climate, receiving average annual rainfall exceeding 1,000 mm. Pakistan, on
the other hand, receives rainfall of less than 500 mm per annum.
To add to Pakistan’s water constraints, the country solely relies on the Indus River and its
tributaries. In comparison, India relies on several river basins, such as the Ganges River,
Godavari River, included in the 12 major river basins and hence has a comfortable annual river
flow supply. Similarly, Bangladesh’s river flow supplies are derived from 3 major basins.
The challenge to water resource management becomes more difficult, as not all of the water
supply is available for consumption. Besides inevitable evaporation losses and the required flows
into the Arabian Sea (to prevent intrusion into the delta region), there are extensive system
leakages due to limited storage and weak irrigation infrastructure.
Groundwater pumping, another crucial source that contributes 40 percent to total supplies at farm
gate, also faces sustainability concerns. A greater control on timing and the available amount has
encouraged reliance on extraction of groundwater. While this is beneficial where fields are water
logged or salinized, the over-exploitation in certain areas has led to depletion of this valuable
resource. In a few areas, the excessive use has resulted in the intrusion of saline (brackish)
groundwater into the fresh aquifers, thereby making it then unusable.

Climate Change – a Major Emerging Challenge for Water Sustainability:

The long-term water sustainability in Pakistan is also vulnerable to shifts in the weather pattern.
According to the task force on climate change in Pakistan, the average temperature has risen by
0.6 0C over the period 1901-2000. Similarly, mean precipitation has also increased by 25 percent
over the previous century. More importantly, the pace of warming is increasing with each
passing year, further going forward in line with the global trends.38 In addition, climate change
will increase the variability of monsoon rains and enhance the incidence and severity of extreme
events such as floods and droughts.
Keeping in view the country’s vulnerability to climate change, the Global Climate Risk Index of
2017 ranked Pakistan at 7th out of 181 countries (in 2015, the country ranked 11th).39 Similarly,
Maplecroft Index of Climate Change Vulnerability (2017) has placed Pakistan in the extreme
risk category by ranking it at 16th out of 170 countries (in 2010, Pakistan ranked at 29th
position).
The climate change will impact the water situation in the country through multiple channels. For
example:
 Climate change will enhance the demand for water: while a number of factors (e.g., rising
population, rapid urbanization, increase in income, etc.) will push up the demand for water in
the country, a strong impetus would come from the climate change. Specifically, the rise in
temperature would require more water for irrigation due to prolonged dry and warmer
season; for farm animals to meet their hydration needs; for individuals to cope with higher
atmospheric temperature; for industries to take care of increased cooling requirements; and
for discharge into the sea so that intrusion of saline water into delta regions could be
prevented.

 Climate change is expected to affect the ice and snow accumulation patterns in the zones that
supply Indus basin with its flows. The overall river supplies would come under pressure as
rising temperatures would increase evaporation losses in the system. At the same time, the
climate change would shift the peak flow points in time.40 rising mercury levels in the upper
Indus basin would result in earlier seasonal melting of the glacial ice sheet. This effect would
lead to a shift in peak river runoff towards winter and early spring.41

 Another impact of climate change is the unpredictable future water outcomes in the Upper
Indus Basin due to precipitation variability.42 Specifically for South Asia, El Nino-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) events are likely to disrupt monsoon patterns and may cause extreme
weather events.43 El Nino events of 1997-98 triggered heavy rainfalls throughout Pakistan
followed by extreme dry condition in its later phase. The 2014-16 El Nino episode triggered
similar effects. These oscillations have become more frequent and intense in recent history.

 Heightened rainfall variability in the catchment areas of the Indus Basin is expected to affect
groundwater resources.44, 45 Variability in spatial distribution and intensity of precipitation
under rising mercury levels will alter the recharge and discharge patterns. This will affect the
quality of the water due to salt intrusion in Indus Basin Aquifer.46 For example, in times of
low surface flows, there would be less recharge available which would increase the demand
for ground water, creating an imbalance. Net discharge would deteriorate quality of water
through intrusion of saltwater into freshwater areas.

Need 0f Policy Reforms for Improvement:

Water resource management requires policies to ensure more productive, equitable, and
sustainable uses through reallocation across sectors. However, Pakistan is still awaiting its first
National Water Policy despite the fact that its draft was formulated in 2003. The task of
structuring a policy became more complicated after the 18th amendment when water distribution
for agriculture, domestic and industrial purposes became a provincial subject. Accordingly, the
draft water policy is awaiting approval from the Council of Common Interest. In comparison,
neighboring countries such as India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka all have water policy in
place for more than a decade, which defines the goals regarding water conservation, storage and
distribution at the federal and other levels.
The delay in announcing this policy is a major setback as the current policies are inadequate in
addressing the upcoming water challenges. Further delays would only damage the long-term
growth prospects of the economy. Any policy on water should focus on measures to augment
supplies and manage demand. This would require reforms in multiple directions, e.g., to revamp
the pricing mechanism; to develop institutional capacity; and or invest in infrastructure.

 Raising water rates to bring at par with the operation and maintenance cost: Within the
pricing structure, focus needs to be on raising abiana rates within agriculture and tariffs
within domestic and industrial sector to bring them at par with the cost required to operate
and maintain the water supply system. Besides, it would help in encouraging a more rational
use of water. At the same time, regulatory policies are needed to ensure sustainability of
underground aquifers.
 Developing supply infrastructure through metering and ensuring connections so as to charge
volumetric pricing:
 Urgent lining, repair and maintenance of canals are required to minimize the most
extensive source of water losses in the system.
 There is a need to charge volumetric pricing that is to charge each crop and area as
per the unit of water consumed. This would be possible through separating the charge
of water from the land area and connecting it to the quantity of water consumed.
 Within the domestic and industrial sectors, proper provision of water connections to
households and industrial units, along with metering devices, is also crucial to
regulate the quantity consumed and charge rates accordingly. This would also
regulate the use of water and reduce issues of equity between households. In addition,
the unregulated use of groundwater needs to be contained.

 Revamping the system of water rights (Warabandi): A system of water rights should be
introduced which allows for trading of water rights, as a result head end farmers could
sell their right to tail end farmers and increase productivity and efficiency.
 Strengthening the role of IRSA as a mediator to ensure development of storages: The role
of IRSA as a mediator between provinces needs to be strengthened through provision of
proper telemetry system to the organization and enhance its conflict resolution capacities.
Conflict resolution is compulsory for development of future storages.
 Proper waste management and regulation: Focus on proper disposal of household,
industrial and agriculture waste is crucial to ensure adequate quality of water. Penalties
and fines shall be imposed for non-compliance.
 Disseminate awareness regarding the rising stress on water resources: Since water is a
sensitive issue in the country, there is a need to focus on raising awareness about the
importance of conservation.
Q.6.What is Dam? Briefly explain its types and elaborate how dams can
contribute towards water conservation and its management.

Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are built to
provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use in
industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for
generating hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large storms
or heavy snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve navigation
and allow barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for recreational
activities such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for more than one
purpose; for example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate
hydroelectric power, and to support an irrigation system. Water-control structures of this type are
often designated multipurpose dams.

Masonry Dam:

Masonry dams are built using either stone masonry or brick masonry. Cement mortar is used to
join the masonry blocks. Gravity dam, arch dam etc. are examples of masonry dams.
Concrete Dam:

Concrete is most commonly used material to construct a dam. Most of the major dams in the
world are built using concrete. Gravity dams, arch dam, Buttress dam etc. can be constructed
using concrete.

Three Gorges Concrete Dam, China

Timber Dam:

Timber dams generally used for temporary purposes such as to divert the water for the
construction of main dam, to control flood water flow etc. Timber dams are suitable up to 9
meters height.

Timber Dam
Steel Dam:

Steel dams are also used for temporary requirements like timber dams.  Steel plates and inclined
struts are used for the construction of steel dam. This type of dams are suitable up to 15 to 18
meters of height.
 Redridge Steel Dam, USA

Non-Rigid Dam:

Non-rigid dams are constructed using non-rigid materials such as earth, rocks etc. Basic
shape of non-rigid dam Trapezoidal. Non-rigid dams of different materials are

Earthen Dam:

Earthen dams are made of ordinary soil which is cheaply available. This type of dams are
suitable where the foundation soil is very weak and not strong enough to carry the weight of
masonry dam. Since it is constructed using soil the cost of construction is very less compared to
rigid type dam.

Earthen Dam
Rock Fill Dam:

Rock fill dams are constructed using rocks and boulders. Upstream side of dam is built with dry
rubble masonry and loose rock fill is provided on the downstream side. A reinforced concrete
slab layer is also provided on the upstream side to make it water tight.

It is more stable than earthen dams and its flexible nature helps it better against earthquake
forces.
 Damghan Rock-fill Dam, Iran

Classification Based on Structure and Design of a Dam:

Depending upon structure and design dams are classified into:
 Gravity dam
 Arch dam
 Buttress dam
 Embankment dam

Gravity Dam:

A Gravity dam is a structure which resists the external forces by its own weight or self-weight.
Gravity dams are generally constructed by using masonry or concrete.
Various external forces like water pressure, uplift pressure, wave pressure, ice pressure, earth
quake pressure etc. are resisted by its self-weight only which acts vertically downwards. So,
good foundation is required to construct gravity dam preferably rocky strata under the dam.
The shape of cross section of gravity dam is approximately triangular in shape. Infiltration
gallery can be provided within the dam to resist uplift pressure. The failure of gravity dam may
occurs due to sliding, overturning or crushing at toe. Hence, higher factor of safety is
recommended for the design of gravity dam.

Grand Coulee Gravity Dam, USA

Arch Dam:

An arch dam is curved in plan with its convex upstream. Various forces coming onto the dam are
resisted by its arch action. It is constructed using masonry or concrete but requires less material
compared to gravity dam.
The loads coming onto the dam are transferred to the abutments of dam. So, abutments must be
stronger and generally natural formations like hills are used as abutments. Arch dams are
generally preferred for narrow valleys.
Arch dam is economical when the length of dam is less than its height. So, this type of dams can
be build up to greater heights.

El Atazar Arch Dam, Spain

Buttress Dam:

A buttress dam contains face slab, buttresses and base slab. Face slab is provided on the
upstream side with some inclination and this slab is supported by series of buttresses which are
nothing but supports. Base slab acts as foundation for the whole dam which receives the load
from buttresses and face slab.
Buttress dam is either straight or curved in plan. Greater the height of dam higher the number of
buttresses. This type of dams are preferred where the foundation soil is very weak. The space
available between the buttresses can used for several purposes like water treatment plant
installation, power plant installation etc.

The Daniel-Johnson Buttress Dam, Canada

Embankment Dam:

Embank dam is made of soil or rocks. This type of dams are come under non rigid type dams.
Embankment dams are again classified into three different types:
  Homogeneous Embankment Type Dam
 Zoned Embankment Type Dam
 Diaphragm Embankment Dam

Homogeneous Embankment Type Dam:

If the dam is constructed using only one type of soil then it is called as homogeneous
embankment type dam. But homogeneity of soil makes the dam pervious and allow seepage of
water through the dam. To overcome this stone pitching is recommended on the upstream side.

Homogeneous Embankment Dam

Zoned Embankment Type Dam:

Zoned embankment dam consists an impervious soil zone inside the pervious soil layer. Clay or
silt or mixture of clay and silt is used to make the impervious zone. Ordinary soil is used for
make the previous outer layer.

Zoned Embankment Dam

Diaphragm Embankment Dam:

Diaphragm embankment dam consists a diaphragm inside the earthen dam and it is made of
impervious soils or concrete or steel or timber. This diaphragm prevents the seepage of water
through dam section.

Diaphragm Embankment Dam

Classification Based on Functions of a Dam:

Based on Functions Dams are classified into:

 Storage dam
 Diversion Dam
 Detention Dam
 Debris dam
 Coffer dam

Storage Dam:

Storage dam is constructed to store water on the upstream side especially during rainy seasons
and is released during dry weather season or when there is higher demand of water. The stored
water can also be used to generate power, irrigation, water supply etc.

Storage Arch Dam

Diversion Dam:

Diversion dam is a dam which is constructed to divert the flow of water into other channel or
canal. This type dams are generally used to fill the irrigation channels.

Granite Reef Diversion Dam, USA

Detention Dam:

The main purpose of Detention dam is to control floods. During flood period, it stores the water
and protects the downstream side from damage due to floods. After the flood period the stored
water is released at a controlled rate without effecting the downstream side.
Debris Dam:

Debris dam is built to retain the debris of the river water. Sand, gravel, driftwood etc. are debris
generally flow with river water. The water on the downstream side of debris dam is clear.

Mono Debris Dam, USA

Cofferdam:

Cofferdam is temporary structure which generally acts like diversion dam. Cofferdam provides
dry area for the construction of main dam by diverting the water flow into other watercourse. It is
constructed on upstream side or fully around the construction site.

Coffer Dam
Hydro-power Dam:

Hydro-power dam is used to generate electricity by rotating turbines with the help of water
falling from upstream side to downstream side of dam.

Cheruthoni Hydropower Dam, India

Classification Based on Hydraulic Design of Dam:
Based on hydraulic design dams are classified into 2 types as follows:
 Overflow dam
 Non-overflow dam
Overflow Dam:

Overflow dam is a dam which allows the water over its crest when surplus water is flowing on
the upstream side. This is also called as spillway dam or over fall dam.

Canyon Lake Dam, USA

Non-Overflow Dam:

A dam which do not allow the surplus water to overflow over its crest. But in general spillway is
provided for any type dam to release the excess water from upstream side.

Non-overflow Dam

Classification Based on Gross Storage of Dam:

Dams are classified into three types based on gross storage capacity of dam and they are:
 Small Dam
 Medium Dam
 Large Dam

Small Dam:

A dam is called as small dam if its gross storage capacity is in between 0.5 to 10 MCM (million
cubic meters). Hydraulic head of small dam is generally about 7.5 to 12 meters.
 Small Dam
Medium Dam:

If gross storage capacity of a dam is in between 10 to 60 MCM then it is said to be medium

storage dam. Its hydraulic head is 12 to 30 meters.

Medium Dam
Large Dam:

A dam is said to be large dam if its gross storage capacity is above 60 MCM. Hydraulic head of a
large dam is greater than 30 meters.

Large Dam

Conservation of Water, through dam construction:

With only 1% of water available for human consumption, doesn't it make sense that we should
treat our water supply with more respect? Water is the source of life on this planet. If you look at
the earth's surface and see that 70 per cent of it is water, it may be hard to grasp that many parts
of the world are suffering from a lack of this seemingly abundant resource. Of all the water
present on earth 97.5% of it is not fit to drink.

Only 2.5% of water is consumable, with one third frozen in the form of glaciers and polar ice.
The water left for human use is roughly 1% of the total water present. In order to fulfill the
demands of consumption, the water from rainfall is collected in huge dams and is purified to
make it drinkable. These filtering and detoxifying methods require sufficient funding. Because of
the technological and financial resources needed to make water fit to drink, many economically
challenged countries simply go without. In addition, there has been a great change in the world
weather and the rainfall patterns due to global warming. This phenomenon adds to the water
scarcity issue in various parts of the world.

Water conservation should not be considered an option any longer. Current circumstances
require our full attention if we hope to thrive as a civilization.

The studies conducted in 2005 revealed that there has been a decrease of 7% in water
consumption in households as compared with the results obtained in 2001. The main reason of
this reduction in water usage is increased awareness of global warming and involvement in the
going green campaigns. Another reason is a boost in green technology and the production of
energy efficient appliances.

Water is essential for sustenance of all forms of life on earth. It is not evenly distributed all over
the world and even its availability at the same locations is not uniform over the year. While the
parts of the world, which are scarce in water, are prone to drought, other parts of the world,
which are abundant in water, face a challenging job of optimally managing the available water
resources. No doubt the rivers are a great gift of nature and have been playing a significant role
in evolution of various civilizations, nonetheless on many occasions, rivers, at the time of floods,
have been playing havoc with the life and property of the people. Management of river waters
has been, therefore, one of the most prime issues under consideration. Optimal management of
river water resources demands that specific plans should be evolved for various river basins
which are found to be technically feasible and economically viable after carrying out extensive
surveys. Since the advent of civilization, man has been constructing dams and reservoirs for
storing surplus river waters available during wet periods and for utilization of the same during
lean periods. The dams and reservoirs world over have been playing dual role of harnessing the
river waters for accelerating socio-economic growth and mitigating the miseries of a large
population of the world suffering from the vagaries of floods and droughts. Dams and reservoirs
contribute significantly in fulfilling the following basic human needs: -
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farmers-in-pakistans-punjab/
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recycling/greywater-systems/
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 https://cuesa.org/article/10-ways-farmers-are-saving-water
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