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Report No: AUS0000659

Skills and Innovation for Growth

Tertiary Education Sector Review
Bangladesh
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Report No: AUS0000659

Skills and Innovation for Growth

BANGLADESH TERTIARY
EDUCATION SECTOR REVIEW

Tashmina Rahman, Shiro Nakata, Yoko Nagashima, Md. Mokhlesur Rahman,

Uttam Sharma, and Muhammad Asahabur Rahman

March 31, 2019

Education Global Practice

South Asia Region
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report was prepared by a team comprised of Tashmina Rahman (Education Specialist), Shiro Nakata (Senior Education
Economist), Yoko Nagashima (Senior Education Specialist), Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (Senior Operations Specialist), Uttam
Sharma (Consultant) and Muhammad Asahabur Rahman (Consultant) under the overall supervision of Cristian Aedo
(Practice Manager). Research assistance was provided by Jeje Moses Okurut (Consultant), Farzana Shams (Consultant)
and Mustahsin-Ul-Aziz (Consultant). The report benefited from useful inputs and feedbacks from World Bank colleagues,
including Tekabe Ayalew Belay (Program Leader), Sereen Juma (Country Program Coordinator) and Bushra Binte Alam
(Sr. Health Specialist).

The authors particularly thank D.H.C Aturupane (Lead Economist); Xiaonan Cao (Senior Education Specialist) and Jason
Allen Weaver (Senior Education Specialist) for their insightful review and thoughtful comments as peer reviewers.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADB Asian Development Bank
ADP Annual Development Program
AIF Academic Innovation Fund
BAC Bangladesh Accreditation Council
BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University
BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Education and Informational Statistics
BCPS Bangladesh College of Physicians and Surgeons
BdREN Bangladesh Research and Education Network
BNMC Bangladesh Nursing and Midwifery Council
BTEB Bangladesh Technical Education Board
BSMMU Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University
BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
CEDP College Education Development Project
DGHS Directorate General of Health Services
DME Directorate of Madrasa Education
DSHE Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education
DTE Directorate of Technical Education
EHS Education Household Survey
FCPS Fellow of College of Physicians and Surgeons
FMRP Financial Management Reform Project
FYP Five-Year Plan

ii
 GB Governing Body
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrollment Rate
GoB Government of Bangladesh
GPI Gender Parity Index
HEQEP Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project
HSC Higher School Certificate
ICT Information Communication Technology
IT Information Technology
IQAC Institutional Quality Assurance Cells
IP Intellectual Property
LASI Learning Assessment of Secondary Institutions
LMS Learning Management System
MCPS Member of College of Physicians and Surgeons
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MoE Ministry of Education
MoF Ministry of Finance
MTBF Medium-Term Budgeting Framework
NAEM National Academy of Educational Management
NEP National Education Policy
NSDA National Skills Development Authority
NSDP National Skills Development Policy
NSQAS National Skills Quality Assurance System
NTRCA Nongovernment Teacher Registration and Certification Authority
NTSC Nongovernment Teachers Selection Commission
NTVQF National Technical and Vocational Qualification Framework
PBF Performance-Based Funding
PFM Public Financial Management
PSC Public Service Commission
R&D Research and Development
RMG Ready-Made Garments
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SHED Secondary and Higher Education Division
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
STEP Skills and Training Enhancement Project
TEI Tertiary Education Institution
TIB Transparency International Bangladesh
TMED Technical and Madrasa Education Division
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UDL University Grants Commission Digital Library
UGC University Grants Commission
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VC Vice Chancellor
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | iii

CONTENTS ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

12
INTRODUCTION
13 1.1. Background
14 1.2. Study Objectives and Approach
15 1.3. Study Methodology

18
TERTIARY GRADUATE SKILLS AND EMPLOYABILITY
19 2.1 Job Market Outcomes of Tertiary Graduates
21 2.2 Relevance of Tertiary Education: Employers’ and Graduates’ Perception

22
ACCESS AND EQUITY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
23 3.1 Background
25 3.2 Key Issues in Access and Equity in Tertiary Education in Bangladesh
29 3.3 Policy Options for Promoting Equity in Tertiary Education
31 Bibliography

32 33
34
42
44
QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
4.1 Background
4.2 Key Issues in Quality and Relevance in TEIs in Bangladesh
4.3 Policy Options for Improving Quality and Relevance in TEIs
Bibliography

46
RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
47 5.1 Background
47 5.2 Status of Research in Bangladesh
50 5.3 Key Issues in Research and Innovation in TEIs in Bangladesh
53 5.4 Policy Options for Promoting Research and Innovation in Tertiary Education
55 Bibliography

56
GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
57 6.1 Background
59 6.2 Institutional Governance and Management
61 6.3 Key Issues in Governance and Management of Tertiary Education
6.4 Policy Options for Promoting ‘Good’ Governance and Management in Tertiary
65 Education in Bangladesh
67 Bibliography

68
FINANCING OF TERTIARY EDUCATION
69 7.1 Background
70 7.2 Status and Issues of Financing in Tertiary Education in Bangladesh
75 7.3 Policy Options for Better Financing in Tertiary Education
76 Bibliography

78 ANNEX
 LIST OF FIGURES
15 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
19 Figure 2: Unemployment Rates by Education Level (Left); Employment Status of
Graduates after 1–2 Years of Graduation (Right)
21 Figure 3: Skills Employers Feel Polytechnics (left), Colleges (right), and Universities (below)
should Train Graduates More On
21 Figure 4: Perception on Skills Relevant for Jobs among Employed Graduates
(1 = Not Important; 4 = Highly Important)
24 Figure 5: Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) for Selected Countries and Region, 2016 (in percent)
25 Figure 6: Tertiary Education Enrollment Projection till 2040
25 Figure 7: GPI by Type of TEI in 2010 and 2015
26 Figure 8: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Education Cycle
26 Figure 9: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Institution Type
27 Figure 10: Students’ Family Background among University and College Students
27 Figure 11: HSC Exam Performance (GPA) among Public University and College Students
35 Figure 12: Satisfaction Rating among Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary Students
(out of 4-point scale)
39 Figure 13: Employers’ Perception of Skills Importance and Skills Sufficiency among
Professional Workers in Bangladesh (Share of respondents, percentage)
48 Figure 14: Number of Citable Documents Published per Year by Bangladeshi
Researchers, 1990–2015
49 Figure 15: Top 10 Research Areas by Volume of Citable Documents Produced
in Bangladesh in 2015
51 Figure 16: Share of Funding Sources for Researches Published by Bangladeshi
Researchers, 2015
58 Figure 17: Simplified Organogram of MoE for Tertiary Education

LIST OF TABLES
20 Table 1: Average Current Gross Salary in BDT
23 Table 2: Number of Students and Institutions across TEIs in 2010 and 2017 in Bangladesh
24 Table 3: Proportion of Enrollments in STEM Courses in 2015
28 Table 4: Some of the Support Programs Available to Students in Public
Tertiary Institutions
36 Table 5: Average Teacher-Student Ratio across the TEIs
37 Table 6: Computer and Internet Access across Tertiary Colleges
40 Table 7: Good Practices of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills and Soft Skills
Training in Bangladesh
48 Table 8: H-Index for Selected Countries, 2015
49 Table 9: Number of Research Publications by Type of University in Bangladesh 2013
50 Table 10: Ranking of Patent Filing for Various Countries, 2013
51 Table 11: MoE Budget to Public University and Allocation to Research in
Bangladesh (BDT, millions)
69 Table 12: Rate of Return to Additional Year of Education at Different Levels in Bangladesh
71 Table 13: Trend in Public Expenditure on Education in South Asia Countries
71 Table 14: Trend in Share of Tertiary Education in Total Education Expenditure (%)
72 Table 15: Annual per Student Education Expenses in Bangladesh (in nominal BDT)
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

vi
INTRODUCTION
1. Bangladesh is recognized globally for its remarkable track record of socioeconomic
development and potential for becoming an economic powerhouse in the region. The
economy has sustained impressive economic growth over the past three decades despite
incidences of political conflict, natural calamities, and financial shocks. The country met the
Millennium Development Goals ahead of time and reduced the poverty level substantially over the
past decades. Progress in human development, education, and health has been equally impressive
and produced a healthier and better-educated working population. More women are joining the
workforce while gender gaps in pay are gradually narrowing. Moving forward, the country aspires to
reach the stage of a developed economy in the next two decades.

2. Bangladesh needs to prepare its workforce for the emerging challenges for a dynamic
economy in an increasingly globalized world. The economy is undergoing structural changes
on several fronts. First, Bangladesh has transitioned from a largely traditional, agriculture-based
economy to an industry and service-driven economy. Industry sector has been the main driving
force for economic growth. Second, more recently, technological progress is rapidly changing
the production and service modality. Firms need to not only constantly adjust their business and
production modality with these technological changes but also have highly skilled manpower who
can enable such change processes. Third, a growing and youthful workforce in Bangladesh provides
a window of opportunity to improve productivity and accelerate economic growth. Equipping the
young generation with the skills needed for jobs remains crucial.

3. Tertiary education sector in Bangladesh is at crossroads. On one hand, employers are

demanding higher-skilled professionals for technical and managerial positions to support the
growing industry and service sectors. On the other hand, tertiary education institutes (TEIs)
are struggling to produce employable graduates for the job market. Unemployment rates are
consistently high among tertiary graduates, causing prolonged and frustrating joblessness for
many. At the same time, the culture and practice of collaborative research to promote industry
competitiveness and innovation has been largely missing in the country’s tertiary education
landscape, undermining Bangladesh’s competitiveness ranking in the global knowledge economy.
There is urgent need to identify and address the challenges in the sector and orient tertiary
education toward the demands of the economy and labor market to help realize Bangladesh’s full
economic development potential.

4. This sector review aims to provide a holistic knowledge of the tertiary education sector
in Bangladesh and identify key challenges and policy recommendations to support policy
dialogue and future operations. Building upon a conceptual framework, the review takes a
holistic approach in assessing the challenges across three tertiary education providers—university,
college, and polytechnics —across five areas of interest: access and equity, quality and relevance
of education, research and innovation, governance and management, and financing. The main
findings and key policy options across these five themes are summarized in the next section.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | vii

 MAIN FINDINGS AND POLICY DIRECTIONS

ACCESS AND EQUITY education, mostly in prestigious preparedness of secondary

public institutions. students from poor and rural family
Key Findings backgrounds; adjusting teacher pay
• Participation in science,
parameters and teacher deployment
technology, engineering, and
• Tertiary education enrollment regulation to render preferential
mathematics (STEM) is low. This
is growing rapidly, and benefits for teachers and schools in
is particularly the case for tertiary
private education providers, rural and disadvantaged areas; and
colleges, which account for more than
especially colleges, play a key promoting household investment
half of the tertiary enrollments. Just
role in absorbing much of the in tertiary education through
around 9 percent of college students
expansion. A significant part of the awareness for parents.
are found to be enrolled in STEM
expansion has occurred through
courses. This would likely lead to an • Diversifying academic
enrollments in the tertiary college
oversupply of graduates in humanities pathways by gearing access to
sector, which accounts for over 60
subjects and skills shortage for postsecondary education in favor
percent of all tertiary enrollments.
technology and engineering of enrollment in technical track
Universities account for 30 percent
professionals in the industry sector. and reducing the concentration of
of enrollments while polytechnics
students in social subjects of less
have the lowest share at 8 percent.
Policy Options economic priority under the general
Overall, there has been a growth in
education stream.
the enrollment in private providers, To improve access and equity,
which account for 45 percent of all the Bangladesh government may
tertiary enrollments. Nonetheless,
Bangladesh’s participation in
consider the following policy QUALITY AND RELEVANCE
options:
tertiary education in terms of gross
enrollment rate (GER) (17 percent • Setting up a student loan scheme Key Findings
in 2016) is still quite low compared in partnership with public and
• The teaching and learning and
to neighboring countries such as private financial institutions to
assessment systems largely follow
India and Sri Lanka and not up to support meritorious low-income
the traditional and rigid approach
the average of lower-middle-income students, especially females, and
that impede effective student
countries (24 percent). other marginalized groups to pursue
learning. Classroom teaching
higher education.
• Access to tertiary education is mainly involves rote learning, non-
not equitable across gender and • Expanding poverty-targeted creativity, and passivity of students
income groups, with females and scholarship and tuition support that impedes higher-order critical
students from poor families at a for students to encourage low- thinking and soft skills development.
disadvantage. The female share of income secondary school graduates, Assessment of learning is conducted
enrollments across the TEIs stood especially females, who are proven mainly through written exams,
at around 38 percent in Bangladesh, meritorious to continue with higher providing little scope for feedback
considerably lower than other South education in the universities and to students other than conventional
Asian countries such as India (46 colleges. grades. Some universities have
percent) and Sri Lanka (60 percent). taken proactive steps to implement
• Strengthening support for more active learning practices, which has
Moreover, tertiary education in
equitable learning outcomes been associated with higher student
Bangladesh has been dominated by
in secondary education, for satisfaction with teaching-learning.
students from the richest segment
example, through using digital Yet, such practices are completely
of society—the richest two income
tools for disseminating high-quality missing in the tertiary colleges and
quintiles accounted for 75 percent
programs to raise higher education polytechnics.
of the total enrollment in tertiary

viii
• Inadequate and outdated colleges and polytechnics, especially inclusion of higher-order cognitive
teaching and learning facilities in district towns and rural areas. skills and soft skills development in
pose a significant challenge for The government adopts a central the curricula and use of a learning
the delivery of quality education. teacher recruitment process for public management system for tracking
Student-teacher ratios are generally colleges and polytechnics, which can student learning outcomes.
high across the TEIs, especially take up to two years, and turnovers
• Increasing investments in
among public institutions. Without during this time further exacerbate
teaching and learning and
proper classroom facilities, such the vacancy situation. On the other
ICT facilities, possibly through
as speakers and multimedia, the hand, universities exercise autonomy
partnerships with private sector and
delivery of lecture is hindered, making in teacher recruitment; however,
fundraising and outreach programs.
teaching and learning less effective. concerns remain on the transparency
To attract private investments in
Especially in the provision of STEM, in teacher selection and recruitment
education and collaboration, the
the quality of practical learning is process. Moreover, professional
government may consider special
hampered when students have little development opportunities are scarce
incentives (for example, tax rebate,
or no access to raw materials and and only intermittently provided for
recognition) for industry.
lab facilities. Furthermore, access to a small number of teachers in tertiary
high-quality Internet connectivity and education. • Attracting highly qualified
digital resources is lacking especially teachers and increasing
• Quality assurance in tertiary
in the tertiary college and polytechnic opportunities for teachers’
education is still at a nascent
sector. Even where there is a good professional development through
stage. Noteworthy progress has
provision to these facilities, digital developing teacher competency
been made in pushing the quality
literacy remains low among teachers requirements across subject areas and
assurance agenda in higher
and students, leading to less uptake introduction of structured in-service
education through the passing of the
of digital facilities in teaching and professional training programs. There
Bangladesh Accreditation Council
learning. is a need to review the government
Act in 2017. Several universities also
teacher recruitment and promotion
• Higher-order cognitive skills and took up internal quality assurance
process for colleges and polytechnics
soft skills are largely missing from mechanism and conducted self-
to ensure teachers are attracted and
the curriculum. A growing body of assessments involving student,
motivated in the teaching profession.
evidence suggests that employers teacher, and employers’ feedback.
feel that the TEIs need to do more While quality assurance has been • Forging partnership with
on improving higher-order cognitive advancing in the university sector, renowned foreign universities
skills of graduates, especially in areas it has been largely missing in the through twinning or joint
of critical thinking, problem-solving, tertiary colleges and polytechnics. programs is an effective means
communications, and information to raise the quality of teaching
and communication technology (ICT) Policy Options and learning in Bangladeshi
skills, among others. While some universities. Activities that promote
private universities have explicitly Key policy options to enhance knowledge transfer, exchange
incorporated such modules in their quality and relevance in tertiary of experience, and capacity
curricula, most TEIs still remain far education include the following: development could be explored.
behind.
• Implementing modern practices • Implementing the quality
• Qualified teachers are in short in teaching, learning, and assurance mechanism in all TEIs
supply and have little opportunities assessment through implementing through the implementation of the
for professional development. active learning in the classroom and BAC Act and introduction of quality
Teacher vacancy is high in the tertiary a system for feedback to students— assurance effectively across all TEIs.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | ix

 RESEARCH AND competitive innovation funds shows GOVERNANCE AND
INNOVATION high potential for collaborative MANAGEMENT
research between academia and
Key Findings industry through the emergence of Key Findings
innovation in the fields of medicine
• Bangladesh has been placing and agriculture. Despite this progress, • The governance structure of
a firm foot in research and Bangladesh ranks poorly and remains tertiary education in Bangladesh
innovation over the past decade. at the bottom tier (131 out of 140 is distinctly different across
Research outputs from Bangladesh countries) for university-industry subsectors with administrative
have progressively increased between collaboration in R&D, behind other and academic authorities divided
1995 and 2005. However, in terms of South Asian counterparts such as across multiple central agencies.
global research standing, Bangladesh India and Sri Lanka. Primarily, tertiary education is under
lags behind most South Asian the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
countries, indicating that the strength Policy Options Education (MoE). The MoE has two
of research produced by Bangladeshi divisions, Secondary and Higher
academics is yet to be fully cultivated. Key policy options to promote Education Division (SHED) and
research and innovation in tertiary Technical and Madrasa Education
• Research at universities has education: Division (TMED), each headed by a
been grossly underfunded,
• More and smart investments to permanent Secretary. The SHED is
undermining their capacity to
support research and innovation responsible for secondary education
conduct knowledge work even
in higher education are necessary. and higher education, while the
when many have a good number
This would require an increase TMED looks after technical and
of faculty trained with advanced
in public spending on enhancing vocational education training (TVET)
degrees and research experience.
research capabilities, including and Madrasa (Islamic religious
There is a large pool of Bangladeshi
provision of scientific lab and education). The University Grants
academics with PhDs, many trained
facilities and research skills training Commission (UGC), established in
abroad and mostly concentrated in
in the universities. Furthermore, 1972,1 is responsible for supervising
the established public universities,
collaborative research with industry and coordinating public and private
indicating the presence of untapped
and foreign institutes should also be universities, maintaining the quality
research potential in Bangladesh.
promoted to further supplement the standard of university education,
However, the share of research
shortfall of public research spending managing the allocation of
grants in public funding to
and support knowledge transfer and government funding to universities,
universities remained stagnant, well
research capacity building. and advising the government on
below 1 percent. Research facilities,
issues related to higher education.
including modern lab, equipment, • Building enabling environment
and digital facilities, remain for commercialization of • The legislative backbone and
inadequate, making it challenging innovations through promoting coordination mechanism of the
for academics to carry out and academia-industry research tertiary education are fragmented.
produce high-quality research. and development and setting up Various legislative frameworks
intermediate organizations for govern the three subsectors creating
• Industry collaboration and
commercialization of research, governance structures, roles, and
private sector participation
including Technological Transfer responsibilities of the various
in promoting research and
Offices. In addition, intellectual entities. Moreover, a large number
development (R&D) work and
property (IP) policy and of entities, complex governance
supporting commercialization of
management needs to be introduced structure, and an underdeveloped
research output is at a nascent
for the tertiary education sector. management capacity make
stage. The experience of the
effective administration and
1
The 1973 President’s Order No. 10 defines the role of the UGC as the lead coordinating agency in all matters of university education related to fund allocation, planning,
development, and implementation of higher education and research programs in public universities as well as the monitoring of public and private universities.

x
coordination challenging at the polytechnics in academic, scholarship/stipend and waiver of fees.
central and institutional level. personnel, and financial
• The potential for income
management. Granting some
• Poor transparency and weak generation by TEIs has been
autonomy with clear objectives and
accountability mechanisms are underexplored, and the budget
monitoring system may enhance such
responsible for irregularities in major processing system of tertiary
flexibility in responding to emerging
areas, including teacher recruitment, education is not incentivizing
demands from local situations.
student enrollments, and student performance improvement in
assessments in the TEIs. In the absence • Delinking teachers and students’ the TEIs. In the absence of a policy
of proper accountability systems, state affiliation with political parties or mechanism to support income-
controls create rigidity in institutions’ and working as the latter’s front generation activities by TEIs in
capacity to be responsive and flexible organization in universities through Bangladesh, the main income source
to human resource needs and allowing students union to function for most of public TEIs, other than
academic program changes. Except on the campus only on a nonpolitical grant funding from the government,
for public universities, government platform. is fees charged to enrolled students in
tertiary colleges and polytechnics lack the form of registration, tuition, and
the autonomy to take and implement examination. Moreover, the budget
FINANCING
critical academic, human resource, processing system largely follows
and financial decisions. Moreover, the traditional funding method of
highly politicalized environment in
Key Findings incremental budgeting across fixed
TEIs often lead to student and teacher line items, with no mechanism for
• Public spending in education has
protests and disruption that adversely performance-based allocation.
not been necessarily prioritized
affect the academic calendar.
toward tertiary education. However,
most recent data show a gradual shift Policy Options
Policy Options toward greater resource allocation
Key policy options to support
to tertiary education. Bangladesh’s
Key policy options to support enhanced governance and
allocation of public expenditure
enhanced governance and management system in tertiary
for tertiary education in the total
management system in tertiary education:
education expenditure had been in the
education:
range of 10–13 percent over the past • Exploring performance-based
• Bringing an umbrella legislation decade, rising to 20 percent in 2015. approach to financing TEIs, especially
covering the different subsectors for the university sector to promote
• Private education expenses
and institutions to confirm the the core principles of efficiency,
incurred by the households have
governance structures, roles, and effectiveness, and accountability in
been playing a significant role in
responsibilities, as well as recognize the utilization of financial resources,
funding tertiary education. On
quality assurance mechanism. and driving the development of TEIs
average, tertiary education costs
in alignment with the overall sector
• Strengthening management households 1.26 times more than
development objectives.
capacities at the ministry and higher secondary education does,
institutional levels through proving to be an expensive investment • Granting more financial
professional development for most families. Students in autonomy to high-performing TEIs
opportunities for tertiary education postsecondary often rely on borrowing with good financial management
managers and administrators and use from families and relatives to pay for capacities, especially to operate
of a management information system various private out-of-pocket expenses. income-generating activities,
to improve monitoring and tracking of There is currently no national student explore innovative approaches to
the three subsectors. loans scheme in Bangladesh to help finance their plans, and promote
students enrolled in tertiary education. creative ways of utilizing the financial
• Increasing autonomy for Financial support to students are resources at their disposal.
high-performing colleges and mostly provided in the form of

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | xi

 1
INTRODUCTION

12
1.1. BACKGROUND
1. Bangladesh economy exhibited noteworthy progress in poverty reduction supported by
sustained economic growth and human capital development. The national poverty rate declined
from 44.2 percent in 1991 to 13.8 percent in 2017, lifting millions of people out of extreme poverty.
This progress was underpinned by an impressive average annual gross domestic product (GDP)
growth of above 6 percent over the past decade. At the same time, human development outcomes
have also improved. Bangladesh has experienced the fastest decline in child and infant mortality
rates among developing countries, attained near universal access to primary education, achieved
gender parity in access at the primary and secondary education levels, and improved access to
tertiary education for both males and females. Furthermore, women’s participation in the workforce
has also increased while the gap in wage differentials has declined.

2. In an era of global knowledge economy, workforce skills and productivity are crucial to
Bangladesh’s quest to accelerate economic growth and move up within the middle-income
bracket. Economic growth is expected to continue with the creation of more jobs in rapidly growing
sectors, including ready-made garments (RMG), export-oriented manufacturing, light engineering,
shipbuilding, agribusiness, information and communication technology (ICT), and pharmaceuticals
(World Bank 2018). Market expansion across these sectors will demand more and better-skilled
professionals in managerial, technical, and leadership positions. As modern technologies change
the way of work, Bangladeshi workers would need to adapt to these advancements for meeting the
needs of a rapidly changing production environment and remain competitive.

3. Bangladesh will need to focus on the development of the tertiary education sector in
building the critical supply of high-skilled workforce and knowledge. In Bangladesh, tertiary
education is provided through three entities: diploma programs in polytechnics under the technical
and vocational education and training (TVET) system, and graduate and postgraduate programs in
universities and tertiary colleges under the general education system. Tertiary education institutes
(TEIs) are the main entities for preparing the workforce with relevant skills and expertise needed to
meet the changing technology and skills demands of the economy. Moreover, universities and in
some cases, polytechnics, are also knowledge hubs for creating and disseminating new knowledge
through cutting-edge research and innovation.

4. There is growing pressure on the tertiary education system to rise to the needs of the
economy in Bangladesh. Demographic and economic changes have led to a gradual increase
in the demand for postsecondary education, which in turn, is placing an increasing pressure on
the system to meet access and quality demands. On the other hand, economic changes prompt
employers to demand graduates with better skills and relevance to adapt to the needs of an
evolving workplace environment, which creates an additional layer of pressure among the TEIs
to meet quality standards. However, TEIs in Bangladesh still have a long way to go to become
competitive in the global standards. International rankings of higher education institutions are
an increasingly accepted indicator of the overall quality of universities in a country and to some
extent, determine graduate reputation in the international job market. Bangladeshi universities are

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 13

 performing below the average of global higher education Higher Education in Bangladesh 2018–2030 lay out the
rankings which may undermine the employability of strategic development plan and approaches for TVET and
graduates in local and global job markets. As of date, no university sectors, respectively. The government is now in
university in Bangladesh has made it to the top 100 world the process of developing a sector development strategy
universities’ lists of well-accepted international rankings. for tertiary-level colleges. The goals of these sector
These rankings are generally based on quality-based strategies are consistent with the national development
criteria such as learning environment, research output, goal stated in the National Education Policy 2010 as
industry collaboration, and international outlook. well as in the current Five-Year Plan (FYR) (2016–2021).
Achieving the development objectives of the national
5. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) recognizes
education policy and sector strategies will help propel
the need for continuous investment into education
economic growth and shared prosperity, as well as
and skills development as a key strategy to boost
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Workforce
productivity. To foster high-level skills development,
development requires collaborative investments by
investment in postsecondary education is of critical
different actors operating in the country (for details of the
importance. To guide investment efforts toward
policy guidance in these key government policies, refer to
postsecondary education, the government has made it a
Annex 1).
priority to implement key policy strategies. The National
Skills Development Policy 2011 and the Strategic Plan for

1.2. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH

6. Despite the growing importance of tertiary financing. Responding to changes in the socioeconomic
education in Bangladesh, available data and context (such as economic growth, technological
information about the sector have been scarce and transition, globalization, demographic transition, and
scattered, and little attempt has been made to review increased labor mobility), Bangladesh is witnessing
all the tertiary education subsectors holistically. growing demands for high-level skills and adaptable
Against this backdrop, this study was commissioned to skills to cope with new technologies. Such skills are
(a) provide a holistic sectoral review on three tertiary chiefly supplied by graduates of TEIs. The level and
education and training systems (that is, universities, quality of supply of TEI graduates are determined by the
tertiary colleges, and tertiary TVET) in Bangladesh and five key contributing factors—access and equity, quality
(b) to lay out key policy recommendations aimed at and relevance of education and training, research and
addressing the identified challenges and opportunities. innovation to contribute to the knowledge economy,
It is the expectation of the study that the identification of the adequacy and efficiency of financing, and efficacy
challenges and opportunities and actionable policies will of management and governance. Policy soundness and
inform the government and development partners for the implementation performance of each of the five key
preparation of development action plans for the tertiary thematic areas are important determinants of the quality
education sector. of skills supply from the TEIs—universities, colleges, and
polytechnics. Each chapter of this study is dedicated
7. Using this conceptual framework (figure 1), this
to one of the five thematic areas and consists of a brief
review focuses on the five key thematic areas which
description of background and current situation, followed
influence the quality of graduates from TEIs: (a) access
by discussion on challenges and opportunities and finally,
and equity, (b) quality and relevance, (c) research and
policy options and recommendations.
innovation, (d) governance and management, and (e)

14
 FIRMS (skills demand side) TEIs (skills supply side)

CONTRIBUTING
SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS
FACTORS
More and 1. Access and equity
GRADUATES FROM
Economic high-level
skills
growth 2. Quality and relevance
Universities
Technological
JOB MARKET Colleges
progress 3. Research and
innovation
Polytechnics
Demography Adaptable
skills to
Globalization changing 4. Governance and
technologies management

5. Financing

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 15

 1.3. STUDY METHODOLOGY
8. The study is conducted primarily based on a underwrite their degrees. Polytechnics are tertiary-level
range of existing household, education, and skills technical and vocation education entities that offer
surveys, relevant literatures, and lessons learned diploma-level training programs. It had been typically the
from the World Bank-supported projects in the case that sector analyses were done individually for those
tertiary education space in Bangladesh. The review three subsectors. However, from the perspective of skills
includes policy, plans and strategies, existing studies, and supply capacity analysis, it would be imperative to view
pertinent records related to the higher education and the subsectors as an integrated system which collectively
skills training sector in Bangladesh. The study also draws strives to meet the demands of economy for highly skilled
on information from several national surveys, including manpower. Moreover, as the study will discuss, there are
the labour force survey (2010, 2015, 2017); enterprise- a range of commonalities across the subsectors in terms
based skills survey; and three tracer studies of graduates of the strengths, challenges, and opportunities, especially
from university, colleges, and polytechnics to provide in areas such as quality and relevance, and access and
analysis on the job market outcomes of tertiary graduates equity. The holistic analysis would be useful to ensure
and employers’ perception of graduate skills. In addition, that cross-cutting issues are systematically identified, and
the Education Household Survey (EHS) (2013) was used shared policy options and approaches are generated to
to analyze access and equity issues by individual and address those.
institute characteristics, while the household income
10. The study also made a preliminary attempt, in
and expenditure surveys (2003, 2010, 2015) were used for
the annex, to analyze economic sector-specific skills
analysis of education financing. The study also utilized the
development issues by looking into the postsecondary
database of Web of Science and Scimago to analyze the
vocational education and skills training aspects of
research standing of Bangladesh. In addition, the work
the health sector as a case study. Skills development is
has been supplemented by the analysis of administrative
multisectoral by nature and highly relevant for most of the
data and lessons learned from ongoing World Bank-
economic sectors spanning way beyond the traditional
funded operations in the postsecondary education sector
confines of the education sector as a skills supplier.3
in Bangladesh and around the world.2
However, multisectoral analysis through the lens of skills
9. The study assesses the tertiary education sector development has rarely been conducted. It is an intention
holistically by covering all three subsectors that of this study, though limited in scope, to offer a template
are universities, colleges, and polytechnics. In of cross-sectoral analysis on skills development agenda,
Bangladesh, the tertiary education can be broadly which would ultimately lead to a comprehensive view of
subdivided into three sections: (a) universities, skills development landscape of the country. Gaining such
(b) colleges, and (c) polytechnics. Universities are a comprehensive understanding is an urgent necessity in
autonomous entities that provide higher education and the light of the need for promoting greater coordination
undertake research and innovation activities. Colleges in skills development and establishment of sectorwide
are typically less autonomous teaching-oriented higher approach for the skills development sector that the GoB is
education entities that are affiliated academically and envisioning.
administratively to one of the affiliating universities which

2
The World Bank financing supports the GoB to implement three projects in postsecondary education in Bangladesh: Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project
(HEQEP), Skills and Training Enhancement Project (STEP), and College Education Development Project (CEDP). HEQEP targets universities, while STEP and CEDP,
respectively, target TVET and tertiary-level colleges.
3
For instance, in Bangladesh, it is estimated that around 22 ministries are offering various types of vocational education and skills training.

16
Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 17
 2
TERTIARY
GRADUATE SKILLS
AND EMPLOYABILITY

18
2.1. JOB MARKET OUTCOMES OF TERTIARY GRADUATES
11. Tertiary graduates in Bangladesh are struggling to find jobs. According to the Labour Force
Survey 2016–2017, the unemployment rate among those with tertiary education qualifications
stood at 11.2 percent, much higher than the national average of 4.2 percent in 2017 (Figure 2). There
is also a stark gender disparity in the sector. The unemployment rate for females stands at 21.4
percent, which is nearly three times as high as that for males (8.3 percent). Recent graduate tracking
surveys also confirm the challenging job market environment for tertiary education graduates (see
Figure 2). Regardless of the type of institution, more than a third of graduates are found to remain
unemployed one or two years after graduation. Many are still on further studies to gain more skills
and qualifications. It seems evident that graduate unemployment, possibly with a long-spell
of joblessness, has become a fact of life for many tertiary education graduates in Bangladesh.
Also, some important differences are observed across the types of institutions. Graduates from
colleges appear to be particularly faring worse. Only 19 percent of college graduates are found to
be employed full-time or part-time, while nearly half of them remain unemployed. Employment
outcomes of tertiary-level technical education graduates appear somewhat better as polytechnic
graduates are more likely to be employed than graduates from universities and colleges. Their
advanced technical knowledge and skills may have helped them to be more attractive to employers.
49%

46%
11.2%

39%
39%

34%
32%
6.4%

19%
18%
4.2%

15%
2.7%
1.5%

Polytechnics University Tertiary

No Primary
Schooling

Some or
completed primary

Secondary or
postseconday

Tertiary

National

College
Employed
Unemployed
Further studies

Figure 2: Unemployment Rates by Education Level (Left); Employment Status of Graduates after 1–2
Years of Graduation (Right)
Source: Labour Force Survey 2016–2017 for unemployment rates (left); Graduate Tracer Studies (2016, 2017, 2018) for employment status (right).

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 19

 12. The majority of employed tertiary education Table 1: Average Current Gross Salary in BDT
graduates work in professional jobs in the private
sector and education institutions. The graduate All Male Female GPI
tracking survey revealed that more than two-thirds of Polytechnics 10,843 11,088 8,308 0.75
employers of tertiary graduates are private enterprises Colleges 11,814 12,819 10,166 0.79
or individually owned businesses. Most polytechnic
University 29,932 29,950 29,354 0.98
graduates work in the manufacturing sector (29 percent)
Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective sectors (2016, 2017, 2018).
followed by construction (15 percent). Education Note: GPI = Gender Parity Index.
institutions (that is, primary and secondary schools,
colleges, and training institutes), both private and
public ones, employ large portions of tertiary education graduate earns on average around BDT 29,932 per month
graduates. Female polytechnic graduates are more with no significant gender wage gap.4 On the other hand,
concentrated in the education sector (32 percent) gender wage gaps are significant among employed
where they are hired as instructors and trainers. For graduates from college and polytechnics, especially
university and college graduates, education institutions among those who are not full-time permanent employees.
employ the largest share of graduates. Around 23
percent of university graduates and 43 percent of 14. Long spells of unemployment are common among
college graduates are working in the education sector. unemployed tertiary graduates and cast serious
The next largest employer of university and college doubts about job readiness and relevance of skills of
graduates is the manufacturing sector with around 17 graduates from tertiary education. Graduate tracking
percent of university and college graduates employed. surveys found that around 75 percent of polytechnic
Within the manufacturing industry, RMG, food products, graduates, 30 percent of college graduates, and 20 percent
agroprocessing business, and pharmaceuticals are the of university graduates have experienced joblessness that
main employers. lasted more than a year. While most graduates continue
to look for jobs, many opt for attaining higher levels
13. Employed tertiary education graduates generally of education in hopes of better credentials leading to
make decent earnings, with university graduates and jobs. More education does not also seem to mean more
male graduates generally faring significantly better. diversified learning experience and in some cases, not
Most of tertiary education graduates make at least around necessarily finding a job. For example, most of college
BDT11,000 per month within one or two years after graduates who opted for higher education such as a
graduation (Table 1). This level of income is comparable master’s degree would end up being enrolled in the same
to the average national monthly earnings. The value college from which they graduated for undergraduate
of qualification does not seem uniform, however. programs and also, in the same subject area that is
Unsurprisingly, university graduates earn significantly directly related to the area of their undergraduate study.
more than graduates from colleges or polytechnics. On Such high incidence of prolonged unemployment among
average their earnings are three times as high as that of graduates raises grave concerns about the job readiness
tertiary college or polytechnic graduates. A university and relevance of skills that TEIs in Bangladesh impart to
their students.

4
The national average monthly income for people of ages between 25 and 34 was around BDT 12,800 in 2016, according to the Labour Force Survey.
5
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 2018. Tracer Study of University Graduates. Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project. Dhaka. Bangladesh.

20
2.2. RELEVANCE OF TERTIARY EDUCATION: EMPLOYERS’ AND
GRADUATES’ PERCEPTION
100%

83%

78%

76%

74%

72%
72%
71%

71%

70%

68%
80%
67%

67%
63%

61%
59%

58%

51%
48%
60%

40%

20%

0%
Use of ICT

Communication
Skills
English Skills
Problem Solving
Skills
Team Work

Technical Skills

Problem solving
skills
Use of ICT
Practical Technical
Training
Communication
skills
Theoretical
Knowledge
English Skills

Communications

ICT

Practical Skills

Team Work

Problem Solving

English
Figure 3: Skills Employers Feel Polytechnics (left), Colleges (right), and Universities (below) should Train Graduates More On
Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in the respective sectors (2016, 2017, 2018).

15. Employers emphasize that the skills of tertiary

3.61 3.58 3.57 3.5 3.5
graduates, especially higher-order cognitive and soft
skills, are not sufficient. Employers rank three higher-
order cognitive and soft skills as top three skills that
are relevant for current work environment: (a) problem
solving and independent thinking, (b) work attitude, and
Computer
Skills

Work Ethics

Time
Management

Critical
Thinking &
Analytical
Skills

English
Communication
Skills
(c) positive personality (BIDS, 2018)5. However, employers
are struggling to find graduates with these skills. For
example, around 80 percent of employers of polytechnic
graduates felt that problem-solving skills is a key area where
polytechnics need to do more to train students (Figure 3).
Similarly, employers would like universities and colleges
Figure 4: Perception on Skills Relevant for Jobs among
to strengthen skills training on ICT, English language skills,
Employed Graduates (1 = Not Important; 4 = Highly
and key higher-order thinking skills such as communication
Important)
skills, problem-solving, and team work skills.
Source: University Graduate Tracer Study, 2018.

16. Graduates also realize the importance of higher-

order cognitive and soft skills for success in jobs. The
through further education and training. Sixty-seven
graduate tracking surveys asked graduates about the
percent of university graduates were interested in taking
types of skills that they see as most important for the work
up further training on computer skills while another
that they do. Out of 22 skills, university graduates rank
one-third were interested in trainings to improve
computer skills, work ethics, time management, critical
communication skills. There is clearly a need to upgrade
thinking and analytical skills, and English communication
the academic programs to support the development of
skills as the top five important skills for their jobs (Figure
these critical job-demanded skills and respond to fill the
4). At the same time, most graduates felt that they lack
perceived skills gap among graduates.
in these important skills and wanted to acquire these

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 21

 3
ACCESS AND EQUITY
IN TERTIARY
EDUCATION

22
3.1. BACKGROUND
17. Enrollment in tertiary education is growing rapidly in Bangladesh, and private education
providers, especially colleges, play a key role in absorbing students. The total number of
tertiary education students increased from 1.57 million in 2010 to 2.92 million in 2017 (Table 2). An
increasing pool of higher secondary school graduates has led to more students pursuing tertiary
education (World Bank 2014). Pressure to expand access to tertiary education will likely only grow
for the foreseeable future. At the current rates, it is predicted that this demand will continue to grow
as the share of youth population with tertiary education increases from 11 percent in 2010 to 20
percent in 2035 (World Bank 2017). In the meantime, the number of TEIs has also grown by over 40
percent since 2010 to over 2,800 institutes by 2017. Among them, colleges account for around 65
percent of the tertiary education institutions (TEIs) and the majority (around 60 percent) of student
enrollment in tertiary education—the reality that has not changed fundamentally since 2010. This
is largely due to the relatively high number of colleges distributed all over Bangladesh that makes
access to these institutions easier for students. Private education providers are increasingly playing
an important role in tertiary education in Bangladesh. The share of private enrollments in total
tertiary student enrollments has increased, and as of 2017, close to half (44 percent) of the tertiary
education students are enrolled in private institutes. Also, private education providers continue to
account for much of the TEIs.

18. Among the three subsectors, enrollments in technical education is still low. The share
of polytechnic enrollments in tertiary education stands at only 8.5 percent. Unlike university and
tertiary colleges under the general education stream, the technical education sector suffers from
additional challenges of low perceived social value and inadequate awareness on technical degrees
among students and families. As a result, secondary school graduates are more likely to enroll in
general education under a college than in a technical diploma program under a polytechnic (CAMPE

Table 2: Number of Students and Institutions across TEIs in 2010 and 2017 in Bangladesh

Student Enrollments Institutions

2010 2017 2010 2017
Subsectors
millions)

millions)
Total (in

Total (in
Private

Private

Private

Private
Total

Total
% of

% of

% of

% of

Universities 0.46 43 0.86 39 82 62 135 70

Colleges 1.01 39 1.81 45 1,388 85 1,862 85
Polytechnics 0.10 33 0.25 57 205 72 835 92
Total 1.57 40 2.92 44 1,675 83 2,832 86
Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) (2010, 2017).
Note: (a) Polytechnics include tertiary-level professional training courses offered by noneducation line ministries, which collectively enrolled
0.04 million students in 2017; (b) in addition, the religious education (‘Madrasah’) in Bangladesh has its tertiary equivalent courses (‘Fazil’
and ‘Kamil’) which enrolls 0.16 million students in 2017.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 23

 2012). Tertiary colleges have a bulge in enrollments,
especially in humanities, leading to an oversupply of
graduates in sectors of less economic priority. On the
other hand, the job market is demanding more technical

44%
workers to support industry and service sector expansion.

35%
This is further substantiated by tracer studies that show

27%

25%

24%
that employment outcomes for polytechnic graduates are

19%
17%
relatively better compared to tertiary college graduates
(World Bank 2018a and 2018b).

19. Despite the progress, Bangladesh remains behind

other countries in the global and regional comparisons

Bangladesh

Sri Lanka

India

East Asia and the

Pacific

South & West Asia

Lower MIC

MIC
in tertiary education enrollment. Bangladesh’s
enrollment in tertiary education stands at around 17
percent in 2016 trailing behind neighboring countries such
as India (27 percent) and Sri Lanka (19 percent) and not
up to the average of lower-middle-income countries (24
percent) (Figure 5). Figure 5: Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) for Selected
Countries and Region, 2016
20. Across academic disciplines, overall participation
Source: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Institute for
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Statistics (UNESCO UIS) database.
(STEM) is low. There is a good balance of STEM and non-
STEM enrollments in the public and private universities;
however, STEM enrollment in tertiary colleges is in a
dire situation. Table 3 shows that STEM enrollments as 21. Tertiary education enrollment is estimated to
a share of higher education enrollments stands at 21 continue to grow especially over the next five years.
percent, lower than other South Asia Region countries Under all different hypothetical scenarios of tertiary GERs,
such as India (40 percent) and Sri Lanka (28 percent).6 tertiary education enrollments are expected to grow over
While tertiary colleges account for nearly two-thirds the next two decades (Figure 6). Due to the demographic
of all tertiary enrollments, only around 9 percent of transition, however, under every GER assumption,
all college students are studying STEM. According to a the total tertiary enrollment is estimated to reach its
survey on tertiary colleges, high costs of offering STEM maximum in the next five years at around 3.2 to 4 million
programs is one of the prime reasons, among others, for students. Beyond that point, the total tertiary enrollment
which colleges, specifically private ones, prefer providing will likely start to decline or at least remain constant due
humanities or business programs (World Bank 2014). to demographic shifts in younger school-age generations.

Table 3: Proportion of Enrollments in STEM Courses in 2015

Public University Private University Tertiary Colleges Total Tertiary

Total enrollment (in millions) 0.49 0.38 1.7 2.75

Enrollment in STEM (in millions) 0.24 0.17 0.16 0.56

Enrollment in STEM (%) 48 44 9 21

Source: UGC Bangladesh, 2016.

6
University Grants Commission (UGC) of India, 2016; University Grants Commission (UGC) of Sri Lanka, 2014.

24
 4.5
4
3.2. KEY ISSUES IN ACCESS AND
EQUITY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
Enrollment in Millions

3.5
3 IN BANGLADESH
2.5
2 3.2.1. Gender: Females are disadvantaged in
1.5 access to tertiary education
1
0.5 23. Access to tertiary education is not equitable across
gender, with females at a disadvantage. Female share
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 of enrollments across the TEIs stood at around 38 percent
in Bangladesh, considerably lower than other South
Pessimistic Scenario: No improvement in Asia Region countries such as India (46 percent) and Sri
tertiary enrollment rate Lanka (60 percent).8 Across the three segments of tertiary
education in Bangladesh, tertiary colleges are faring
Medium Case Scenario: 2 percentage
point improvement every 5 years better in terms of closing the gender gap as indicated by
the GPI of 0.77 (Figure 7). Universities and polytechnics
Optimistic Scenario: 5 percentage point have exhibited only slight improvements in GPI between
improvement every 5 years
2010 and 2015 (Figure 7). Societal norms often restrict
mobility among young girls to metropolitan cities or
district towns, where most universities and polytechnics
Figure 6: Tertiary Education Enrollment Projection till 2040
are located. Tertiary colleges, on the other hand, are
Note: The estimates are based on the official population projection and hypothetical
tertiary GERs. The population projection is from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
distributed down to the subdistrict level (upazila), which
data. The base tertiary GER is 17 percent as of 2016. make these institutions the only accessible higher
education provider for girls, especially those from rural
areas (World Bank 2015). The share of female enrollment

22. Rapid expansion of access to tertiary education

has risked the suboptimal allocation of resources and
0.77
prevalence of poor quality service in tertiary-level 0.68
0.62
education. Much of the expansion in tertiary education 0.54
0.49
has already occurred without significant investments for 0.39
raising quality in the sector. While student enrollment
increased by nearly 75 percent, the public allocation 0.17
0.12
to tertiary education grew by only 52 percent between
2010 and 2015.7 The major share of this public funding
increase was spent on nondevelopment purposes, leaving University Tertiary Polytechnic Total
College
very little investments for quality-enhancing activities
essentially needed to keep up with the enrollment pace.
2010 2015
With tertiary enrollments predicted to continue to rise
over and reach a peak over the next few years, it will be Figure 7: GPI by Type of TEI in 2010 and 2015
critical to increase investments for enhancing the capacity
Source: BANBEIS, respective year.
and quality of providers. Note: GPI is calculated as female enrollment/male enrollment. GPI of 1.0 means
perfect gender parity.

7
In 2010, the allocation to tertiary education in the national budget was BDT 102 billion, which increased to BDT 156 billion in 2015.
8
All India Survey on Higher Education 2015–2016; UGC Sri Lanka Higher Education Statistics, 2015.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 25

 in the final year of higher secondary education (Grade
12) was 49 percent (GPI 0.96) in 2016. Female students
100
outperform their male peers in Higher School Certificate
90
(HSC) national examination results almost every year. As

Cumulative Enrollment (%)

80
such, the considerable drop in GPI in tertiary education
suggests the existence of strong social and economic 70
barriers against females’ higher studies. 60
50
3.2.2. Family background: Well-off students are 40
hugely overrepresented in tertiary enrollment 30
24. Students from the richest segment of the 20
population are overrepresented in tertiary education, 10
and even more so at more prestigious institutions. 0
Tertiary education in Bangladesh has been dominated 0 20 40 60 80 100
by students from the richest segment of society. It is Income Percentile
significantly more unequal than secondary education Equality Primary Secondary Tertiary
which is also hard to attain for low-income students.
In fact, a household survey reveals that the richest two Figure 8: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups,
income quintiles accounted for 75 percent of the total by Education Cycle
enrollment in tertiary education, and even more strikingly, Source: Author’s calculation based on EHS 2013.
students from the richest households capture over half
of the entire tertiary enrollment in Bangladesh (Figure 8). cater to the greater shares of students from less-affluent
Furthermore, not only are richer students gaining more households. As such, knowledge and skills that students
admission to TEIs, they are also enjoying greater access to can gain out of tertiary education, and by extension,
prestigious institutions. Enrollment in public universities employment opportunities after graduation and return on
are more strongly skewed toward the rich as 85 percent education investment, are most likely severely unequally
of those studying in public universities are from the distributed. Moreover, the fact that poorer groups
richest two quintiles and around 65 percent are from the are more concentrated in private institutions further
richest households. Enrollment in public colleges are exacerbates the equity problem not least because public
also greatly in favor of the richer groups (Figure 9). On the tertiary education in Bangladesh is highly subsidized by
other hand, private colleges, which are often deemed less the government, while private institutions enjoy little
prestigious and equipped with poorer learning facilities, government subsidies.

60% 65%
57%

36%
28% 25% 26% 20% 16% 19%
9%
2% 5% 5% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 3%

Government College Private College Public University Private University

Poorest 20% Lower Middle Income Middle Income Higher Middle Income Richest 20%

Figure 9: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Institution Type

Source: Author’s calculation based on EHS 2013.

26
25. In terms of other family background, university 26. University admissions are highly competitive,
students tend to come from more educated and urban practically reserved for the top performers of
families, while college students have more humble family secondary education, while colleges mostly cater
backgrounds. Around two-thirds of university students to academically average performing secondary
come from urban families, and their parents have completers. Figure 11 shows the distribution of HSC exam
considerably higher levels of educational qualifications— results of public university and college students at the
around 50 percent of their fathers have a bachelor’s point of entry in tertiary education. University entrance
degree or higher (Figure 10). In comparison, around 60 is extremely competitive. For instance, among the entire
percent of college students are from rural families, and HSC examinees, only 6 percent managed to receive
only 17 percent of their fathers hold a tertiary degree. GPA-A+ in 2015. However, as much as 66 percent of public
Even though parents of college students are considered university students are GPA-A+ achievers at their HSC
better educated by Bangladeshi general population exam. Admission to tertiary colleges are open to average
standards, it is in a staggering contrast with those of performers. It is no surprise that prestigious institutions
university students. It is obvious that the intergenerational admit only academically most qualified students.
educational mobility, especially for university education, From the equity perspective, however, it is alarming as
has been a constraint in Bangladesh. If one is born into a academic performance of students is strongly correlated
family with parents having only primary education or less, with their socioeconomic background in Bangladesh as
which is the case for many of the Bangladeshi population, in most countries,9 and the prevailing practice of private
one would not stand a reasonable chance to enroll in a tutoring in secondary education exacerbates it. Previous
university. Such a lack or limitation of intergenerational studies also found that enrollment into universities,
social mobility is a grave concern and danger to the especially public universities, is highly competitive
realization of inclusive development in Bangladesh. and often considered less accessible for students from
low-income rural families (World Bank 2017). In other
words, inequality of access to university education across
socioeconomic backgrounds has its roots primarily
59%

50%

49%
42%

66%
34%

34%
33%

32%

51%
24%

45%
18%

17%

30.7%

29%
9%

23%

23%
20%
2.5%
0.8%

6%

University College University College

3%

Metropolitean No education/Primary
Public University College All HSC 2015
Urban/Semi-urban Secondary
Rural Diploma/Bachelor/ A+ A A- B+ or less
Higher
Figure 11: HSC Exam Performance (GPA) among Public
Figure 10: Students’ Family Background among University University and College Students
and College Students Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective subsectors (2017, 2018); BANBEIS (2015)
Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective sectors (2017, 2018). for all HSC 2015.

9
Learning Assessment of Secondary Institutions (LASI) 2015 report shows that socioeconomic factors such as parental education and urban residence have significant
positive impact on students’ academic competencies.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 27

 in earlier education cycles especially in secondary students to attain a postsecondary degree faster than
education, during which richer urban students tend to get going to colleges, and thus offers a more affordable
ahead academically. education option for students who cannot afford to forgo
earnings for too many years.
27. On the other hand, polytechnics provide a
more affordable pathway to academically strong 3.2.3. Financial support for tertiary education
students from modest family backgrounds to attain students are available on a limited scale
a postsecondary educational qualification. A survey
28. Financial support to students enrolled into public
shows that polytechnic students are generally high
TEIs in Bangladesh comprises conditional stipends
performers in secondary education.10 Around 70 percent
and scholarships (national and international). Stipends
of polytechnic students achieved grade A or higher
and nationally initiated scholarships are available in
which can be considered as a good result in the terminal
public TEIs. In addition, students enrolled in universities
exam. In addition, more than half of them are from the
may have access to international scholarships. The
science stream of secondary education. However, their
international scholarships are from different parts of
background is usually humble and more so than that
the world, that students can compete for, depending
of college students. Most of these students (around 67
on whether they fit the eligibility criteria or not. The
percent) come from families living in rural areas who
nationally initiated stipends and scholarships are aimed
have fathers working in agricultural, forestry, and fishery
at helping students enroll and complete their respective
sectors. Around 44 percent and 58 percent of fathers and
courses/degree programs. Table 4 illustrates some of the
mothers have only primary educational qualification or
support programs currently available to students enrolled
less.11 The diploma engineering courses in Bangladesh
into public TEIs.
take four years to complete after Grade 10. It allows

Table 4: Some of the Support Programs Available to Students in Public Tertiary Institutions

Targeted Subsector
Student Support Programs Remarks
University TVET College
1. International scholarships X For master’s and PhD programs
For talented students who cannot afford tertiary
2. Prime Minister’s Trust Fund X X X
education
3. Merit-based stipend X X X Awarded to students who excel academically
4. Poverty Fund X X X Targeted to socioeconomically disadvantaged students
Stipend for Children of For children of liberation heroes to attend tertiary
5. X X X
Liberation Heroes education
Tuition waivers for For children of freedom fighters, disabled students,
6. X X X
underserved population and minorities
For religious and ethnic minorities, physically disabled,
7. Stipend for special population X X
blind, and other marginalized groups
For females enrolled in a three-year bachelor’s degree
8. Female Stipend Project X X X
program in the national and Islamic universities
Offered to university students who are visually
9. Blind stipend X
impaired
Source: UGC, DTE, and DSHE (2017).

10
According to Polytechnic Graduate Tracking Survey, 2016.
11
According to the Labour Force Survey 2015, 38 percent of the population have no education qualification, while 29 percent hold only primary education, 14 percent hold
junior secondary, and 13 percent have secondary education.

28
29. The Private University Act 2010 mandates private institutions to support meritorious low-income students,
universities to allocate scholarships/stipends, to especially females, and other marginalized groups to
offer tuition fee waivers and to allot admission quota pursue higher education. Subsidized interest rates would
to ensure equitable access. The tuition fees in private be provided to low-income students. Given the high
universities, on average, are more than five times that of returns to tertiary education in Bangladesh, providing
public universities, as discussed later. Private universities such loans would make economic sense to both students
provide fully or partially waivered tuition fees for students and the government. The scheme needs to be designed
who are meritorious but unable to afford the cost of carefully with in-depth analysis of lessons learned from
higher education. They also offer scholarships/stipends to the international experience and taking account of the
children of freedom fighters. About 20 percent of private country’s social context to build in an effective incentive
school students were eligible for stipends (Boye and system and efficient collection mechanism for better
Mannan 2014). This has contributed to the expansion of repayment. Success of the student loans program
equitable access to tertiary education, especially in the ultimately hinges upon repayment. From that perspective,
context of university education. rocky school-to-work transition and prolonged

BOX 1
30. There is currently no national student loans
scheme in Bangladesh to help students enrolled into
tertiary education. Financial support to students are
mostly provided in the form of scholarship/stipend and
waiver of fees. In fact, the National Education Policy
envisions the provisions of interest-free or low-interest
Good Practices in
student loans to the poor to meet the challenges of Government-supported
access and equity to tertiary education, especially among Student Loan Schemes
socioeconomically disadvantaged groups and females.
Many countries have introduced government-
funded loan schemes to support access to higher
3.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR education for students from modest family
PROMOTING EQUITY IN TERTIARY backgrounds. The South African government
EDUCATION administers a student loan program which uses
a means test to identify only needy students.
31. Despite improvements in enrollments, The size of the loan differs by income levels,
considerable gains are yet to be made regarding where students from low-income families will
access to tertiary education, especially for females get higher loan than those from high income.
and students from socioeconomically disadvantaged The loan is also tied to academic performance,
families. Access to quality tertiary education to all whereby loans are converted to grants for
deserving students is now important more than ever successful students, while those with poor
in the age of rapid technological advances because academic performance do not receive loan for
technologies may well replace or push down the wage repeating courses. On the other hand, countries
of many of those low-skilled routine jobs. The following like Ghana, Sweden, and Australia use ability-to-
policy options could be considered to improve equitable pay principle, whereby repayments are capped
access to tertiary education in Bangladesh. between 2–4 percent of graduate income and
the rate applied depending on how much the
32. Establishing a subsidized student loans program graduate earns. Australia has proven success with
for meritorious low-income and other marginalized the scheme by introducing cost sharing in higher
groups. Student loans programs have been introduced in education while also increasing enrollments by
many developing and developed countries with an intent 30 percent in five-year period.
to alleviate financial constraints of poorer families (Box
1). The GoB should consider setting up a student loan
scheme in partnership with public and private financial

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 29

 joblessness among graduates can imperil the viability of of higher levels of education would also be important to
loans provision for students in the medium to long term. promote household investment in education.

33. Expanding poverty-targeted scholarship and 35. Focusing on ‘quality’ for equitable access to
tuition support for students. Scholarship and tuition good programs, especially for academically average
support have been a popular demand-stimulating students in tertiary colleges. As tertiary enrollments
instrument for vocational and technical education in are expected to rise over the next few years, affiliated
Bangladesh as well as secondary education. For example, colleges will likely absorb the majority of this demand,
stipends conditional upon student attendance and especially students from academically average-
performance helped increase female participation in performing groups. With already low-quality environment
technical diploma programs from less than 5 percent in in the colleges, it becomes of utmost importance to
2010 to 14 percent in 2017. This can also be tested and increase investments in improving teaching-learning in
expanded to encourage low-income secondary school these institutions to ensure equitable access to quality
graduates, especially females, who are proven meritorious programs and effectively manage expansion. Teaching
to continue higher education in universities and colleges. and learning culture of colleges must be transformed
In addition to expanding public support for needs-based from an examination-centric one to an employability-
scholarships, private universities should be further oriented one, especially through priority investments
encouraged and incentivized to provide poverty-targeted in programs catering to jobs in high-demand economic
scholarships who meet the background characteristics. sectors. Moreover, reformation of governance and quality
The Private University Act mandates private institutions to assurance mechanisms would need to be in place to
offer scholarships to its students. Scholarship and tuition support equitable access to quality college education.12
waiver practices of private universities can be analyzed to The government is currently drafting a sector strategic
identify strategies on how to promote more needs-based plan for the affiliated colleges which would lay out action
scholarships and tuition waivers. plans for improving quality of this expanding system of
mass higher education.
34. Strengthening support for more equitable learning
outcomes in secondary education. More needs to be 36. Diversifying academic pathways toward more
done to raise learning outcomes of poorer segments of technical avenue. The technical and vocational
secondary students, so more students from poorer and education track of postsecondary education has been less
rural areas have a fair shot at higher education in reputed popular among secondary students. From the viewpoint
institutions. Use of information technologies and digital of more balanced human capital development, it would
tools for disseminating high-quality programs to this make sense to gear access to postsecondary education
population could enhance access to quality teaching in favor of enrollment in the technical track and reduce
contents and improve preparedness for admission the concentration of students in social subjects of less
into top institutions among aspiring disadvantaged economic priority under the general education stream.
students. Adjusting teacher pay parameters and teacher It is also the government’s policy to increase enrollment
deployment regulation to render preferential benefits in technical and vocational institutions to meet the job
for teachers and schools in rural and disadvantaged market demands. More awareness raising would be
areas would positively affect learning experience in those important to encourage secondary students to study in
areas. Sensitizing less-educated parents about the value diploma-level technical courses.

12
Detailed discussion in Chapter 6.

30
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADB. 2012. Access without Equity? Finding a Better Balance in Higher MoE (Ministry of Education). 2010. National Education Policy (NEP).
Education in Asia. Asia Development Bank. ———. 2011. National Skills Development Policy (NSDP).
———. 2016. Innovative Strategies in Higher Education for Accelerated Münich, D., E. Plug, G. Psacharopoulos, and M. Schlotter. 2012.
Human Resource Development in South Asia - Sri Lanka. Equity in and through Education and Training: Indicators
ADB, and Australian Aid. 2014a. Innovative Strategies in Higher and Priorities. European Expert Network on Economics of
Education for Accelerated Human Resource development Education (EENEE) Analytical Report No. 12.
in South Asia. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development).
———. 2014b. Innovative Strategies in Technical and Vocational 2012. Skills Development Pathways in Asia. OECD and LEED
Education and Training for Accelerated Human Resource (Local Economic and Employment Development).
Development in South Asia. Silva, K. T., P. P. Sivapragasam, and P. Thanges. 2009. “Caste
Ahmmed, M. 2013. “Higher Education in Public Universities in Discrimination and Social Justice in Sri Lanka: An
Bangladesh.” Journal of Management and Science III (2). Overview.” Working Paper Series Volume III, Indian Institute
of Dalit Studies, New Delhi.
Alam, M., M. S. Haque, and S. F. Siddique. 2007. Private Higher
Education in Bangladesh. Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh: (2006–2026).
University Grants Commission of Bangladesh.
Bettinger and Long. 2008. “Addressing the Needs of Underprepared
Students in Higher Education. Does College Remediation Thapliyal, U. 2013. “Equity in Higher Education: Exploring the Role
Work?” Journal of Human Resources : pp.44–71. of ICT.” Educationia Confab 2 (9).
Bordoloi, R. 2012. “Accessibility and Equity: A Challenge for Higher Vincent-Lancrin, S. 2008. “What is the Impact of Demography on
Education in India.” Journal of Economics and Sustainable Higher Education Systems? A Forward-looking Approach
Development 3 (4). for OECD Countries - Chapter 2.” Higher Education to 2030
Volume 1: Demography.
Boye, E. and M. A. Mannan. 2014. Bangladesh: Public-Private
Partnership in Higher Education. Asian Development Bank. World Bank. 2006. The Bangladesh Vocational Education and
Training System: An Assessment. Human Development
Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE). 2012. Education Watch: Unit South Asia Region
Skills Development in Bangladesh: Enhancing the Youth
Skills Profile, Dhaka. ———. 2013. Bangladesh Education Sector Review. Seeding Fertile
Ground: Education That Works for Bangladesh. Report No.
Chowdhury, I. U. 2009. “Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: 80613-BD. Human Development Sector, South Asia Region.
A Study of Bangladesh.” Working Paper Series Volume III,
———. 2014. A Study on National University and Affiliated Colleges
Indian Institute of Dalit Studies, New Delhi.
in Bangladesh. South Asia Human Development Sector.
European Union. 2015. “Action Document for Skills 21 - Empowering Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 65.
Citizens for Inclusive and Sustainable Growth.”
———. 2015. How Does the Short-Term Training Program Contribute
GoB (Government of Bangladesh). 2012. Perspective Plan of to Skills Development in Bangladesh? A Tracer Study of
Bangladesh 2010 - 2021. Making Vision 2021 a Reality. the Short-Term Training Graduates. South Asia Region,
———. 2012. Draft National Strategy for Promotion of Gender Equality Education Global Practice. Discussion Paper Series, Report
in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in No. 82.
Bangladesh. ———. 2016a. Bangladesh College Education Development Project
———. Seventh Five-Year Plan (2016–2020). Accelerating Growth, (CEDP).
Empowering Citizens. ———. 2016b. Bangladesh Development Update - Sustained
Hossain, A. and B. Zeitlyn. 2010. Poverty and Equity: Access to Development Progress.
Education in Bangladesh. Consortium for Research on ———. 2017a. Systems Approach for Better Results: Bangladesh
Educational Access, Transitions and Equity. Create Pathways Country Report. Tertiary Education. Washington DC: World
to Access. Research Monograph No. 51. Bank.
Islam, F. 2008. “Some Issues of Higher Education in Bangladesh: ———. 2018a. Employability of Postsecondary TVET Graduates in
Analysis of Demand, Problems and Trends.” Prime University Bangladesh: Tracking Survey of Graduates of Polytechnics.
Journal 2 (2). Washington DC: World Bank.
Khan, R. H., A. H. A. M. Mridha, and S. Barua. 2009. “Higher Education in ———. 2018b. Graduate Employability of Affiliated Colleges: New
Private Universities of Bangladesh: A Study on Female Students’ Evidence from Bangladesh. Graduate Tracking Survey
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Luoach, T. O. 2014. “The Impact of Remedial English on English Washington DC: World Bank.
Proficiency: The Case of United States International
University - Africa.” Social and Behavioral Sciences 152
(2014): 1178–1188.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 31

 4
QUALITY AND
RELEVANCE IN
TERTIARY
EDUCATION

32
4.1. BACKGROUND
37. There has been a growing concern over the quality and relevance crisis of tertiary
education and poor employability of graduates in Bangladesh. Quality concerns on tertiary
education have intensified with the sector’s dramatic expansion over the past two decades, further
exacerbated by inadequate resource allocation and limited capacity for quality assurance to guide
this growth. As discussed in the preceding chapter, the tertiary education sector in Bangladesh
experienced unprecedented expansion in terms of student enrollments with greater roles played
by private education institutions. Much of this growth has occurred unsystematically amid weak
enforcement of quality assurance mechanisms. For example, the National University has only a
small inspection unit to conduct quality inspections in over 2,000 affiliated colleges spread across
Bangladesh. The longstanding lack of quality assurance practice in public and private universities
has led to ineffective monitoring of quality standards. It is only recently that a quality assurance and
accreditation mechanism for higher education was introduced.

38. Evidences show a growing and alarming disconnect between what students are studying
and the skills demanded by the employers and job market.13 Unemployment remains high
among new graduates, many of whom remain jobless up to two to three years of completing
degrees in Bangladesh.14 Paradoxically, employers have expressed strong concerns over the
increasing difficulty in finding high-skilled candidates to fill their vacant positions. Modernization
of economic structure and technological advances in industries have been increasing the demand
for highly skilled workers.15 A skills survey, however, reports that over two-thirds of employers
reported lack of skilled applicants for professional, technical, and managerial positions across
different occupations (Murshid 2016, as cited in Rahman, Haque, and Taposh 2016). In the absence
of adequate high-skilled professionals in local job market, some sectors such as the RMG industry fill
the skills gap through recruitment of foreign expertise.

39. Comprehensive analysis and documentation of the challenges to quality tertiary

education in Bangladesh has been scarce. The following section investigates into some of the
quality challenges across the TEIs in Bangladesh based on available data, reports, and scholarly
works as well as experience and lessons learned from the World Bank-supported projects in
tertiary education in Bangladesh. It also attempts to highlight some of the good practices of TEIs in
Bangladesh for delivering quality education.

13
Some include EIU 2013 and 2014; World Bank 2013 and 2017.
14
Forthcoming tracer study conducted by the World Bank finds that current unemployment among tertiary colleges is around 71 percent
following three years of graduation. Another tracer study finds that around 25 percent of graduates were unemployed following two years of
diploma graduation.
15
See World Bankb. 2018. Skills for Tomorrow’s Jobs.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 33

 4.2. KEY ISSUES IN QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TEIS IN BANGLADESH

4.2.1. Teaching and learning and assessment may take a smaller share of the marking allotment.
systems are traditional and rigid Tertiary college students are least exposed to diversified
assessment methods as the colleges rely almost
40. Pedagogical methods used in TEIs largely follow entirely on written examinations and opportunities to
the traditional mode of didactic teaching. Students are evaluate students’ practical learning is largely missing.17
taught mainly through set texts, dictation of notes, and Furthermore, as public university teachers are engaged in
written assessments in tertiary education in Bangladesh setting questions for colleges but are often unaware of the
(EIU 2014; World Bank 2014). The traditional teaching college curriculum, the effectiveness of the examination
method often promotes rote learning, non-creativity, and contents is also a concern. No systematic review of the
passivity of students who reproduce what was dictated National University examination is carried out regularly.
to them with no effort to go beyond what is taught in In general, TEIs provide little feedback to students other
the classroom (EIU 2014). Without active participation, than the conventional grades on tests, which makes it
students’ ability to develop higher-order critical thinking difficult for the assessment process to provide students
and problem-solving skills is likely to be impeded. scope for improvement. Nonetheless, private universities
41. Rigid updating of curriculum and lack of practical and some disciplines of public universities are now
learning in academic programs are another challenge increasing the share of marks for practical assessments
to improving teaching and learning in tertiary through presentations and research work and internships,
education programs. Many public tertiary education in evaluating student performance.
programs do not periodically update curricula, which may 43. Teaching at tertiary colleges is overshadowed
lack new concepts and ideas in the field and undermine by the responsibility of undertaking numerous
relevance and functionality of the degree (EIU 2014). For examinations. The National University’s centralized
tertiary colleges and polytechnics, curricula are developed examination system creates challenges in ensuring
centrally by the National University and Bangladesh adequate teaching hours at colleges. The holding
Technical Education Board (BTEB), respectively, with of examinations by the National University is a huge
inadequate involvement of the institutions or industry. undertaking involving over 300 days in a year. The process
This gives little flexibility to institutions to quickly adapt is prolonged due to the sheer number of subjects, courses,
curriculum to local industry needs. Furthermore, except and examinees and by a lack of examination space at
for some university and polytechnic programs,16 most the colleges.18 As examinations are held continually
tertiary education academic programs do not provide year-round, constantly taking up teachers’ time and
students with the opportunities to gain practical exposure classrooms, teaching hours are often sacrificed, which
to their fields through internships, industry projects, inevitably lowers the quality of teaching and learning.
or research work. As a result, students often complete
degrees with limited knowledge and experience of 44. Session jams and disrupted academic schedule
practical applications of their theoretical learnings. are taking tolls on the efficiency of tertiary education
and hampers transition to jobs. Public universities
42. Student assessments in tertiary education and colleges often are unable to follow the academic
heavily relies on written examinations. Public and calendar which hampers students from timely
private universities conduct their assessments at the graduation. A study on the public university examination
department level by the teachers. The major part of system finds that several institutions were unable to
assessment generally involves written exam while a viva adhere to the academic calendar and this delays the
voce and practical laboratory test (for science disciplines) commencement of classes for new students and holding

16
The curriculum of polytechnics has a total of 45 days of mandatory ‘Industry Attachment’ program, in which students undergo apprenticeship experience in partnering
companies in their localities. However well intended, this program is often criticized for poor quality and lack of supervision.
17
Students in science disciplines participate in practical lab examinations—however, anecdotal evidence suggests that these practical assessments often are not
conducted appropriately due to lack of lab facilities, raw materials, and lab instructors at the colleges.
18
The National University has the task of holding 97 exams in 382 subjects and 1,952 courses in a single year for around 2 million students.

34
of final examinations (UGC 2015). These delays are
often the result of ad hoc student or teacher protests,
political unrest, and lengthy and extensive paper-based
bureaucratic administrative processes involving different
entities of the institution (UGC 2014). This leads to time 3.73 3.35 3.72 3.47 3.59 3.09
3.08 3.06
lags or ‘session jams’ in public universities. Another study
shows that sessions jams occur on average up to 20
months in general universities, 17 months in engineering
universities, and 16 months in science and technology Teaching & Learning Industry Support
universities (Sarkar and Hossain 2016). Similarly, tertiary Learning Infrastructure Interactions Services
colleges suffer from session jams of up to 24 months.19
These time lags in the public higher education institutions Beneficiary Non-Beneficiary
have considerable financial and practical implications
for all stakeholders, including graduates having to delay Figure 12: Satisfaction Rating among Beneficiary and Non-
entering the job market and lose earning opportunities Beneficiary Students (out of 4-point scale)
(Sarkar and Hossain 2016). Source: World Bank 2017

45. Some progress has been made to support active 4.2.2. Students’ readiness for higher education
learning in tertiary education in Bangladesh. Research is weak
shows that active learning improves student focus and
attention, develops higher-order critical thinking, and 46. Student readiness for university education is
supports better learning outcomes.20 However, teachers’ an often overlooked but growing concern in the
competence and resourcefulness would have to be university community in Bangladesh and could derail
addressed to support active learning in classrooms. Most the effort for quality higher education. Concerns on the
TEIs in Bangladesh are at a disadvantage in offering active quality of incoming students to TEIs have been voiced by
learning arising from inadequate availability of modern the higher education community in Bangladesh over time.
technological media and teachers’ training on the use of For example, while the pass rates in the HSC exam have
these facilities in pedagogy (Chowdhury 2016; Mazumder been on the rise, most of the candidates fail to obtain the
2014). Nonetheless, several universities in Bangladesh pass mark in entrance exams in top public universities in
are gradually moving toward student-centered active Bangladesh.21 Due to weak foundational skills, especially
learning. For example, the Government’s higher education in English and mathematics, universities often find that
project supported around 130 subprojects across first-year students struggle to comprehend lectures.22
different public and private universities to upgrade According to the national student learning assessment at
teaching learning facilities and curricula geared at more secondary education level, only around 48 percent and
active student learning experiences. Student satisfaction 41 percent of Grade 8 students meet the grade equivalent
surveys showed that university students participating in competency standard in English and math subjects,
classroom learning involving technological media, work- respectively.23 Some private universities provide remedial
based seminars, and workshops were more satisfied with noncredit courses in English, mathematics, and IT skills
the teaching-learning environment than those with less in the first year of study for students who need extra
access to such resources in Bangladesh (Figure 12). support in preparing them for the rigorous undergraduate

19
In 2012, students of the National University scheduled for Honors final exam in 2009 attended the exams in 2011. Further delays in results publications create an
indecisive situation where students can neither enroll in master’s program or apply for jobs. http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-232579.
20
Some literature on the benefits of active learning include Fisher (2010); Freeman et al. (2014); Sivan et al. (2010).
21
In 2016, around 90 percent of applicants failed to secure the pass score in the Dhaka University entrance exams. http://www.theindependentbd.com/post/65605.
22
Studies find that as Bangla is the main language of instruction up to higher secondary education for most students, their proficiency in English is often not fully
developed. As a result, students’ comprehension of lectures and materials weakens when the mode of instruction becomes English at the universities (Abedin, Majhlish,
and Akhter 2009; ADB 2014).
23
LASI 2013.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 35

 program (Box 2). However, such programs to support Table 5: Average Teacher-Student Ratio across the TEIs
underprepared students are largely missing from public
TEIs, where resources to introduce remediation efforts are Public Private Total
unavailable.

BOX 2
University 1:40 1:27 1:33

College 1:77 1:12 1:24

Polytechnic 1:61 1:26 1:35

Good Practices in Source: BANBEIS 2015.

Improving Student
Readiness for Higher 48. Quality teaching-learning becomes challenging
Education with inadequate provision of modern learning
facilities in the TEIs. Most TEIs have limited development
funds to improve teaching-learning facilities. This compels
The Asian University for Women conducts the
them to operate without adequate teaching aids, modern
Access Academy program to bring students from
labs, equipment, and information technology (IT) facilities
diverse backgrounds onto a common learning
needed for conducive teaching-learning environment
platform and improve learning gains in university.
(World Bank 2014). Especially in the provision of STEM,
The curriculum focuses on raising students’
practical learning is hampered when students have
English, quantitative reasoning, and general
little or no access to raw materials and lab facilities.
academic skills to levels that will enable them to
Employers specifically have expressed discontent with
succeed in the university’s rigorous undergraduate
available training facilities at technical institutions—the
program.
lack of quality facilities are considered to hinder technical
Private universities including North South graduates’ competency and familiarity of machineries and
University, East West University, and BRAC tools needed for industry jobs (World Bank 2006).
University also offer remedial noncredit courses in
49. Universities have made good progress in
English and mathematics which are compulsory
provision of access to computers and Internet for
for students with deficiencies in these skills.
students and teachers. The government has made
significant investments to establish a dedicated high-
connectivity network in the university sector through the
establishment of the Bangladesh Research and Education
4.2.3. Teaching and learning facilities and Network (BdREN). Till date, around 38 institutions have
equipment are inadequate and outdated been connected to BdREN and are using the connection
to support collaborative research works and virtual
47. The quality of learning environment suffers from teaching learning with universities and institutions within
large classes, specifically in government universities, and outside of Bangladesh. Additionally, 15 universities
colleges, and polytechnics. Teachers in universities, have set up campus networks (another 19 in process)
colleges, and polytechnics face large classes, which may utilizing the BdREN connection. The establishment of the
make it challenging to deliver lectures with due attention. campus networks would facilitate university-wide Internet
Student-teacher ratios are generally high in all types of connection for all students and teachers, significantly
TEIs, especially among public institutions (Table 5). Some improving the quality of digital connectivity across these
departments have larger numbers of students enrolled institutions.
in classes. Anecdotal evidence shows that in public
universities, some departments have over 150 students 50. However, the quality of Internet connectivity and
per class. Without proper classroom facilities, such as adequacy of computer facilities remain a challenge
speakers and multimedia, the delivery of lecture is often for many TEIs. Most universities outside the BdREN
hindered, making teaching and learning less effective. connectivity continue to rely often on low bandwidth

36
 BOX 3
Quality Teaching Learning Facilities to Support STEM in
Tertiary Education in Bangladesh
The Government has supported two projects—the Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP) and
the Skills and Training Enhancement Project—to overhaul the quality of teaching and learning in the university and
the TVET sector, respectively. Established in 2009, the HEQEP has supported over 300 subprojects through three
rounds of academic innovation funds (AIFs) across public and private universities in upgrading teaching-learning
facilities. These subprojects involved 455 subject curriculum upgradations, 310 laboratories established or revamped
with scientific instruments, 1,119 classroom modernizations with multimedia devices, 5,800 computers/laptops
purchases, and around 29,000 books acquisitions among other quality enhancing facilities. These investments have
significantly supported STEM learning as the beneficiary universities could support around 318 postgraduate and
PhD students for scientific research projects and publish around 250 scientific studies in peer-reviewed national and
international journals. On the other hand, STEP provided institutional development grants to 33 public and private
polytechnics to upgrade classroom and labs with multimedia technologies, machineries and tools, and software
essential to carry out practical learning in the science and engineering fields. Another 23 polytechnics are expected to
receive grants for improving their teaching and learning facilities and supporting STEM education.

Internet through limited broadband or wifi connections. reduced (on average, 1 Internet-connected computer for
Low availability of computers further deteriorates access 49 students) as almost 24 percent of private university
to Internet, especially in the public universities. A survey computers are not connected to the Internet while
shows more than two-thirds of department heads from another 60 percent are used only for management and
public universities felt the availability of computers to administrative purposes.
be insufficient while another 60 percent reported that
51. Tertiary colleges and polytechnics are less likely
Internet access was available for only teachers and
to have access to computers and Internet connection;
administrators at the department level (UDL 2016). Even
masters colleges are in a relatively better condition.
most of the private universities24 struggle to provide
Government development efforts have supported most
adequate Internet-enabled computer access to students.
tertiary colleges to gain Internet connectivity—the latest
On average, only 383 computers are available in the
statistics shows that around 98 percent of all tertiary
85 private universities. The availability of computers
colleges are connected to the Internet (Table 6). However,
and access to Internet for students’ learning are further
the scarcity of computers for students’ use remains a

Table 6: Computer and Internet Access across Tertiary Colleges

College Type No. of Colleges No. of Computers Per College Computer Availability % of Colleges connected to Internet
Degree pass 1,178 7,804 6.6 97
Degree honors 445 4,561 10.2 99
Masters 136 4,539 33.4 99
Total 1,759 16,904 9.6 98
Source: BANBEIS 2015.

24
Except for a few established private universities, most are new and have limited facilities, including computers.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 37

 huge challenge as on average only nine computers are computers and Internet (World Bank 2014). The study
available per college. This shows that most students and notes that college teachers did not have the necessary IT
institutions, especially those in degree pass colleges, skills and digital literacy needed to use Internet-enabled
complete their programs without the opportunity for computers at the institution. This challenge is more
IT skills development (World Bank 2014). Among the prominent in the college and polytechnic sectors, where
polytechnics, around 56 have established computer classroom learning is largely traditional and modern
labs and multimedia facilities through the government ICT facilities are generally low, reducing teachers’ need
program. However, around 80 percent of polytechnics to learn and use such tools in pedagogy.26 On the other
were out of this government program and still have hand, most universities recruit high-skilled teachers
inadequate computer facilities in most cases. with good ICT skills which allow them to develop and
continue using facilities in the classroom when made
52. Universities provide good access to learning
available.27 However, low digital literacy continues to be a
resources such as books and journals through
challenge among university students arising mostly from
physical and digital library facilities, while tertiary
a lack of exposure to IT-based learning during secondary
colleges and polytechnics lag far behind. Currently,
schooling. A pilot introducing a Learning Management
72 public and private universities are members of the
System (LMS) for non-engineering students at a private
UGC digital library that has enabled increased access
university in Bangladesh showed that less than 10
to online journals and books. The monthly average
percent of students accessed the system for additional
download of e-journals steadily increased over the past
learning materials (Khalid 2009). To improve e-readiness
five years showing a good demand for online resources.
of incoming students, several universities, mostly private
However, access to online resources could be better
universities, include basic IT skills training for new
improved through providing e-resource use orientation,
students as a compulsory module of the program to
increasing subscriptions to high demand-based resources
develop digital literacy skills. Significant scope remains to
and increasing membership to different TEIs. Tertiary
improve ICT use in learning at the TEIs, especially for the
colleges and polytechnic institutions still remain outside
tertiary colleges and polytechnics, where most institutions
of any digital library services. A survey shows that on
lack modern ICT facilities.
average, colleges have less than 20,000 books and less
than 25 journals in their collection (World Bank 2014). As 54. Nonetheless, the uptake of ICT use in tertiary
government colleges receive some steady fund allocation education is gradually improving. Multimedia
for books and journals, they have double the average classrooms support teachers and students to visualize
number of books available in nongovernment colleges, difficult concepts enriching the learning experience.
which operate with a minimum book collection (World In Bangladesh, established private universities and
Bank 2014).25 several public universities are increasingly moving to
multimedia classroom learning, delivering lectures
4.2.4. Digital literacy among teachers and through presentations, videos, and online content and
students are low maintaining class communication through email and
53. Teachers’ ICT skills are poor and there is low web-based platforms (HEQEP 2017). Virtual classrooms
willingness to use technology in the classroom, have been established in 34 universities where online
especially in colleges and polytechnics. Mere access to classes are conducted connecting students and teachers
technology does not ensure that students learn ICT skills. across Bangladesh as well as with foreign institutions
A case study on a rural tertiary college finds that students (Box 4).
did not develop basic IT skills despite the availability of

25
National University regulations stipulate that a minimum of 3,000 books needs to be held in colleges which run Honors programs with 2,000 as minimum in Degree level
colleges.
26
The same challenge of ICT skills and digital literacy among teachers is noted across other schooling levels in Bangladesh as well as other parts of the world (British
Council 2015; PISA 2015).
27
For example, BRAC University conducts basic IT learning during library orientation for teachers to make them familiar with accessing online resources.

38
 BOX 4
Virtual Classroom Teaching in Bangladeshi University
Under AIF support, the Department of Pharmacology of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Medical University (BSSMU)
established the first-ever virtual classroom system for medical college students in Bangladesh. The subproject piloted
innovative use of information technology in medical education by establishing a virtual classroom environment.
Under the pilot, medical college institutions across Bangladesh are connected to the virtual classroom allowing
senior medical professors in Dhaka and even international experts from abroad to deliver their lectures to students in
medical colleges in different regions. Students can attend real-time online classes, download teaching materials, and
assess their competence in self-administered tests.

4.2.5. Opportunities for training higher-order literacy) as important work-related skills for success
cognitive and soft skills are missing among professionals. However, more than one-third of
all employers reported inadequacy of these important
55. Employers are placing greater emphasis on skills among professional workers (Figure 13). This
the value of higher-order cognitive and soft skills indicates that professionals are entering jobs with limited
among employees for effectiveness in work in exposure to cognitive and soft skills development. The
Bangladesh. Yet, most graduates enter the job market low availability of these traits among employees creates
with inadequate development of these skills. An high demand for these skills as studies find employers
enterprise-based survey finds that employers ranked compensating higher-order cognitive skills and soft skills
three soft skills (responsibility, communication, problem with higher pay (Nomura and Adhikari 2017; World Bank
solving) followed by two cognitive skills (numeracy and 2013b).

How important How Sufficent

69%

67%

64%

58%

58%
58%

56%

53%

47%
43%

40%

38%

37%

38%
36%

37%

36%
35%

35%
27%

25%

18%
16%

15%
Responsibility

Communication

Problem Solving

Numeracy

Literacy

Customer Care

Team Work

Motivation

Creativity

ICT

English

Vocational Skills

Figure 13: Employers’ Perception of Skills Importance and Skills Sufficiency among Professional Workers in Bangladesh (Share
of respondents, percentage)
Source: World Bank 2014.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 39

 56. A few higher education institutions and centers 4.2.6. Teachers are in short supply and lack
in Bangladesh are experimenting with courses that professional development opportunities
explicitly incorporate higher-order cognitive and soft
skills development among students. Several private 57. There is an acute shortage of regular teachers,
universities in Bangladesh have developed learning especially in tertiary colleges and polytechnics.
modules or established training centers within the Most government colleges, especially those outside the
institutions focused on enhancing cognitive and soft skills capital, have high numbers of vacant teachers’ positions
of students (Table 7). These efforts are aimed to improve that reduce the capacity at these institutions to deliver
graduate employability, which remains a critical aspect for high quality programs (World Bank 2015). Government
attracting student enrollment in the private universities. polytechnics also suffer from regular teacher shortages
On the other hand, there are very few examples of and are currently running on contractual teacher
activities undertaken to improve nontechnical skills of supported under a government development project.
graduates in public TEIs. Public TEIs have limited funds, Both government college and polytechnic teachers
resources, and flexibility compared to private counterparts are recruited centrally by the MoE through the public
for conducting additional skills development training for service system. The long bureaucratic process results
students. in lags of up to two years, and turnovers during this
time further increase vacancies. Even private TEIs face
teacher shortages often cited because of lack of qualified

Table 7: Good Practices of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills and Soft Skills Training in Bangladesh

Programs and Institution

Residential Semester aims to develop a range of soft skills and personality qualities among
undergraduate students. The residential semester focuses on four areas of development: (a)
Residential Semester improving communication skills, (b) creating strong sense of responsibility, (c) developing
Program firm principles to guide students in decision making and action, and (d) providing holistic
education through academic and extracurricular activities.
Professional Skills
Development Program Professional Skills Development Program is a 13-week modular course designed to
improve BRAC University students’ employability, in response to employers’ increasingly
BRAC University diverse and sophisticated needs. It focuses on enhancing the all-round development of
students, by building a variety of skills sets that increase their appeal to employers and
improve their ‘on the job’ performance.

Center for Cognitive Skills Center for Cognitive Skills Enhancement aims to build higher-order cognitive skills through
Enhancement engaging undergraduate students in logic, rationalization, problem solving, and decision
making experiences using digital tools like games and apps as well as active learning
Independent University
experience such as research activities.
Bangladesh

Bangladesh Youth Leadership Center’s training programs provide face-to-face and online
Leadership Program training courses focusing on the development of higher-order cognitive skills, including
leadership, problem-solving, and critical thinking, communications skills and pre-
Bangladesh Youth
employment/professional development training for undergraduates, graduates, and
Leadership Center
professionals.

The online job search platform provides a range of training workshops and certificate
Bdjobs.com
programs to support technical and soft skills development of job seekers and professionals.

40
candidates along with limited staffing funds (World Bank universities (UGC 2015). On the other hand, around
2014). As a result, most private universities recruit part- one-fifth of all private university teachers had a PhD,
time teachers to run regular programs. With almost one- the majority of whom (around 40 percent) belonged to
third of private university teachers working as temporary five most prestigious private institutions (UGC 2015).
faculty, the quality of learning suffers as teachers do not In government colleges, most teachers have a master’s
receive the professional development opportunities or are degree but only a few—around 5 percent—have a PhD or
not involved in the long-term development objectives of advanced qualification in their discipline. The situation is
the institution.28 worst in the polytechnics where a recent survey finds on
average, only about a quarter of teachers has a master’s
58. Teachers’ recruitment qualification and incentive
degree, while around a third have only diploma degree
system is not conducive to attract and retain top
(World Bank 2017). Very few TEI teachers have advanced
talent. The UGC Teacher Recruitment Policy requires
research training which reduces their ability to fully
candidates for entry-level teaching posts to have a
engage and produce high quality research work often with
minimum of a master’s degree in the teaching field. No
reports of plagiarism incidences surfacing.29
prior research or teaching experience is sought that
would otherwise indicate the knowledge and pedagogical 60. Professional development opportunities are
skills of candidates. For higher teaching posts, the policy scarce and only intermittently provided for a small
requires candidates to have a minimum post-master’s number of teachers in tertiary education. Universities
degree along with teaching experience and publications. and colleges around the world are increasingly investing
Qualifications needed for teaching in colleges and in continuous professional development training to
polytechnics are even less stringent. Lecturer posts are ensure quality and relevant learning throughout the
filled through the Public Service Commission recruitment faculty’s service period. Except for a few cases, almost all
system, which requires candidates to have at least a TEIs in Bangladesh do not have any structured in-house
bachelor’s degree. Promotions in public universities teachers’ orientation and training programs.30 The MoE
are not automatic but follow the procedure of fresh provides some basic training to government college and
recruitment while considering some competency and polytechnic teachers through the National Academy
performance indicators such as post-master’s degree, of Educational Management (NAEM). The NAEM offers
years of experience, and number of publications. There nine courses to around 1,200 government principals and
is also a provision of internal promotion by which a teachers of colleges and polytechnics each year on areas
candidate is automatically promoted to the higher post including, education administration and management,
if he/she fulfils certain criteria. Private universities also ICT, and research methodology (NAEM 2017). Other
tie internal promotion to higher teaching positions to important training such as pedagogical and andragogic
indicators such as post-master’s degree and research training occur on a limited scale on ad hoc basis, mostly
publications. On the other hand, the government college through government development projects for college
and polytechnic teachers’ promotions basically depends and polytechnic teachers.
on years of service completed, that is, seniority, with no
consideration of performance-related criteria.
4.2.7. Accreditation and quality assurance
mechanism are at a nascent stage
59. Most TEI teachers fulfill the minimum criteria of
61. Quality assurance has made significant progress
holding a master’s degree, but very few have more
in the higher education sector. At the national level,
advanced qualifications or training in research
the Accreditation Council, Bangladesh (ACB) Act was
and teaching. Around one-third of the total public
enacted.31 Under the Act, the Accreditation Council
university teachers hold a PhD with most PhD-holding
would be established as an independent autonomous
teachers (around 60 percent) working in five established

28
As of 2015, around 33 percent of total 15,058 private university teachers are working as temporary faculty in 85 private universities.
29
Daily Star report on DU teachers, http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/09/28/five-du-teachers-accused-plagiarism/.
30
The Independent University Bangladesh—private university—set up the Center for Pedagogy which offers pedagogy training to new and existing teachers of the
university. Six public universities opened Center of Excellence in Teaching and Learning under a GoB-British Council project to offer professional development for teachers
and senior administrators.
31
The ACB Act became effective on March 21, 2017, with its publication in the Bangladesh Gazette.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 41

 body responsible for overseeing the quality of higher and effectiveness of the program. Based on the self-
education at the institutions against the benchmark assessment reports, the faculties subsequently develop
given in the National Qualifications Framework. The improvement plans to address quality issues. The self-
Council is also tasked with accreditation of programs assessment and improvement plans are also externally
at the initial stage and later of institutions and will peer-reviewed to ensure quality of the process. The
conduct external assessments of the quality of teaching self-assessment exercise offered university students,
and learning in the higher education institutions. At the especially those from public institutions, the first-time
time of commissioning of this study, the Accreditation opportunity to provide feedback on teaching and learning
Council is yet to be operationalized causing delays in the environment, which has been largely missing in the higher
implementation of quality assurance for higher education. education sector (Quddus and Rashid 2000).32

62. Universities have initiated institutional-level 63. Other TEIs however are yet to conduct any
quality assurance programs. Around 69 public and institutional-level quality check of their programs.
private universities have established institutional quality In the college sector, the National University conducts
assurance cells (IQAC) to monitor and report on the ‘inspections’ to ensure affiliation requirements are met
quality of teaching-learning across different programs. at the colleges. However, quality aspects of teaching and
In each university, the IQAC provide technical support learning, especially student and teachers’ feedback, are
and coordinate across different faculties for undertaking missing from these audits. The polytechnic subsector is
self-assessments. The self-assessments involve surveys yet to start any institutional quality assurance activities.
to collect student and teachers’ feedback on the quality Quality reviews of diploma programs are urgently needed.

4.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TEIS

64. Implementing modern practices in teaching- 65. More investments in teaching and learning
learning and Assessment. One means to overhaul the facilities and information technologies. Provision of
traditional teaching learning system is through promoting modern computer and science labs, technological media,
active learning in the classroom. Active learning would books, and journals among other learning materials are
require equipping teachers with the necessary classroom essential inputs to quality learning. Required investments
resources and training in pedagogy to adopt the new to upgrade teaching-learning facilities across TEIs is huge.
approach. Greater emphasis on fostering practical and Though the government has been the main investor in
hands-on skills should be built into STEM education and public TEIs, both public and private institutions need to
training. Public TEIs, especially the National University, tap into new resources of funding. Partnerships with the
are required to review the examination practice and private sector, especially in research and development
ensure assessments are geared toward measuring (R&D) work, is one means to acquire investments in labs
practical knowledge rather than rote learning and to and modern equipment in exchange for supporting
incorporate a system of feedback for improving student development of technology. Such practice has been
competencies. Introduction of LMSs can support introduced under the AIF university-industry collaboration
teachers and administrators track and evaluate student window and could be expanded as well as replicated
progress provided adequate training is offered using such to other TEIs in time. To attract private investments
systems. Moving forward, there is a need to design and in education and collaboration, the government may
implement learning modules aimed at developing higher- consider special incentives (for example, tax rebate,
order cognitive and soft skills among graduates. These recognition) for industry. Access to computers and high-
skills need to be recognized in National Qualification quality Internet for TEI students is critical to develop IT
Frameworks, incorporated in curriculum and measured as skills for the modern workplace. Expansion of the BdREN
part of learning gains in the TEIs. connection and establishment of campus networks in

32
Except for some private universities which included student evaluation of courses as part of regular quality review.

42
the remaining universities, colleges, and polytechnics are and promotion process for colleges and polytechnics to
ways to ensure high-quality Internet coverage for students ensure teachers are attracted toward and motivated to
and teachers. Digital literacy training for teachers and take up the teaching profession. Other than monetary
students to support the use of technology for learning and incentives, good teachers can be attracted through the
ensure IT skills are developed. provision of opportunities for growth and recognition, for
example, more scholarships and research funds, teaching
66. Improving readiness for tertiary education.
excellence awards, and performance-based incentives.
Despite the quality of incoming students linked with
basic education schooling, TEIs nonetheless need to 68. Partnership with renowned foreign academic
take this issue head on to improve graduate learning institutions. Forging partnership with renowned foreign
and employability. Studies show that remedial courses universities through twinning or joint programs is an
for underprepared university students may be one effective means to raise the quality of teaching and
means to improve student readiness and performance learning in Bangladeshi universities. Already some
for higher education (Bettinger and Long 2009; Luoch progress has been made through existing academic
2014). While most private universities in Bangladesh are partnerships with renowned foreign TEIs for teachers’
offering remediation, public TEIs have by contrast are professional development in the TVET and tertiary college
yet to implement such programs. Public TEIs should sector. Additionally, the Chittagong Veterinary and Animal
also be provided the resources and scope to introduce Science University was able to initiate student exchange
similar remedial programs to raise the foundational skills program with the U.S. universities following upgradation
and quality of incoming students. For example, blended of teaching-learning facilities funded by the government’s
learning modules where the teaching is delivered online higher education project. More TEIs in Bangladesh should
and final assessment through sitting exam could be used be supported in initiating academic partnerships that
for only remedial modules. This would also reduce the support knowledge transfer, exchange of experience, and
pressure on teachers and scarce resources which is often capacity development. These partnerships could focus
considered a barrier to introducing such programs in the on faculty and student exchange, joint conferences, and
public TEIs. management leadership training.

67. Enhancing teacher competencies through 69. Implementing the quality assurance mechanism
professional development. Continuous professional in all TEIs. The MoE needs to take the necessary steps
development training for TEI teachers are critical to implement the ACB Act and quality assurance system
inputs to quality learning. There is a need to develop effectively across all universities and tertiary colleges.
teacher competency requirements across subject areas, Institution-level quality assurance activities need to be
considering both technical (subject expertise, curricula strengthened and regularized at universities and colleges.
development, pedagogy, and so on) and non-technical Polytechnics remain outside the scope of the ACB Act.
aspects (management, leadership, socioemotional skills, There is a need to initiate quality assurance activities,
and so on) and inform the development of structured for example, self-assessments, in the polytechnics to
in-service professional training programs. There is a motivate and create awareness in TVET stakeholders on
need to review the government teacher recruitment the importance of quality assurance.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 43

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chowdhury, F. 2016. Employment of Active Learning at HEIs in Sarkar, S. H., and S. Z. Hossain. 2016. “Utilization of Higher
Bangladesh to Improve Education Quality. International Education Budget: Study on Public Universities in
Education Studies; Vol. 9, No. 10; 2016. Bangladesh.” IOSR Journal of Business and Management
18 (8) version III: 01–13.
EIU. 2013. Higher Education in South Asia: Trends in Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Sivan, A., R. W. Leung, C. Woon, and D. Kember. 2010. An
Economic Intelligence Unit. Implementation of Active Learning and its Effect on the
Quality of Student Learning; Innovations in Education
———. 2014. High University Enrollments, Low Graduate and Training International. Pp.381–389.
Employment. Analyzing the paradox in Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. EIU. UDL (University Grants Commission Digital Library). 2016. “UGC
Digital Library Survey: An Overview of Key Findings.”
Fisher, K. 2010. “Technology-Enabled Active Learning Presentation. Dhaka: Bangladesh.
Environments: An Appraisal”, CELE Exchange, Centre
for Effective Learning Environments (2010) 07: OECD UGC (University Grants Commission). 2015. Report on
Publishing, Paris. Examination System in Public and Private Universities in
Bangladesh. Draft. UGC: Bangladesh
Freeman, S., S. L. Eddy, M. Mcdonough, M. K. Smith, N. Okoroafor,
H. Jordth, and M. P. Wenderoth. 2014. “Active Learning World Bank. World Bank. 2006. The Bangladesh Vocational
Increases Students Performance in Science, Engineering, Education and Training System: An Assessment. Human
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Guimon, J. 2013. “Promoting University-Industry Collaboration in ———.2013a. Education Sector Review: Seeding Fertile Work:
Developing Countries.” The Innovation Policy Platform. Education That Works for Bangladesh. Human
Policy Brief. Development Sector, South Asia Region, World Bank.

HEQEP. 2017. A Brief Report on Satisfaction Survey 2016. Higher ———. 2013b. An Assessment of Skills in the Formal Sector
Education Quality Enhancement Project: Dhaka. Labor Market in Bangladesh: A Technical Report on the
Enterprise-Based Skills Survey 2012. Washington, DC.:
Mazumder, Q. H. 2014. “Analysis of Quality in Public and Private World Bank.
Universities in Bangladesh and USA”. International
Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) ———. 2014. A Study on the National University and its Affiliated
3 (2): 99–108. Colleges. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Nomura, S., and S. Adhikari. 2017. The Influence of Non-cognitive ————. 2015. College Education Development Project. Project
Skills on Wages within and between firms: Evidence from Appraisal Document.
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Programme for International Student Assessment. PISA. 2015. Polytechnics. Washington DC: World Bank Group.
Students’ use of ICT outside the school. Paris: OECD
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44
Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 45
 5
RESEARCH AND
INNOVATION
IN TERTIARY
EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS

46
5.1. BACKGROUND
70. Research and innovation have been generating knowledge and solutions to tackle
development challenges and spur economic growth and poverty reduction in Bangladesh.
For example, R&D has been playing a crucial role especially in the development of agriculture
sector in Bangladesh (Ahmed, 2014). Over the past two decades, research activities carried out by
agricultural universities and research institutions are known to have played a critical role in finding
and disseminating new technologies and innovative solutions that have increased rice yields in
Bangladesh. These innovations have been instrumental in helping the country achieve food self-
sufficiency against the backdrop of a surging population (Ahmed, 2014).

71. Public TEIs, along with specialized research institutes, are drivers of research and
innovation in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, the degree of involvement in research and innovation
varies widely across the type of TEI. Universities are mandated for leading knowledge generation and
innovation, for which most advanced researches have been mainly conducted in these institutions,
particularly in public ones. For instance, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
(BUET) is the leading university in engineering researches, and Bangladesh Agricultural University
(BAU) has been playing a central role in agricultural researches. Private universities also produce a
small volume of research documents, but these are mostly essays and periodicals which generally
have not undergone peer review (UGC 2014). On the other hand, the polytechnics and tertiary
colleges are mandated as purely teaching institutions, remaining out of the research and innovation
culture. However, these institutions exhibit potential for greater engagement in R&D, especially in the
polytechnics where teachers and students are gradually engaging in innovative work.

72. This section will examine the status of research and innovation among the TEIs in
Bangladesh and discuss the key challenges and strategies to the development of an effective
research and innovation system in the subsector.

5.2. STATUS OF RESEARCH IN BANGLADESH

73. Bangladesh’s research outputs, though still at a low level internationally, have increased
dramatically over the past decade. The total number of research publications33 produced each
year increased remarkably from just 165 in 1995 to over 3,000 in 2015 (Figure 14). Despite the
improvement, the size of research outputs per population remains quite small for Bangladesh,
standing at only around 20 publications per million people in 2015. All other South Asian
counterparts sustain much higher volumes of research output per population, for instance, India
(79), Sri Lanka (62), Nepal (31), Bhutan (77), Maldives (61), and Pakistan (56). The H-index34 for
Bangladeshi research publications is also quite low compared to developed countries as well as

33
Citable documents include articles, reviews, and conference papers.
34
The H-index here is a country-level metric that attempts to measure both the productivity and citation impact of the publications of a
country for the given year. The higher the H-index, the greater the strength/impact of the research produced.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 47

 3004 with advanced research capabilities in Bangladesh, and
there is a large pool of university faculty who possess
PhD qualifications in the tertiary education sector in
Bangladesh. As of 2014, around 43 percent of the 12,047
public university teachers in Bangladesh held a PhD degree
(UGC 2015). The majority of PhD holders are concentrated
1179 mostly in the established public universities, in particular,
Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, BAU, BUET,
629 Jahanginagar University, and the Bangabandu Sheikh Mujib
451 Medical University. Put together, these 6 public universities
328
165 alone (out of 33 public universities) account for a half
of the total teaching staff and around two-thirds of the
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 total academics with PhD degrees in the public university
subsector. On the other hand, around 19 percent of the
Figure 14: Number of Citable Documents Published per 14,219 teachers in the 80 private universities held a PhD,
Year by Bangladeshi Researchers, 1990–2015 while the majority (around 35 percent) of the PhD holders
Source: Web of Science, 2016. belonged to five established private universities (UGC
2015).35 By contrast, colleges have few human resources for
neighboring ones, indicating that the strength of research research. The share of academics with a PhD is less than 5
produced by Bangladeshi academics is yet to be fully percent in government tertiary colleges (World Bank 2014).
cultivated (Table 8).
75. Engineering and science are the leading
74. A large pool of Bangladeshi academics with PhDs, research fields producing the major part of research
many trained abroad and mostly concentrated in the publications and attracting the most research
established public universities, indicates the presence interest in Bangladesh. The highest number of
of untapped research potentials in Bangladesh. citable documents in Bangladesh was available under
University academics are the core group of professionals engineering, accounting for almost one-third of the total
citable research documents in 2015 (Figure 15). This is
Table 8: H-Index for Selected Countries, 2015 also common for other South Asian countries where
similarly the volume of engineering research publications
Countries H-Index was the highest, such as India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan,
in 2015. Other research areas which produced a high
United States of America 1,783
number of publications are computer science (430),
United Kingdom 1,099 telecommunications (226), science technology (152),
Japan 797 physics (149), and environmental sciences and ecology
China 563 (148). Engineering and these science fields are probably
India 426 the areas most demanded by today’s Bangladeshi
economy and society. On the other hand, far fewer
Pakistan 166
researches are being produced in areas of literature,
Bangladesh 134 psychiatry, women studies, orthopedics, and geography.
Sri Lanka 120
76. Research output generation is still weak in
Nepal 94
the majority of universities. Many universities have
Afghanistan 36
minimal research outputs. As many as half of public and
Bhutan 27 private universities reported to not have produced any
Maldives 21 publications in 2014. Even among public universities, more
Source: Scimago, 2016. than 40 percent did not produce any research publications

35
These five private universities are North South University (449), BRAC (177), East West University (118), South East University (111), and
Stamford University (94).

48
 engagement is also found across the private universities.
Half of all private universities did not produce any research
publications in 2014, while around 40 percent produced
980 less than 40 publications per 100 faculty members, which
comprised mostly of non-peer reviewed essays and
periodicals (UGC 2014). The low volume of publications in
many of the universities reconfirms that there is still a long
430 way to go in building up the research capacity in the tertiary
education sector.
226
152 149 148 146 146 112 108
77. The TVET subsector shows good potential for R&D
activities with signs of emerging local R&D capacity in
the sector. R&D work with industry, though not mandated,
Engineering

Computer Science

Telecommunications

Science Technology

Physics
Enviromental
Sciences Ecology

Chemistry
Public Enviromental
Occupational Health
Plant Sciences

Agriculture
is nonetheless important for polytechnics for developing
graduates who are familiar with the industry environment
and latest technology through practical learning. Compared
to universities, the polytechnic institutions are quite behind
in terms of labs and facilities, public funding, teaching
and research capacity and suffer from reputational issues
Figure 15: Top 10 Research Areas by Volume of Citable associated with low quality of teaching and learning.
Documents Produced in Bangladesh in 2015 This can make them less preferable by industry for R&D
Source: Web of Science, 2016. work compared to universities, as noted by international
experience (Beise and Stahl 1999). However, recent
in 2014 according to the UGC annual report (Table 9). The development efforts by the government are gradually
majority of these are newly established universities with diffusing innovation into the polytechnic system and results
low academic staffing and where research infrastructure are being observed. For example, the government’s STEP
is yet to be developed. Of those public universities with has been working to promote R&D in the polytechnics
research outputs, the volume is still quite low with through efforts such as institution-industry partnerships
around 30 percent (10 universities) producing less than 20 and upgrading laboratories for local research works. Several
publications per 100 faculties. Similar trend of low research local innovations have emerged from these efforts including
technology to reduce carbon pollution from brick fields,
Table 9: Number of Research Publications by Type of machine to alert boats operating at over-capacity, and a
University in Bangladesh 2013 central nebulizer and suction machine that supports multiple
patients instead of a single patient, among others (STEP
Publications per 100 faculty No. of Universities 2018). A global case study of a leading global polytechnic (Box
members Public Private 5) indicates that for Bangladeshi polytechnics to strengthen
0 16 40 industry-linked R&D activities, greater investments in
facilities, and capacity building are warranted.
1 to 19 10 15
20 to 39 2 16 78. The commercialization of research outputs
40 to 59 5 4 is still at a nascent stage, picking up some highly
successful cases.36 One measurement of the extent of
60 to 79 0 3
transforming research results into applied products and
80 to 99 1 0 services is the volume of patenting filed by researchers.
100+ 1 2 Worldwide, universities and research institutes are
Total 35 80 increasingly keen on protecting their intellectual
Source: UGC Annual Report, 2014.

36
Several innovations in biological and agricultural sciences that emerged from research funded under the HEQEP have applied for patents in Bangladesh. These
include improved methods for foot and mouth disease diagnosis and prevention technology, mycoplasma and salmonella antibody detection method, soil testing kits,
development of herbal product in the use of fish disease recovery, and alternative sugar supplements, among others.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 49

 rights and revenue generation on their inventions that Table 10: Ranking of Patent Filing for Various Countries, 2013
will help raise additional funds for future researches.
Bangladesh is also slowly catching up with this trend. World Rank Patents
Countries (out of 160 per Million
In 2013, Bangladesh filed 84 patents, which is an overall
countries) Inhabitants
20 percent increase compared to that in 2000, reflecting
gradual improvements in R&D and innovation over the Japan 6 3,716
past decade (WIPO 2016). However, the scale at which Singapore 21 1,014
innovation and patenting is occurring in Bangladesh is Hong Kong SAR, China 37 243
still limited compared to other countries (Table 10). For Malaysia 57 77
example, Bangladesh ranked 137 out of 160 economies, Sri Lanka 85 22
producing less than 1 patent per million of the population, India 92 17
much lower than India (17), Sri Lanka (22), Malaysia (77),
Vietnam 108 5.5
and Singapore (21). Bangladesh still has a long way to
go in promoting high-quality researches with greater Indonesia 114 3.0
emphasis on generating IP to boost quality researches Pakistan 125 1.1
and spur future start-ups and new business solutions. Bangladesh 137 0.5
Source: World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) statistics, 2016.

BOX 5
Case Study - Nanygang Polytechnic in Singapore
The Nanygang Polytechnic in Singapore is one of the leading examples of excellence in R&D and innovation in
technical education. The Centre for Innovation, Research, and Impact under the polytechnic serves as a one-
stop technology transfer service center for all research, innovation, and enterprise-related activities, bringing
together staff, students, and industry partners in translating impactful ideas to the market. The Centre focuses on
innovation and enterprise-related training and development for staff and student through support for acquiring
R&D grants, managing intellectual property (IP) rights, and commercialization of innovation, and enhancing
applied R&D work with industry for keeping teachers and students relevant to market needs. The availability of
modern labs and equipment along with continuous capacity building and strengthening of industry partnerships
have supported Nanygang Polytechnic in developing a range of innovations in life sciences, IT and computer,
engineering, and nanotechnology.

5.3. KEY ISSUES IN RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TEIS IN BANGLADESH

5.3.1. Resource allocation for research is allocation for research has increased over the past years
inadequate from BDT 36 million (US$0.45 million) in 2009/10 to BDT 87.5
million (US$1.09 million) in 2015/16 (Table 11). In terms of per
79. Researches at universities have been grossly university average, the allocation was a mere BDT 2.4 million
underfunded by the government for many years. Public (US$30,000) in 2015/16—an insignificant amount of money
spending has historically been low for tertiary education (see for any research project. The share of government grants
Chapter 6) and negligible for research funding. The grant to public universities that goes to research also remained

50
severely low at well below 1 percent despite an increase in 21%
the number of institutions over this period.37 Compared to Foreign Government
Bangladesh, the average share of research allocations in
public funding to universities in other South Asian countries,
3%
Multinational Donor
including Sri Lanka and Pakistan, is slightly higher at 2
percent (MoF 2016; Thornton 2016). The UGC has a key role to 8%
play in distributing government funding to support research Govt of Bangladesh
and the publication of research in the public universities. In
2015–2016, the UGC slated 13 percent of its budget (US$0.34 10%
Local institute
million) to support faculty development in research across
different disciplines of public universities. However, the share 58%
Foreign Institute
of UGC budget to support research in the public universities
has been declining over the past years. Other than these two Figure 16: Share of Funding Sources for Researches
sources, the MoE has a small allocation in its own budget to Published by Bangladeshi Researchers, 2015
support research work in the different institutions under its Source: Web of Science, 2016.
purview, including the public universities. In 2014, the MoE
directly allocated around US$656,000 for research.38 governments funded around 20 percent (Figure 16).
80. Against the backdrop of low public spending on On the other hand, less than 20 percent of all research
research, most researches in Bangladesh have been published by Bangladeshi researchers were funded by
financed by research funding from foreign institutions the Bangladesh government or Bangladeshi institutions.
and governments. Foreign governments and institutes With foreign entities as the main source of funding, the
are a major source of research funds in Bangladesh. major share of publications (around 60 percent) authored
In 2015, foreign institutes39 funded more than half of by Bangladeshi researchers were produced through
all research publications in Bangladesh, while foreign international collaboration in 2015 (Scimago 2016).

5.3.2. Physical and human resources for

Table 11: MoE Budget to Public University and Allocation to research are limited
Research in Bangladesh (BDT, millions)
81. There is a considerable need to increase in-country
Total Grant % of PhD enrollments to boost the research capacity in the
Fiscal Allocation to HEIs. Public universities are the only approved institutions
to Public Research
Year Research
Universities Allocation by the UGC to offer PhD programs in Bangladesh. As of
2009–10 8,514.8 36.0 0.4 2013, around 7,092 students were enrolled in PhD programs
across the 33 public universities.40 In terms of total graduate
2010–11 10,912.2 46.0 0.4 enrollments per million of population, Bangladesh fares
2011–12 11,790.3 57.0 0.5 well compared to most South Asian countries (Afghanistan,
2012–13 12,336.0 56.0 0.5 Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan) but remains behind others
2013–14 15,425.0 63.5 0.4 (India, Nepal). Developed countries such as Japan, the
United Kingdom, and the United States of America tend
2014–15 17,426.0 86.5 0.5 to have in-country PhD enrollments as a share of tertiary
2015–16 18,860.0 87.5 0.5 enrollments above 2.0 percent, whereas Bangladesh’s
Source: UGC Annual Report 2016. share is around 0.3 percent. This would indicate a need
Note: Total grant allocation includes both revenue and development; research
to improve access to in-country postgraduate programs,
allocation includes allocation as part of grant to universities and allocation
through UGC budget; US$1 = BDT 80 (as of June 2018). especially PhDs, in improving the research capacity.

37
The MoE provides a consolidated budget to all the public universities through the UGC according to each university’s requisition. The UGC allocates and distributes the
budget amounts to each university individually.
38
The MoE provides this fund based on research proposals received from the different institutions.
39
Foreign institutes include public and private universities, research institutes, think-thanks, NGOs, and nonprofits belonging to countries other than Bangladesh.
40
There is a tendency/preference for Bangladeshi academics to undertake PhD programs in foreign countries, which may contribute to lower in-country enrollments.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 51

 82. Underdeveloped research facilities in the TEIs are
posing substantial challenges for academics. Inadequate
investment in contemporary research infrastructure remains
a common issue in the TEIs. The absence of modern scientific
BOX 6
labs, equipment, and availability of raw materials makes it UGC Digital Library
challenging for academics to carry out and produce high- The UDL was established in 2012 under the
quality research (World Bank 2014). Some of the faculty government’s HEQEP with the aim to promote
members of public and private universities were fortunate research and innovation in Bangladesh through
enough to upgrade labs and acquire equipment through access to scholarly e-resources to all member
the competitive AIF provided by the government under the institutions at subsided subscriptions. As of
HEQEP. According to a recent satisfaction survey, the level 2017, UDL is providing access to around 35,000
of satisfaction among university teachers on the ability to e-resources to 72 member universities (33 public,
conduct research increased by around 42 percent due to the 38 private, 1 international).
facilities availed under the AIF (HEQEP 2016a). However, a
large share of faculties are yet to receive the grant, including
those in young universities established in recent years.

83. Internet connectivity and access to journals and promoting R&D work and supporting commercialization
publications also remain underdeveloped or entirely of research output. Bangladesh ranks poorly and
missing across the different TEIs in Bangladesh. The remains at the bottom tier (131 out of 140 countries) for
university sector is gradually progressing to improve digital university-industry collaboration in R&D, behind other
connectivity, especially due to major development work carried South Asian counterparts such as India (50) and Sri Lanka
out by the government through its higher education operation (109). Studies show that industry-institution collaboration
over the past few years. Around one-third of all universities in in the universities is generally low due to (a) inadequate
Bangladesh are now connected to a dedicated high-speed laboratories and infrastructure to conduct industry research;
Internet connectivity network, known as the BdREN, for online (b) absence of mechanisms to facilitate collaboration
teaching and learning, academic collaboration, and knowledge betwee industry and institution; (c) low commercialization
sharing. Access to e-resources, such as journals, books, and potential of university research; (d) low knowledge among
databases are subscribed through the UGC Digital Library by academics on commercialization of research; and (e) a lack
72 public and private universities since 2012 (Box 6). Despite of awareness among industry on university expertise (World
the progress, utilization of these digital library services is yet Bank 2016b). Absence of motivation and drive among the
to pick up among university users (HEQEP 2016b). This is university management for fostering research collaboration
likely due to a lack of technical know-how and awareness on with industry may also be added to this list. These challenges
e-resource use among potential users against the backdrop are common to most of the Bangladesh higher education
of a low-productivity research environment at the universities sector and have been blamed for impeding the process of
(UGC 2015). On the other hand, the polytechnics subsector generating innovations from research outputs of TEIs.
is yet to avail services such as dedicated high-speed Internet
connection or digital library resources, mainly as these 85. In recent years, TEIs in Bangladesh have been
institutions have remained out of mainstream R&D work. gradually developing strategic partnerships with
In the tertiary college subsector, efforts are under way to industries for research and teaching. Collaboration
improve connectivity and access to e-resources through the with industries would strengthen TEIs’ capacity to deliver
Government’s ongoing development operation in the sector. quality teaching and undertake impactful researches.
Until recently, only a select few TEIs in Bangladesh had
5.3.3. Industry-institution partnerships for formal industry partnerships or collaboration.41 In efforts to
research and teaching are scarce promote university-industry engagement, the government
provided funds to TEIs through development initiatives.
84. There are strong needs to strengthen industry
In the university sector, around 10 public and private
collaboration and private sector participation in
universities are conducting research to develop products to

41
With the exception of a few specialized universities such as the BUET and the BAU which have been providing research and industrial testing services to the industry for some time.

52
be commercialized and used by partner industries under the knowledge on IP management and patenting can facilitate
higher education project. In addition, 33 public and private revenue generation from inventions, which in turn,
polytechnics have used institutional development funds to incentivizes greater engagement in R&D work at universities
facilitate over 400 industry partnerships for workplace visit, and research institutions (WIPO 2016). In Bangladesh, faculty
guest lectures, and apprenticeships (World Bank 2018). and management across TEIs remain largely unaware of the
techno-legal aspects of R&D outputs, which may deprive
86. Limited knowledge regarding management of IP,
them from payoff of public research for innovation. This
patenting, and copyright procedures in the TEIs is
is likely due to an absence of IP policy and management
hampering commercialization of innovation. Proper
frameworks for the higher education sector in Bangladesh.42

5.4. POLICY OPTIONS FOR PROMOTING RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN

TERTIARY EDUCATION
87. The preceding section highlights several key capabilities among academics can work to promote
challenges to research and innovation in the quality research in the TEIs. The overall scarcity of research
tertiary education sector. This section will draw on grants and presence of research potentials would warrant
best practices to promote research and innovation in the an increase in research allocations for academics at the
tertiary education sector focusing on two objectives: first, universities. The share of research allocation in the total
to improve capabilities among academics to engage in budget for public universities may be increased to at least 5.0
high-quality research and second, to support development percent43 (from the current 0.5 percent). Private universities
of ‘innovation ecosystem’ in maximizing the benefits from should also be eligible for receiving research grants. Policies
research through commercialization of the research outputs. for promotion of collaborative research with local and foreign
entities need to be strengthened to further supplement the
88. More smart investments in research and innovation.
shortfall of public research spending. Properly designed
Improved access to funds for enhancing research

BOX 7
Promoting Research and Innovation in Universities in Bangladesh
The HEQEP offered 345 competitive academic innovation grants, out of which 132 grants that supported
exclusively research projects have been awarded to 27 public and 9 private universities. Grants for research
projects-financed activities to improve research capabilities in the supported universities, including the
upgradation of laboratories and purchase of equipment needed to carry out the work.

One such innovation funded by the project is the invention of technology for detection of cancer using nonlinear
optics by a research group led by Professor Yasmeen Haque at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST)
in Bangladesh. With 9.6 million deaths in this year, cancer is a deadly disease with global effects. The research team
is also in the process of developing a prototype device for the optical detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of the
disease with great accuracy and without the need of chemical reagents. This novel technique will reduce the price
of cancer diagnosis from US$120 to under US$10. With approximately 70 percent of deaths from cancer occurring in
low- and middle-income countries, this technology will prove to be a game-changer in the field of health care.

42
Under the HEQEP, an IP Policy and Management framework has been drafted for the university sector. These are yet to be institutionalized.
43
There is no standard yardstick for appropriate ratios of research expenditure; however, universities worldwide are increasingly spending more on researches. For instance, universities
in Australia allocated 39 percent of universities total operating revenue on R&D expenditure in 2012, whereas the share was 31 percent in 2002. (Universities Australia, 2015)

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 53

 and executed competitive funding mechanisms should be in information network which involves a variety of stakeholders
place to ensure the efficient allocation and use of research (for example, researchers, academics, industries, business
grants. In this aspect, the AIF competitive funding model of developers, financiers, and policy makers) as well as
the higher education project in the universities provides a institutions and rules for regulation and coordination.44 The
good example (Box 7). Universities were grouped according government’s recent efforts to promote mechanisms for
to academic capacities, and research proposals were university-industry collaboration provides the right direction
evaluated transparently and awarded based on merit. The for the development of innovation ecosystem in the
sponsored research projects have generated research outputs universities. Competitive public grants (AIF) to universities
in agriculture, medicine, environment, among others and with specific requirement for R&D collaboration with industry
produced over 200 high quality research papers published in is one instrument noted to be working well under the GoB’s
international and national peer reviewed journals. higher education project (HEQEP 2016b). Under the AIF
program, an amount of US$8.1 million has been allocated for
89. Enhancing access to and use of Internet and
universities to partner with an industry in R&D of commercial
digital resources for education and research. Further
products and services. Through this effort, 10 public and
strengthening of access to Internet and quality publications
private universities were awarded AIFs to implement
is critical to support research in the TEIs. Today, access to
collaborative research an commercialization projects
the Internet plays an important role in determining quality of
with local industry partners. Additionally, intermediate
tertiary education and research. Investments in promoting
organizations, such as Technology Transfer Offices, are being
access to the Internet and use of online resources needs to
established to facilitate the process of commercialization
be further strengthened building on significant achievements
and transfer of research outputs from the universities to the
made in the past several years. At the same time, there is high
industry.45 These initiatives together have supported the
potential to support local innovations in the polytechnics development of a nascent stage ‘innovation ecosystem’ in
and colleges that have limited or low-quality Internet the beneficiary universities. The government should scale up
access. Greater investments should be made to increase the these efforts to build up a functioning innovation ecosystem.
availability of computers and improve access to high-speed
Internet connection in these TEIs to encourage and support 91. Promoting more and high-quality international
research and knowledge generation. With regard to online collaboration for research. International collaborations
libraries, access to research publications and digital books in research can provide funding support and research
should be expanded through expanding membership to the capacity building among academics in Bangladesh.
UDL to a greater number of TEIs and enriching the accessible Greater collaboration with foreign entities is a prospective
contents of the digital library. Capacity and awareness of means to overcome weak research capacity, both in
students and faculty on effective e-resource utilization need terms of funding and skills, which persists among the
to be enhanced through training programs to maximize the Bangladeshi research community (British Council 2015).
use and benefits of these online academic facilities. International partnerships are noted to have a number of
positive impacts such as improved likelihood of scientific
90. Building enabling environment for innovations and
breakthroughs, knowledge and resource sharing, and
promoting greater industry collaboration in research. The
cost-saving benefits, as well as improvements in diplomatic
commercialization of research outputs would be facilitated
relations46 (British Council 2015). Much of the current
by strengthening of an ‘innovation ecosystem’ around international partnerships are based on individual relations
universities, which is at a nascent stage in Bangladesh. and initiatives. More systematic, sectorwide efforts would
Conducive environment for commercialization of research be needed to promote and match research potentials in
outputs from universities involve a complex process and Bangladesh to prospective partners abroad.

44
According to World Bank (2014), there are seven critical steps for building a world class innovation system: (a) generation of high-quality research; (b) building of strong and diverse
academia relationships; (c) establishment of technology transfer offices; (d) establishment of university commercial arm, that is, a company structure (not-for-profit to start with)
may be allowed for the commercialization of research but only for those select high-potential universities; (e) development of an IP management system; (f) government policy
reforms which foster greater involvement of key stakeholders; clarify obligations of each stakeholder and spell out rules on the creation and exploitation of property rights, conflict of
interests, and the establishment of policy safeguards; and (g) inclusion of incentives and rewards systems to encourage researchers and institutions toward R&D and innovation.
45
Since 2014, the AIF under the higher education project in Bangladesh has supported the establishment of three Technology Transfer Offices in three public universities: Dhaka
University, BAU, and BUET.
46
Positive impacts are often made on both sides of the partnership. The impact evaluation of International Strategic Partnership in Education and Research (known as ‘INSPIRE’)
Project in Bangladesh funded by the British Council, highlighted the mutuality of benefits in international research collaboration. It has been identified that the collaborations with
Bangladesh academics have brought about many benefits to British academics, some of which include access to indigenous data/researchers, training of high-quality research
students, catalyst for further project funding, and sense of worth (McGovern 2017).

54
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmed, S. 2014. Searching for Sources of Growth in Bangladesh. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Bangladesh Economists’ Forum. BEF Conference. Dhaka: Development). 2012. “Innovation for Development.”
Bangladesh. Discussion Paper, OECD.

Beise, M., and H. Stahl. 1999. “Public Research and Industrial Scimago Journal and Country Rank, 2016. https://www.
Innovations in Germany.” Discussion Paper No. 98-37, scimagojr.com/.
Centre for European Economic Research & University of
Karlsruhe. STEP (Skills and Training Enhancement Project). 2015. “The
Effectiveness of TVET Teachers’ Training under STEP in
Bell, J., M. Dodgson, L. Field, P. Gough, and T. Spurling. 2015. Bangladesh.” Draft. STEP: Bangladesh.
Translating Research for Economic and Social Benefit:
Country Comparisons. Australian Council of Learned Thornton, G. 2016. Public Expenditure Tracking Survey. Higher
Academies. Education Commission Pakistan: Islamabad.

Bilbao-Osorio, B., and A. Rodriguez-Pose. 2004. “From R&D to Universities Australia. 2015. Higher Education and Research:
Innovation and Economic Growth in the EU.” Growth and Facts and Figures. Canberra: Universities Australia.
Change 35 (4): 434–455. UGC (University Grants Commission) 2014. 41st Annual Report
British Council. 2015. A Mighty Web: How Research Collaboration 2014. UGC: Dhaka.
Can Foster Growth in South Asia. British Council: United World Bank. 2014. Critical Steps for Building a World Class
Kingdom. Innovation System in Bangladesh. World Bank:
Cresenzi, R., and A. Rodriguez-Pose. 2013. “Socio-Economic Washington DC.
Changes, and Regional Innovation in the US.” Growth and ———. 2016a. South Asia’s Turn: Policies to Boost
Change 44 (2): 287–320. Competitiveness and Create the Next Export
HEQEP. 2016a. Satisfaction Survey on Teachers and Students Powerhouse. World Bank: Washington, DC.
2016. Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. ———. 2016b. Promoting University-Industry Collaboration in Sri
———. 2016b. Mid-Term Review Report of HEQEP. Government of Lanka. Status, Case Studies, and Policy Options. World
Bangladesh: Dhaka. Bank: Washington, DC.

McGovern, John. 2017. “INSPIRE Project Closing Event.” ———. 2018. Employability of Postsecondary TVET in Bangladesh:
Presentation, Dhaka. Tracking Survey of Graduates in Polytechnics.
Washington DC: World Bank Group.
MoF (Ministry of Finance). 2016. Budget Book. Government of Sri
Lanka.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 55

 6
GOVERNANCE
AND MANAGEMENT
IN TERTIARY
EDUCATION

56
6.1. BACKGROUND

92. What do we mean by ‘good governance’ for tertiary education? Good governance is an
indispensable foundation for quality education. Simply put, good governance in tertiary education
implies that the system and institutions perform service delivery effectively and efficiently with
transparency and accountability to stakeholders. Improved governance has therefore become
an entry point for raising institutional performance and overhauling weak education systems.
Specifically, good governance in tertiary education improves the educational institutions’ capacity
to make informed and rational decisions contributing to organizational efficiency and effectiveness
that foster the development of high quality education and research (World Bank 2010; Lewis and
Petterson 2009). Literature suggests some key areas to consider such as system and institutional
governance and regulations, institutional autonomy, and quality assurance and performance
management.47 This section will focus on these critical aspects of governance and management
for Bangladesh’s tertiary education system followed by a discussion on the key issues and policy
options available, considering best practices.

93. The governance structure of tertiary education in Bangladesh are distinctly different
across subsectors with administrative and academic authorities divided across multiple
central agencies. Primarily, tertiary education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education
(MoE). The MoE has two divisions, Secondary and Higher Education Division (SHED) and Technical
and Madrasa Education Division (TMED), each headed by a permanent Secretary. The SHED is
responsible for secondary education and higher education, while the TMED looks after TVET and
‘Madrasa’ (Islamic religious education). Central-level organizational structures and regulatory
settings for governance and management in tertiary education are as follows. In terms of legislative
framework, there has been no comprehensive legal framework48 to provide regulatory directives
in the education sector as a whole. Meantime, the National Education Policy (NEP) 2010 to some
extent defines the overall formation of the higher education sector. The NEP 2010 defines the MoE as
the apex body for policy direction and management of the higher education sector in Bangladesh
while the various attached departments and institutions are its auxiliary agencies that carry out
the government policies at the field level, implement various nondevelopment and development
programs and projects.

94. Higher education. The SHED of the MoE manages the higher education sector through a
directorate (the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education [DSHE]) and one attached body
(the UGC). The UGC, established in 1972,49 is responsible for supervising and coordinating public
and private universities, maintaining the quality standard of university education, managing the
allocation of government funding to universities, and advising the government on issues related

47
These include Lewis and Pettersson 2009; Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014; World Bank 2010.
48
The draft Bangladesh Education Act 2016 was endorsed by the Cabinet and disclosed for public opinion on the MoE website.
49
The 1973 President’s Order No. 10 defines the role of the UGC as the lead coordinating agency in all matters of university education related to fund
allocation, planning, development, and implementation of higher education and research programs in public universities as well as the monitoring
of public and private universities.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 57

 to higher education. The public universities are fully 95. TVET. The TMED of the MoE manages the TVET sector
autonomous academically and administratively, and through the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) and
governed by the provisions of their own acts or the the BTEB. The DTE is the primary administrative authority
President’s Order. The private universities are also with the responsibility of human resource management,
autonomous entities and subject to the provisions of the development activities, and academic supervision in the
Private University Act 2010. Tertiary colleges do not enjoy sector. The BTEB is primarily an academic regulatory body
autonomy for their academic affairs, and the majority of responsible for managing the academic contents and
them are affiliated to the National University50—one of the standard settings, and certification of TVET graduates.
public universities—which provides oversight of academic Polytechnic institutions have little autonomy in deciding
affairs of the tertiary college subsector.51 The DSHE is their academic program as it is the BTEB’s responsibility
responsible for the administrative affairs of government to design academic programs of polytechnics. Other
colleges such as teacher recruitment and funding while than the MoE, 22 ministries operate various skills training
a locally elected entity called the governing body (GB) is programs for a diverse range of target groups.
responsible for the administration of the nongovernment
colleges.

MoE

SHED TMED

DSHE UGC DTE BTEB DME

(Attached)

National University
University

Colleges Polytechnics Madrasa

HIGHER EDUCATION TECHNICAL RELIGIOUS

Figure 17: Simplified Organogram of MoE for Tertiary Education

50
The 1992 Act No. 37 authorizes the National University as the only higher education institution for the affiliation and academic responsibility of all colleges providing
postsecondary general education.
51
For instance, the National University controls curriculum contents, examinations, student registration, and teacher professional development in the affiliated colleges. Colleges do
not possess authority to develop or revise curriculum. In parallel, there are some tertiary colleges affiliated to other major public universities. Affiliating universities oversee academic
affairs of the affiliated colleges. For instance, six government colleges were reaffiliated to Dhaka University from the National University in February 2017.

58
96. Tertiary-level Madrasa education. Tertiary-level equivalence with university education degrees. Apart from
religious education also falls under the mandate of the these, there is a huge Madrasa education stream outside
TMED. The TMED supervised madrasas known as Aliya the government’s management structure and purview,
madrasa through its Directorate of Madrasa Education known as the Qawmi Madrasa system. The Qawmi
(DME). For educational affairs, those tertiary-level Madrasa system has its own independent management
madrasas are affiliated with the Islamic Arabic University. body known as Befaqul Madarisil Arabia, Bangladesh
The Aliya madrasa or Islamic Arabic University conferred (known as the BMAB) and it maintains organizational
degrees for graduate and postgraduate programs have setup from the primary to postgraduate levels.

6.2. INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT

97. The institutional governance of the different public 99. The VC has the central role in the university
and private TEIs varies across different hierarchical governance structure as the “whole time principal
entities as described in the following paragraphs. academic and administrative executive officer” of the
university and ex officio Chairman of the Senate, the
98. University. In the public university sector, the
Syndicate, the Academic Council, the Finance Committee,
governance structure and system revolve around Vice
and the Planning and Development Committee.52 The VC,
Chancellor (VC), Pro-VC, Treasurer, the Senate, the
as the chief executive, is authorized to take measures for
Syndicate, the Academic Council, the Finance Committee,
implementation of decisions of the Senate, the Syndicate,
and the Planning and Development Committee (see
and the Academic Council. The VC is empowered to
Annex 1 for organogram). The Syndicate is the main
appoint lecturers on an ad hoc basis, to be subsequently
executing body within the university which holds,
approved by the Syndicate. The VC can also hire officers
controls, and administers the property and funds of the
and employees on a temporary basis for a period of not
university as well as regulates and determines all matters
more than six months and s/he must regularize such
concerning the university as laid out in the various legal
appointments by the Syndicate. The VC, Pro-VC, and the
frameworks (the orders, the statutes, and the university
Treasurer are appointed by the Chancellor, who is the
ordinances). The Senate is responsible for endorsing the
President of the Republic and they hold the office at the
statutes on the proposals of the Syndicate; considering
pleasure of the President.
and passing resolutions on the annual report, the
annual accounts, and the financial statement (Budget) 100. The governance structure in private universities
presented by the Syndicate; and performing other duties is defined by the Private University Act 2010, with
as indicated by the university order or the statutes. the Board of Trustees of each university playing the
The Finance Committee supervises the income and central role in its management and administration.
expenditure of the university and advises the Syndicate The governance structure revolves around the university
on all matters relating to accounts, property, and funds Charter, Act, Board of Trustees, and officers. Each
of the university while the Academic Council is the private university is given a provisional approval by the
academic body of the university, with the control and MoE in an Office Order subject to fulfillment of certain
general supervision responsibilities for the maintenance conditions which is a temporary approval granted by
of standards of instruction, education, and examination the government to enable it to function as a full-fledged
within the university. university as provided under the Private University Act
2010. The formal approval is issued when the university

In the old four, that is, Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, Chittagong University, and Jahangir Nagar University, the Pro-VC chairs the Finance Committee. In all other public
52

universities, the VC is the chairman of the Finance Committee.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 59

 fulfills all conditions given in the provisional approval, the GB is supposed to be in place at each government college
most important of which is functioning in a permanent to provide administrative and management advisory
campus. Each university has a ‘Board of Trustees’ to the Principal, none of the government colleges have
registered under the Trusts Act of 1882 (Act No. II of a GB. On the other hand, the nongovernment colleges,
1882) and Societies Registration Act (Act XXI of 1860) and once certified by and affiliated to the National University,
the ‘Board of Trustees’ which consists of a minimum would principally be governed by their GBs under certain
of 9 and a maximum of 21 members constituted as per rules. Both the National University and the DSHE would
Articles 15, 16 of the Private University Act 2010. This have representation on the committee to recruit teachers
Board oversees the Syndicate and other bodies involved in the nongovernment colleges from a pool of teachers
with the management of operations of the university. recertified by the Nongovernment Teacher Registration
The President of Bangladesh is the Chancellor and and Certification Authority (NTRCA). As in government
exercises his authority to appoint the VC, Pro-VC, and colleges, the Principal follows the academic regulations
the Treasurer, based on the recommendation from the of the National University while administrative decisions
Board of Trustees. The VC is the chief executive officer of are followed based on GB consultations. The National
all academic and administrative affairs and reports to the University supervises the academic management of all
Board on a regular basis. colleges and exercises the power to affiliate and de-
affiliate the colleges.
101. Colleges. At the colleges, the Principal is the main
authority for administering the academic and institutional 102. TVET. The public polytechnic sector is also
management of the college by applying the rules and administered through the public service rules similar to
regulations determined by the MoE and supervised by the the management system for government colleges. The
Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education and the Principal of the polytechnic reports and implements
National University. In government colleges, the Principal the administrative decisions of the institutions as
is the chief executive who reports to and implements the determined by the DTE. All teachers and staff, including
policies, rules, and regulations formulated by the MoE the Principal, are recruited by the DTE through the Public
and administered by the Directorate of Secondary and Service Commission and receive salaries according to
Higher Education. The academic programs, discipline, government pay scale. By contrast, the administration
curriculum, and standards including admission and of private polytechnics is led by the Principal under the
holding of examination, assessment, and results for guidance of a Board of Advisors. However, the government
both government and nongovernment colleges are set does, to a degree, influence institutional management as
and organized centrally by the National University. The the DTE and BTEB rules and regulations on the academic
government colleges are administered through the public system are followed by the private polytechnics, which
service rules applicable to the employees of the Republic eventually have implications for governance and quality
whose salaries and allowances are paid out from the issues in service delivery.
Treasury. Although under the National University Act, a

60
6.3. KEY ISSUES IN GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF TERTIARY
EDUCATION

6.3.1. Legislative backbone and coordination recruitment also remains questionable with instances
mechanism of tertiary education are of appointment of teachers with lower qualifications
fragmented than required for the position and over-recruitment
of temporary teachers (TIB 2016a). Government
103. Various legislative frameworks coupled with
teachers’ recruitment in colleges and polytechnics is
weak coordination capacity in tertiary education are
also politicalized as candidates with strong political
eroding the ground for concerted and systematic
affiliations and recommendations remain at an advantage
effort for sectoral improvement. Different laws that
irrespective of qualifications or performance. In case of
apply to the different subsectors and institutions in
nongovernment colleges, GBs largely influence teacher
tertiary education create inconsistencies on governance
recruitments with preferred candidates hired despite
structures, roles, and responsibilities of the various
not having the required qualifications (World Bank
entities (World Bank 2017). Moreover, a large number
2014). Teacher absenteeism remains a longstanding
of entities, complex governance structure, and an
issue in the tertiary education sector, especially in the
underdeveloped management capacity makes effective
public universities, with no system in place to hold them
administration and coordination challenging at the
accountable.54 Academic integrity is further at risk with
central and institutional levels. Especially, the skills
reports of question leaks, exam fraud, and academic
sector being involved with multiple ministries53 and their
malpractice, in both public and private sectors.55
affiliated institutions raises concern among policy makers
Unethical behavior of faculty and noncompliance of
on the capacity to ensure harmonized development
admission standards, including sales of leaked exam
efforts in the sector (GoB 2011). The management and
questions, acceptance of illegal payments, and nepotism
supervision of institutions at the service delivery level
are reported to occur in entrance examinations of
are conducted largely through ad hoc and paper-based
universities (TIB 2016b). In the private university sector,
communication between central and local government
issuance of ‘fake certificates’ and illegal payments to
agencies and the education institutions. Without proper
increase marks or pass exams have also been found (TIB
monitoring mechanism in place, rules and regulations
2016b).
governing institutions often remain weakly enforced
which have in turn significant implications for the 105. In the absence of proper accountability
provision of the quality of education. systems, state controls create rigidity in institutions’
capacity to be responsive and flexible to evolving
6.3.2. Poor transparency and accountability are social and economic needs. With the exception of
straining the effectiveness and efficiency public universities, government tertiary colleges and
104. Lack of transparency and weak accountability polytechnics lack the autonomy to take and implement
mechanisms are responsible for irregularities in critical academic, human resource, and financial
major areas, including teacher recruitment, student decisions. For instance, it can take up to two to three
enrollments, and student assessments. A Transparency years for colleges and polytechnics to introduce a
International Bangladesh (TIB) report finds teacher new education program involving a long approval
recruitments to be highly politicalized, often involving process which goes up to the BTEB and the National
illegal payments made by candidates for lecturer University, respectively. Long bureaucratic processes
positions in several public universities. Private university and limited access to funds often deter these institutions

53
A skills mapping survey finds that 22 ministries are involved in skills training.
54
Public universities do not have teacher management manual to ensure academic and teaching discipline among the faculty. Politicization prevents the authority to hold them
accountable for nonperformance, absenteeism, and open indulgence in political activities.
55
Only when directed by the MoE, UGC investigates into complaints of management malpractice and corruption and submits its findings to the MoE. The MoE takes decision on
necessary action. The UGC has no power to initiate and take disciplinary action against universities. At the institutional level, public universities often set up investigative bodies
against allegations of academic malpractice, who report to the Syndicate for taking action. The findings and outcomes of these reports are seldom publicly available.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 61

 from pursuing innovative academic, cultural, and 108. The institution-level quality assurance process
infrastructural development activities. Additionally, incorporates the cycles of student feedback which
limited autonomy leads to underdeveloped management is expected to serve as a platform to reflect student
and decision-making capacity at the institutional level. voices in institutional governance. Student feedback
to inform institutional governance and management
106. Student political bodies have strong influence
has been recently introduced in the university sector
on the institutional governance and management
through the establishment of an institutional quality
of public TEIs, often creating adverse impacts on
assurance mechanism in 69 public and private
the teaching learning environment. Student politics
universities. As part of self-assessments, the universities
in the government TEIs is deeply rooted in the system
receive feedback from teachers, students, staff, and
not least because of the significant role it played in the
employers on teaching-learning aspects to incorporate
country’s independence. However, it is a commonly
into the institutional development action plan (Box 8).
held belief that student politics of the present state and
Previously, there had been few official attempts made in
nature are adversely affecting the transparency and
universities in Bangladesh to consider students feedback
efficacy of institutional governance, particularly in terms
in institutional management. The student feedback
of administration of examinations and actual number
of class days. Recurring episodes of violence and havoc
during examinations as well as disrupted teaching periods
are reported to have a negative impact on the academic
environment of the government TEIs (World Bank 2014). BOX 8
6.3.3. Quality assurance system is yet to be fully
developed Examples of Use of
Student Feedback in
107. Quality assurance in the tertiary education
sector, a relatively new concept in Bangladesh, has
Higher Education in
been picking up quickly in public recognition and Bangladesh
policy priority. Quality assurance in the higher education
sector will be governed by the recently enacted56 Student feedback from self-assessment was
Bangladesh Accreditation Council (BAC) Act, which lays used to bring several improvements in teaching
the foundation for ensuring quality education delivery learning and program administration. For
in the higher education institutions, including public example, some departments of public universities
and private universities and tertiary colleges. Under such as Dhaka University and Khulna University
the BAC Act, an Accreditation Council is in the process created more enabling mechanisms to support
of being established. The BAC will be an independent students participating in extracurricular activities,
autonomous body responsible for overseeing the quality for example, flexible class exam system and
of higher education delivered at the institutions and participation in inter-university competitions.
assess it against the benchmark given in the National On the other hand, private universities such as
Qualifications Framework. It would receive applications North-South University, South East University,
for accreditation of programs at the initial stage and later, and United International University undertook
institutions, and conduct external assessments of the curriculum revision based on outcome-based
quality of teaching and learning in the higher education education model, established or revamped
institutions. The BAC is also assigned to support the IQAC alumni association, allocated dedicated library
at all universities through the development of standards, space for group work, and expanded medical and
guidelines, and code of good practices and assist to transportation facilities for students.
develop their own procedures, techniques, and modalities
for self-assessment.

56
BAC Act became effective on March 21, 2017, with its publication in the Bangladesh Gazette.

62
mechanism in the quality assurance system would create develop their own curriculum and teaching processes at
a platform for students’ voices to be officially heard by the department level in the universities. However, before
institutions’ leadership to enable greater transparency offering any new academic program, establishing a new
and accountability and more participatory institutional department, and increasing the number of teaching
improvement efforts. As of 2018, tertiary colleges are yet to positions, the universities require approval from the UGC
start implementation of the institutional quality assurance according to the institutional legal frameworks. This
mechanism. allows UGC to conduct quality assurance reviews for the
proposed program and in the case of public universities,
109. In the TVET sector, the National Skills Quality
to assess the requirement of additional funds for opening
Assurance System (NSQAS) was established under
of the department and salary of new staff. In case of
the NSDP 2011 as a regulatory framework for quality
admissions and examination recesses, all universities
assurance across the subsector. The NSQAS is a
have their own institutional rules and regulations for
comprehensive system covering all entities engaged in
setting admission requirements, conducting admission
the acquisition of skills, including graduates, teachers,
tests, determining the seat availability across programs,
training courses, workplaces, training organizations,
and selecting candidates. Drafting of curricula, student
and industry. The NSQAS includes (a) accreditation of
assessments, and degree awarding are conducted by each
nationally recognized units of competency, qualifications,
program offering entity, that is, department through their
and course specifications; (b) registration of public and
examinations committees where an external member is
private training providers; (c) accreditation of learning and
included.
assessment programs leading to nationally recognized
units of competency and qualifications; (d) auditing 111. Tertiary colleges and polytechnics strictly follow
of training providers for compliance against quality centrally developed academic programs. The tertiary
standards; and (e) validation of assessment tools against colleges and polytechnics follow centralized educational
units of competency. To implement quality assurance standards for curriculum and teaching processes
and accountability of technical education and training approved respectively by the National University and
programs, the government has established the National the BTEB. The National University holds the authority
Technical and Vocational Qualification Framework over curriculum design, administration of examinations,
(NTVQF) in which competency-based skills standards awarding of degrees, and student admission in the tertiary
are defined for a variety of technical and engineering college. Tertiary colleges have to apply for opening of a
specialties and at multiple levels. All the TVET institutions new academic program and department, staffing pattern
are expected to design and implement their skills training which are examined and approved by the National
programs based on the NTVQF, and students are expected University following its regulations. Similarly, the BTEB
to be assessed against its competency standards. BTEB is holds responsibility for the development of all programs
the custodian of the NTVQF system. However, as of 2018, and curriculum for technical diploma education,
the implementation progress of the NTVQF in Bangladesh administration of national examinations, and awarding
has been less than satisfactory due to capacity constraints of degrees for all public and private polytechnics. In
at the central and institutional levels. case of admissions, the BTEB centrally carries out the
admission process for all public polytechnics, while
6.3.4. Academic, financial, and personnel private polytechnics administer independently. All
management systems are generally rigid polytechnics have to apply to the BTEB for setting up of
especially in colleges and polytechnics new academic programs and get its approval. The lack of
6.3.4.1. Academic Management academic autonomy in the government tertiary colleges
and polytechnics constrain flexibility to quickly respond
110. Universities have to go through a lengthy to the skill demands of the job market and to adapt to the
process to adjust their course contents or create rapidly changing economic environment.
new programs. Though universities enjoy the fullest
amount of academic autonomy, they still have to follow 6.3.4.2. Human Resource Management
procedures given in the governing legal frameworks
112. Teacher recruitment is strictly regulated by
which often take significant amount of time. Universities
the government for public tertiary colleges and

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 63

 polytechnics. The government tertiary colleges and and work to ensure competitive and purely merit-based
polytechnics have no authority in faculty and staff selection process for recruitment of nongovernment
recruitment. Government colleges and polytechnics college teachers. The MoE has already amended the
annually provide their staff deployment needs to NTRCA rules and set up a drafting committee for framing
the DSHE and the DTE, respectively, who then place of the NTSC Act to move forward toward reforming
requisition needs to the MoE. In case of new recruitments, the system. In case of nongovernment polytechnics,
the MoE reviews the need for teachers’ positions and recruitment responsibilities rest fully with the polytechnic
places the requisition order to the Ministry of Public management, with no provision for quality checks by the
Administration (MoPA). However, the number of all government.
teaching and non-teaching staff positions in each
114. Universities enjoy full autonomy in faculty and
government institutions has to be prior approved by
staff recruitment though there are governance and
the MoPA and the Finance Division. Additionally, any
quality concerns over teacher recruitment at private
increase in the agreed number of staff positions in an
universities. Unlike other government TEIs, the public
institution has to be approved afresh by the Finance
universities have the power to create teaching posts,
Division for budget allocation implication. On the
open new programs and departments, and recruit
approval of sanctioned positions, the MoPA initiates
and promote teachers based on needs, subject to
the teachers’ recruitment through the Public Service
the concurrence of the UGC and the Finance Division.
Commission (PSC). The entire process involving call for
The recruitment of university teachers is conducted
applications, written assessments, and interviewing
by a selection committee headed either by the Pro-
and selection of candidates occurs through the PSC
VC (academic) or the VC, depending on the position.57
and the MoPA and can take up to one to two years with
Private universities generally follow the same recruitment
backlogging of recruitments. As a result, government
procedure of the public universities whereby the VC heads
colleges and polytechnics suffer from a chronic shortage
the selection committee for all positions and external
of qualified teachers as vacant posts are not filled up on
members come from the public universities. However,
time. This problem is compounded by over-staffing at the
here too the overbearing influence of the Trustee Board
metropolitan city institutions, depriving the district-level
and its Chairman and Directors plays the dominant
colleges of teachers, where large number of positions
role. A large number of temporary teachers teaching at
remain vacant.
the universities has been a contentious issue, raising
113. Quality concerns remain in teacher recruitment governance concerns on the proper human resource
for nongovernment colleges and polytechnics. In management as this population is generally found to
case of nongovernment colleges, teacher recruitment have lower satisfaction levels with their jobs compared
is done through their GBs (GBs have representatives of to permanent colleagues (Hossain and Hossain 2016). On
the National University and DSHE as members) from a average, temporary teachers account for around one-third
pool of teachers precertified by the NTRCA. However, of all teachers in the private universities, indicating a large
serious concerns remain over the transparency of dependency on them for ensuring regular teaching at the
nongovernment college teacher recruitment. The GBs universities.
are entitled to recruit teachers of their choosing as
115. Promotions in public universities are based on
long as they are NTRCA-certified teachers. This gives
some competency and performance considerations,
GBs a leeway to exercise their influence and recruit
while college and polytechnic teachers are promoted
certified but less competent candidates who may be
primarily based on seniority. Government teachers are
well-connected or have approached GB members in
paid salaries according to the government pay scale and
nontransparent manners. To overcome this challenge, the
their career path is guided by the promotion rules framed
MoE has been in the process of reforming the system by
by the MoE regulated under the provisions of government
establishing a new Nongovernment Teachers Selection
service rules.58 Promotions to higher posts in public
Commission (NTSC), which would replace the NTRCA

57
Pro-VC heads the committee for lecturers and assistant professor positions, while it is the VC for associate professor and professor positions.
58
This is known as Bangladesh Service Rules (also known as BSR).

64
universities are not automatic but follow the procedure do not have the power to raise and spend additional
of fresh recruitment while considering some competency funds over the government-disbursed budget amount
and performance indicators such as post-master’s while having to strictly adhere to government rules,
degree, years of experience, and number of publications. regulations, and directives. Both government colleges and
There is also a provision of internal promotion by polytechnics submit operational budget needs across line
which a candidate is automatically promoted to the items that are given in a prescribed template and submit
higher post if he/she fulfils certain criteria. On the to respective directorates, who review and approve the
other hand, the government college and polytechnic budgets and forward to the MoE for fund allocation in
teachers’ promotions basically depend on their years of the next year’s budget. On the other hand, funds for
service, that is, seniority, not taking into consideration development projects follow a different trajectory. To
performance-related criteria. undertake a development project for any public TEIs,
the concerning directorate or UGC would submit a draft
6.3.4.3. Financial management
development proposal for approval of the government
116. Public colleges and polytechnics have no through a rigorous and often lengthy process of review led
financial autonomy and flexibility in income by the Ministry of Planning.
generation. Government colleges and polytechnics

6.4. POLICY OPTIONS FOR PROMOTING ‘GOOD’ GOVERNANCE AND

MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH

117. Setting up an umbrella legislation to support 119. Institutionalizing quality assurance at the
the government to overcome the inconsistencies national and institutional levels. The implementation
across various dated legislations covering different of the Bangladesh Accreditation Council (BAC) Act
subsectors and institutions. Considering the recent would curb quality issues in the higher education sector,
changes in tertiary education, such a legislative including universities and colleges. The finalization and
framework would be required to confirm the governance adoption of the National Qualifications Framework
structures, roles and responsibilities, as well as, recognize involves reforms envisaged in the BAC Act for improving
quality assurance mechanism. The strengthening of the quality, accessibility, links, and recognition of
anticorruption safeguards in high-risk areas such as graduate qualifications nationally and internationally.
teacher recruitment and financial management through However, the NQF would have to be aligned with the
review and enforcement of regulations would further qualifications framework developed for technical
improve governance in TEIs. education and the NTVQF to support better comparability
and articulation between TVET institutions and higher
118. Strengthening management capacities at the
education institutions.
ministry and institutional levels. Technology-based
tools, including enhancing management information 120. Exploring the possibility of increasing autonomy
systems in the university, tertiary college, and polytechnic for high-performing government colleges. The
sectors, can improve monitoring and management of the government should consider experimenting with some
tertiary education sector. Improved Internet connectivity high-performing government colleges and polytechnics
across all the TEIs would support speedy information flow to increase their autonomy in academic, personnel, and
and decision-making process between the ministry and financial management. For instance, high-performing
TEIs. Additionally, continuous professional development institutions may be allowed to establish new academic
for tertiary education administrators at all levels would or vocational programs that are demanded by local
be required to ensure they are nurtured and prepared to industries or adjust academic contents to keep
execute challenging management responsibilities. themselves updated with most advanced knowledge or

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 65

 add contents from local economies. Some institutions examination, and issuance of certificates to curb
may attempt to adjust program contents to allow incidences of fraud and malpractice. The National
for more participatory teaching methods. Some University provides a good example of curbing incidences
institutions in industrial areas may venture into forming of tampering of student enrollment papers through
collaborative training programs or R&D programs, or conducting the admission process online. With the
initiate consultancy works to generate their own stream of aim to check ‘certificate fraudulence’, the UGC took
revenue. Granting some autonomy with clear objectives the decision to set up a ‘central database unit’ for all
and monitoring system may enhance such flexibility in university graduates; however, the system is yet to be
responding to emerging demands from local situations. developed. The government may consider developing
an integrated tertiary education student tracking system
121. Institutionalizing student feedbacks and
from enrollment to graduation to improve governance in
graduate/employer feedback mechanisms to improve
student management.
accountability in the management of TEIs. Student
and teachers’ feedback are important inputs to academic 123. Delinking teachers and students’ affiliation with
audit and performance assessment of TEIs. Incorporation political parties and working as the latter’s front
of such feedback to inform institutional management organization in universities. While political activism
and decision-making process has been introduced of students had a positive influence on the freedom
in the university sector through the establishment movement of the country in the past from the 1990s, it has
of the institutional quality assurance mechanism in become an impediment for ensuring good governance
selected universities. In particular, it is important to in higher education institutions, especially in public
institutionalize and regularize student feedback process universities. Often, teachers remain highly fragmented
to monitor quality improvement. Every academic course in factional conflicts and feuds, resulting in drastic fall
should solicit feedbacks from students about contents, in academic discipline and maintenance of quality in all
pedagogy, and structure of the course. The government aspects of education. Though it may not be possible to
may consider supporting all types of TEIs, including remain fully immune from the political developments
tertiary college and polytechnics, to undertake similar occurring outside the campus, universities may consider
academic audit with stakeholder feedback at a regular restricting political activism on the campus to preserve
interval. In addition, accountability should not stop the quality of the learning environment. For example,
within the institution. There will be considerable gains to the government may consider imposing a temporary
be made by tracking former students after graduation, ban on the open participation of national political
obtaining feedbacks from their employers, and publishing parties’ programs on the campus, especially by students’
the results to the public. That would give TEIs a real sense organizations affiliated to political parties. At the same
of the relevance and benefits of their education programs time, the government may allow students’ unions to
and give them more incentives to be accountable to the function on the campus on nonpolitical platform. There
needs of the society and economy. are examples of private universities not allowing political
programs on their campus and students’ overtly political
122. Leveraging technology-based solutions to
party activity. Therefore, this could also be replicated in
preserve academic integrity. The government may
public universities too.
explore technology-based solutions for admission,

66
BIBLIOGRAPHY

GoB (Government of Bangladesh). 1973. Dhaka University Order. TIB (Transparency International Bangladesh). 2016a. Recruitment
———. 2010. Private University Act. of Lecturers in Public Universities. Governance
Challenges and Way Forward. Dhaka: TIB.
———. 2011. National Skills Development Policy 2011. Dhaka:
Bangladesh. ———. 2016b. Private University: Challenges to Good Governance
and Way Forward. Seminar Presentation. June 30, 2014.
———. Annual Performance Agreement. 2014–2015. 2015. Dhaka:
Ministry of Education. World Bank. 2010. “Governance in Technical Education in India:
Key Issues, Principals and Case Studies.” World Bank
———. 2017. Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh Working Paper No. 190, World Bank, Washington, DC.
2017–2030. Bangladesh: University Grants Commission.
———. 2014. A Study on the National University and its Affiliated
HEQEP (Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project). 2016. Colleges. Report No. 84428. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Mid-Term Project Report. Dhaka: HEQEP.
———. 2015. “Skills and Training Enhancement Project Paper.”
Hossain, M. Y., and M. N. Hossain. 2016. “Job Satisfaction of World Bank, Washington, DC.
Private University Teachers in Bangladesh.” European
Journal of Business and Management 8 (13): 106–113. ———. 2017. Systems Approach to Better Education Results:
Bangladesh Tertiary Education. Working Report,
Lewis, M., and G. Petterson. 2009. “Governance in Education: Washington, DC: World Bank.
Raising Performance.” Draft Working Paper. University of
Sussex and the World Bank.
Rose, J., T. M. Lane, and T. Rahman. 2014. Bangladesh Governance
in the Primary Education Sector: A Systematic Literature
Review. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 67

 7
FINANCING OF
TERTIARY
EDUCATION

68
7.1. BACKGROUND

124. The need for a stable and more funding dedicated to tertiary education in Bangladesh
is clearly highlighted in the Strategic Plan for Higher Education (2018–2030). Because tertiary
education contributes to the development of a critical mass of professionals and experts needed
for sound economic development in modern knowledge-driven economies, increased budgetary
allocations toward investment in tertiary education are strongly warranted. Despite this, Bangladesh
has long been providing relatively low public funding allocations to the education sector in general
and tertiary education in particular. Public expenditure on education sector in Bangladesh is
relatively low when compared to international standards. Indeed, Bangladesh is ranked 155th
among 161 countries, when comparing public spending in education as a share of GDP (Bangladesh
Economic Review, 2015).

125. The returns to tertiary education has been consistently high over time in Bangladesh.
The private rate of returns to each additional year of education in different levels for 2005, 2010,
and 2016 are provided in Table 12. While the rate of returns to additional years in primary and
secondary levels are decreasing over time, the rate of returns to tertiary-level education has been
consistently over 20 percent between 2005 and 2016.59 Against the backdrop of a growing supply of
workers with tertiary education qualifications, this sustained level of return to tertiary education or
wage premium would probably indicate that there are equally growing demands from the economy
for highly skilled workers that tertiary-level education and training could supply. As the country’s
economy is increasingly modernized and globalized, it would not be surprising to see that the trend
continues into foreseeable future. This clearly offers a strong rationale for more public and private
investment in improving and expanding tertiary education in Bangladesh. The returns to tertiary
education being the highest is also consistent with the conclusion derived by Montenegro and
Patrinos (2014) comparing returns to schooling globally.

Table 12: Rate of Return to Additional Year of Education at Different Levels in Bangladesh

Level 2005 2010 2016

Primary (Grades 1–5) 7.5% 5.5% 4.0%
Secondary (Grades 6–12) 6.8% 5.4% 4.6%
Tertiary (bachelors and above) 20.5% 22.8% 20.5%
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Household Income and Expenditure Survey data.

Given that very few observations of individuals who have taken technical education in this nationally representative sample, their returns to
59

education are not calculated.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 69

 126. This review has taken note of the paucity of data on budgets and expenditures of TEIs available for in-
reliable evidences about the situation and issues of depth and systematic analysis. It is evident that a sector-
financing tertiary education in Bangladesh. There has specific in-depth public expenditure review for education
not been a comprehensive sector-level public expenditure inclusive of tertiary education is critically needed and
assessment done for the education sector, except for a would be extremely useful for promoting policy dialogue
succinct overview given in the overall public expenditure toward more effective and efficient resource allocation for
review in 2010 (World Bank 2010).60 There is hardly any better education outcomes in Bangladesh.

7.2. STATUS AND ISSUES OF FINANCING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN

BANGLADESH

7.2.1. Public expenditure on tertiary education 128. The overall allocation of government spending on
in Bangladesh is in line with global trends education as share of the total expenditure exhibits a
mixed trend but is in line with the global target. In the
127. There is a strong rationale for greater public regional context, expenditure on education as a share of
investment in higher education in Bangladesh. total government expenditure in Bangladesh between 2010
Investments in tertiary education are likely to improve and 2015 (Table 13) has been lower than that of Nepal but
workforce productivity, benefiting the society at large. higher than that of India and Sri Lanka and higher than the
At present, tertiary graduates in Bangladesh fill the OECD 2013 average of 11.2 percent. Benchmarked against
position of highly technical and skilled professionals in the global target range of 15–20 percent set at the Incheon
public and private entities in manufactures, education, Declaration adopted by the World Education Forum in
and information communication technologies, among 2015, Bangladesh has been operating within the range.
others. Improvements in access and quality of tertiary Given the fact that education expenditure as a percentage
education would have considerable benefits beyond of total government expenditure in Bangladesh is within
private gains accruing to individual students, contributing the world target, the challenge is to sustain it and ensure
to higher skills and productivity demands of the accountability while exploring avenues of increasing the
expanding economy. However, this access to higher levels levels toward the maximum level of the world set target.
of education is currently biased toward richer segments
of the population, indicating unrealized productivity 129. However, as a percentage of GDP, the
gains. Moreover, market failures brought by information expenditure level has been stagnant at a low
asymmetries are more likely to lead to underinvestment point— at approximately 2 percent. The current level
in higher education as individuals do not recognize the of expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP
actual gains from the investment. Second, the scientific achieved by Bangladesh is lower than the world target
and knowledge outputs from the research that are range of 4–6 percent set at the 2015 World Education
developed by universities are important innovations Forum in held in Incheon, Republic of Korea. Compared
that propel economic development within and outside with regional member countries, the proportion of GDP
a country. Studies have linked technology as one of the dedicated to education in Bangladesh is lower than
strongest determinants for sustainable competitiveness that of India and Nepal and relatively equal to that of Sri
and long-term growth (Lichang 2011; Sener and Saridogan Lanka (Table 13). Moreover, allocations to education as
2011). However, the high cost and risks associated with a percentage of GDP, in Bangladesh are lower than the
research have already led to underinvestment in R&D OECD 2013 average of 4.8 percent. The forum recognized
work which generates public good. There is a need for that the proposed SDG 4 for education would not be
public financing to facilitate collaboration between achieved without a significant and well-targeted increase
universities and firms. in financing as percentage of GDP.

60
The paper was updated in 2015. It provides an analysis of overall public expenditure and brief sectoral reviews.

70
Table 13: Trend in Public Expenditure on Education in South Asia Countries

Years
Country
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
% of total public expenditure
Bangladesh — 16.8 15.6 13.8 — 15.6
India 11.7 13.7 14.1 14.1 — —
Nepal 16.0 18.0 17.4 18.2 18.3 17.1
Sri Lanka 8.6 9.1 8.4 9.3 10.8 11.0
% of GDP
Bangladesh — 2.1 2.2 2.0 — 2.2
India 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 — —
Nepal 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.7
Sri Lanka 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.2
Source: World Bank Data (2015) and UIS Data (2015).

130. Disaggregating expenditure on education by the Notably, in the meantime, the shares of tertiary education
level of education reveals a bias against and recent in education expenditure in other countries in the region
improvement for tertiary education. Over the past did not increase, if not decreased.
decade, Bangladesh’s allocation of public expenditure for
tertiary education in the total education expenditure had
7.2.2. Private expenditure on tertiary education
been in the range of 10–13 percent, which was lower than
is relatively high
what India and Sri Lanka allocated to tertiary education 131. Establishing the proportion and level of private
and more or less at par with Nepal. This indicates that expenditure on tertiary education is a major challenge
the GoB had not necessarily prioritized the investment in facing many developing countries including Bangladesh.
tertiary education, relative to the primary and secondary The absence of a policy framework aimed at facilitating and
levels of education. However, most recent data show a streamlining private sector engagement in tertiary education
gradual shift toward greater resource allocation to tertiary financing makes it difficult to ascertain the proportion of
education, which coincides with the surging enrollment private sector expenditure in tertiary subsector. Discussions
in tertiary education as discussed in the previous about private expenditure on tertiary education tend to be
chapter. In 2015, around 20 percent of the total education limited only to two vantage points: (a) expenditures borne
expenditure went to tertiary education, nearly doubling by households and students and (b) expenditures borne by
the share from only 10 percent in 2011 and bringing it other private entities such as religious organization, charities,
close to the level where Sri Lanka traditionally has been. and business associations.

Table 14: Trend in Share of Tertiary Education in Total Education Expenditure (Country wise)

Years
Country
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Bangladesh — 10.3% 14.7% — — 20.0%
India 36.1% 34.7% 32.2% 28.5% — —
Nepal 12.7% 11.8% 11.9% 11.3% 11.4% 10.8%
Sri Lanka 16.4% 17.8% 18.7% 21.1% 20.2% 19.4%
Source: World Bank Data (2015) and UIS Data (2015).

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 71

 Table 15: Annual per Student Education Level wise Expenses in Bangladesh (in nominal BDT)

Private Spending Public Spending

Level
2005 2010 2016 2016 (direct cost) 2016
Primary (Grades 1–5) 1,281 2,500 4,769 747 7,213
Secondary (Grades 6–10) 4,207 7,377 11,549 2,024 6,498
Higher Secondary (Grades 11–12) 9,009 14,122 18,204 4,313 9,598
Bachelors plus 15,138 17,958 22,870 6,805 20,924
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Household Income and Expenditure Survey data for private expenses; BANBEIS 2016 for per student public spending 2016.
Note: Figures for 2005, 2010, and 2016 include all the out-of-pocket expenditures for supporting schooling of a child; figures for 2016 (direct cost) include only the
expenditures that are paid to the institution (that is, tuition and other fees), for comparison with public spending.

132. The private education expenses incurred by enable children’s study. Over the years, the burdens on
the households have been playing a significant role families seem to have increased. The private education
in funding the education sector in Bangladesh at expenditure (in real terms) increased significantly for
all levels, especially at higher levels of education. primary and secondary levels while remaining more or
Families spend a lot of money to cover various out-of- less unchanged for tertiary students.63 This increase may
pocket education expenditures of their children.61 The partly be motivated by intensified social pressure on
expenditure goes up at higher levels of schooling. For students to achieve high marks at the secondary-level
example, on average, the private expenses for secondary- national examinations.
level education were double the amount for primary
133. Students in tertiary education often rely on
level in 2016. Tertiary education proves to be quite an
borrowing from families and relatives to pay for
expensive investment for families. On average, tertiary
various private out-of-pocket expenses. A recently
education costs households 1.26 times more than higher
conducted graduate tracking survey of tertiary-level
secondary education does. In the local currency, it costs
college graduates reveals that around one in six (17
them around BDT 23,000 annually (US$295 at the then
percent) college students, especially male students from
prevalent exchange rate of BDT 78 per US$1) in 2016,
rural areas, borrowed money from families and relatives
which is not an insignificant amount of money in a
or from nongovernmental organizations, to finance part
country with per capita GDP of US$1,358. In comparison
of their cost of college study. The share goes up to around
with the cost of education service provision borne by the
30 percent among polytechnic students in Bangladesh,
government, contributions from households clearly play
according to a graduate tracking survey on polytechnic
an important part in financing education institutions
graduates. This higher incidence of borrowing among
in Bangladesh. In terms of per student expenditure, the
polytechnic students is probably due to the higher out-
ratio of public and private spending in tertiary education
of-pocket expenditures among polytechnic students
is roughly 75 percent public and 25 percent private.62
and the fact that they tend to be from less-affluent
Low level of public education investment as discussed
families. In both cases, families and relatives are by far
earlier is being compensated by families of students.
the main source of loans, followed by nongovernmental
The high level of private investment required at higher
organizations. It seems quite unusual for postsecondary
levels of education is likely to pose challenges especially
students and their families in Bangladesh to take loans
for economically disadvantaged children, not only in
from banking institutions. Borrowing from informal
terms of paying for direct costs such as tuitions but also
sources like families and relatives is unreliable for many
for covering indirect costs like private tutoring costs to

61
Private education expenditures here include fees and expenses for admission, tuition, examination, private tutoring, uniform, textbooks, exercise books, transport, and tiffin/snacks.
62
International experience of private spending on tertiary education can be drawn from the OECD member countries. Available data show that in 2013, the OECD average ratio of
public and private spending on tertiary education was 70 percent public - 30 percent private (https://data.oecd.org/eduresource/spending-on-tertiary-education.htm). Some member
countries, for instance, Scandinavian countries registered low contributions from the private sector (less than 10 percent of the total). Some member countries such the United
Kingdom and New Zealand have stricken a more equal balance (close to 50-50). Proportions of private spending on tertiary education for member countries like the United States (64
percent), Japan (65 percent), Australia (58 percent), and Korea (68 percent) exceeds public spending.
63
The overall prices increased 222 percent due to inflation between 2005 and 2016 in Bangladesh.

72
poor families whose relatives are also likely to be not so faculties of the institutions drawing up their respective
rich. This suggests that there may potentially be a large budget estimates (using a prescribed format). The
number of meritorious students who are unable to go up budgets are then submitted to the respective finance
to postsecondary education because of lack of access to departments for consolidation and reviewed by the
loans. finance or budget committee of the institution, before
submission to the responsible GB. Budgets from public
7.2.3. Budgeting and accountability mechanism universities are submitted to the UGC for consolidation,
follow the traditional system review, and eventual submission to the MoE. Those
134. The government funding system for public from public TVET institutions are submitted to the DTE.
tertiary institutions is characterized by the two- In the same vein, public tertiary-level colleges submit
envelope model, each envelope following a separate their budgets to the DSHE. All the budgets from the three
procedure: (a) Nondevelopment budget, and (b) segments of tertiary education submitted to the MoE
Development budget. The nondevelopment budget are then submitted to the Ministry of Finance (MoF). The
allocations to public tertiary institutions are dedicated Financing Division of the MoF allocates funds based
toward meeting the recurrent costs such as salary and on the projections indicated in the three-year Medium-
benefits of teachers and other staff, services, and supplies, Term Budgeting Framework (MTBF). Private TEIs prepare
and it is designated in the budget template as revenue budgets based on the receipts of tuition and other fees
expenditure. The development budget is allocated for from students and forecasted expenditure in a financial
purposes of improving the academic environment and year and get it approved by the Board of Trustees. In
physical infrastructure. Expenditures related to building principle, private TEIs do not receive subsidies from the
constructions and purchase of textbooks and equipment government for their budgets and operate entirely on the
fall under this category. The process of allocating the revenue from tuition and fees. All public and private TEIs
development budget is entirely different from the process are mandated to undergo financial auditing respectively
for allocating the nondevelopment budget. For requesting by the public and private auditing agencies.
development budget allocations, it has to be processed
136. Performance-based financing (PBF)64 is not
through the Planning Commission and funds would be
currently being practiced under the tertiary subsector
disbursed to the institutions in huge tranches through
in Bangladesh, although a variant of it is currently being
a separate mechanism called Annual Development
practiced under primary subsector and performance-
Program (ADP). The development budget allocation varies
based institutional grant scheme is being implemented
across years. During FY2016/17, the share of development
by development projects. The idea behind PBF in
budget that went to the MoE was 25 percent. Over the last
tertiary education is that institutions in this case receive
15 years, this figure has fluctuated widely—it was as high
state budgets through incentive-oriented instruments
as 29.8 percent in 2004 and as low as 17.6 percent in 2007.
like performance agreements or formulas linked with
135. The budgeting process of the tertiary education performance for calculating grants. Experience from
sector is based on a traditional funding method of Europe, Australia, and North America, for example,
incremental budgeting with line items defined by shows a major shift to PBF all across the education
economic codes. In the traditional funding methods, the sector, including tertiary education. Trends like lump-
allocation of funds is determined through a negotiation sum budgeting, formula funding, performance, or target
between the government and TEIs, by referring to the agreements have been adopted in many countries and
input criteria and historical trends. The procedures for have gradually replaced traditional models based on
allocating budget are based on the proposal submitted line items and incremental budgeting (Ahmad et al.
by the institutions to the government as the starting 2015; Sharma 2004). In the tertiary education sector in
point of the negotiations. The method basically involves Bangladesh, such financing models have never been
the different units, sections, divisions, departments, or tried. In limited scale, institutional grant programs with

64
In generic terms, results-based financing or PBF is defined as any program where the principal sets financial or other incentives for an agent to deliver predefined outputs or
outcomes and rewards the achievement of these results upon verification (Musgrove 2010). In the development cooperation arena, the principal is usually a national or subnational
government body of a developing country, and the agent is an implementing agency or institution such as UGC or TEI.
https://www.rbfhealth.org/sites/rbf/files/documents/Rewards%20for%20Good%20Performance%20or%20Results%20-%20Short%20Glossary.pdf.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 73

 performance contracts have been implemented under government, is fees charged to students in the form
the donor-funded development projects for universities, of registration, tuition, and examination fees. The
colleges, and polytechnics to channel development funds amount of tuition fees charged in public TEIs are set by
to institutions in more accountable and competitive the government and collected by institution. However,
ways.65 the tuition levels have traditionally been very low. For
example, the average tuition fees per student in public
137. Financial accountability modality for TEIs is
universities in 2012 was around US$130 though tuition
through monthly expenditure reports. Every month
fees have been increasing over time in public universities.
expenditure reports are prepared by public institutions
The tuition fees charged by private universities are on
(universities, TVET institutions, and colleges), which are
average more than five times that of public universities
then submitted to the UGC, DTE, and DSHE, respectively.
(Boye and Mannan 2014). Private universities operate
Private institutions submit their monthly expenditure
almost entirely relying on fees collected from students
reports to their boards. However, the Public Financial
and other private incomes.
Management (PFM) Performance Report acknowledges
the existence of weaknesses in the revenue and 140. Despite the lack of authority and regulatory
expenditure controls and in reporting and accountability framework regarding the operation of income-
mechanisms. A number of PFM reforms were initiated generating activities, some of the public TEIs do run
by the Deepening Medium-Term Budget Framework and a range of revenue-generating ventures. Large and
Strengthening Financial Accountability Project, which well-established public TEIs are operating various income-
closed in 2014. Building on the reforms under the PFM generating activities, including renting out some of their
project, an Integrated Budgeting and Accounting System own properties such as buildings and land. They also earn
(iBAS++) is currently being rolled out and when fully from providing consulting services both institutionally
implemented, it should strengthen many internal control and individually. Smaller and less well-established
procedures and address some of the weaknesses in institutions on their part seem to be lacking the capacity
accounting and recording in TEIs as well. to raise revenues internally. The revenues of the public
universities are disclosed in their respective budget books
7.2.4. Institution-wise income generation and which also show the sources of the earnings, including the
revenue opportunities are limited government grants.
138. First, there is no clear-cut policy or mechanism
141. Private institutions have latitude of exploring
to support income-generation activities by TEIs in
various avenues for revenue generation. Similar to
Bangladesh. Interviews with stakeholders revealed
public institutions, the main source of funding in private
some confusion and conflicting views among them about
institutions is from tuition and other fees charged to
policy frameworks for such income-generating activities
students. Unlike in public institutions, where government
by public TEIs. According to the government officials,
regulates the level of fees charged to students, the level of
public TEIs are permitted to operate income-generating
these fees varies from one private institution to another.
activities at their own will. However, the public TEIs on
It is worth pointing out that, some institutions are part
their part lament the lack of clarity about their authority
of a business venture group, which helps in raising
and unclear guidance from the government. There is
funds for the institution. In addition, private institutions
no evidence in the form of formal communication from
accept donations from individuals and organizations to
the government to the institutions, granting authority to
augment their fundraising capacity, which is not the case
generate income internally. Such confusion and unclarity
with public institutions. Such contributions, however,
about authority and requirements have precluded
are often irregular and available only to a small number
systematic income-generating activities by TEIs.
of private institutions, mostly in urban and semi-urban
139. As a consequence, the main income source for areas. Generally, due to fear of disclosure, it is difficult to
most public TEIs, other than grant funding from the ascertain exactly what activities private TEIs operate.

65
Primary education in Bangladesh has been using PBF, which was implemented under the Bangladesh Third Primary Education Sector Development Project. The project is
supported by 10 development partners, including the World Bank and ADB, with clearly defined disbursement-linked indicators, which need to be met for the development partners
to release funds tied to that particular component.

74
142. Internationally, income diversification strategy has entrepreneurial attitude, and (c) having an outward-looking
been favorably advocated for TEIs to enhance financial mindset. A prerequisite to fostering income diversification
sustainability and greater resource mobilization for among TEIs is granting sufficient autonomy to institutions,
investment in equity and quality improvement. According especially financial autonomy.68 Some of the international
to existing literature,66 success in income diversification examples of income-generating ventures operated in
among TEIs is dependent on three broad factors: (a) tertiary education are illustrated in Box 9.
having a flat management structure,67 (b) having an

BOX 9
Institution-wise Income-Generating Activities Operating
Internationally
(a) Contracts with private partners for both research and teaching
(b) Philanthropy from alumni, charities, and foundations
(c) Institution-based services/products such as renting out institution facilities/property and
selling products/services produced internally (case for TVET institutions)
(d) Structured partnerships with business entities, especially large companies
(e) Internationalization of student admissions, thus attracting international students
(f) Increasing the share of funding coming from households/students in the form of fees

7.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR BETTER FINANCING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION

143. Exploring performance-based approach to of institutions and the overall sector. One of the key
financing TEIs, especially for the university sector. challenges under the performance-based financing
The GoB should explore options to include performance- modality is formulating and agreeing upon clear and
based approach in the financing of TEIs, given its smart criteria of desired outcomes.
success in areas such as Europe, Australia, and North
144. Granting a clear authority to TEIs with adequate
America. Performance-based allocations could be used
transparency measures to facilitate greater income-
in conjunction with the existing traditional budgeting
generating activities. Autonomy, especially financial
system. Institutions may continue to receive much of
autonomy, allows TEIs in Bangladesh to operate income-
their budget through a guaranteed budgetary allocation
generating activities and explore innovative approaches
to ensure funding for their operation while receiving a
to financing their institutional development plans.
smaller share of their budget through the performance-
The authority of institutions for undertaking income-
based budget allocation which may fluctuate depending
generation activities needs to be better clarified, in the
on their performance and other conditions. The approach
form of a written framework and guidelines on the extent
would avoid putting poor performers at significant
of the authority of institutions and responsibilities of
disadvantage and could effectively incentivize the core
institutions for transparency about such activities.
principles of accountability in the utilization of financial
resources toward achievement of development objectives

66
http://www.eua.be/Libraries/publications-homepage-list/Financially_Sustainable_Universities_II_-_European_universities_diversifying_income_streams.pdf?sfvrsn=2
67
A flat management structure requires a relatively small number of layers in the institution’s chart, with the exact number of personnel varying across institutions, depending on size
and complexity of the institution.
68
http://www.eua.be/Libraries/newsletter/EUDIS_Conference_report.pdf?sfvrsn=0

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 75

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Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 77
 ANNEX

78
 ANNEX 1
INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT
IN TERTIARY EDUCATION

President of the Republic

CHANCELLOR

MINISTRY OF UGC
EDUCATION (University Grant
Commission)

VICE-CHANCELLOR Finance
Committee

PRO VICE
CHANCELLOR

Selection Syndicate Academic Treasurer Senate

Committee Council

Faculty/Dean Faculty/Dean Institute

Departments Departments Departments Departments Departments

Figure 1.1: Public University Organogram

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 79

 President of the Republic
CHANCELLOR

Board of Trustees

Finance Syndicate
Committee

VICE-CHANCELLOR

Academic
Council

Faculty/Dean Faculty/Dean Institute

Departments Departments Departments Departments Departments

Figure 1.2: Private University Organogram

80
 ANNEX 2
POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR TERTIARY EDUCATION

1. There are four key government policies that guide development priorities and strategies at the
tertiary-level education in Bangladesh: (a) Seventh FYP FY2016–FY2020, (b) National Education
Policy (NEP 2010), (c) Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh (2006–2026), and (d)
National Skills Development Policy (NSDP 2011). Here are the brief illustrations of the propositions of
the above policies with respect to the study’s five thematic areas in the context of tertiary education:
(a) quality and relevance, (b) research and innovation, (c) access and equity, (d) management and
governance, and (e) financing.

QUALITY AND RELEVANCE

2. One of the key priorities for Bangladesh’s skills development agenda is to improve the quality
and relevance of education to fill the skills gap in the labor market and realize more and better
employment for youth. To address this, the Seventh FYP advocates for diversification of technical
education programs, including ICT, and modernization of skills training institutions. The
NEP calls for urgent adjustment of education and skills qualifications with the labor market
demands and requires skills demand surveys to be conducted. In higher education, the NEP calls
for stringent application of minimum certification standards for higher education institutions
and demands curricula of the international standards at higher education institutions. It
draws special attention to the urgent needs of training/retraining teachers of universities and
colleges for pedagogical and subject-based knowledge. The Strategic Plan for Higher Education
in Bangladesh emphasizes upon creating the culture of teaching quality at higher education
institutions and promoting merit-based recruitment, continuous faculty development, and
more relevant academic contents. It also prioritizes the establishment of the national framework
for quality assurance and accreditation. In TVET, the NEP strongly calls for regular revisions of
TVET curriculum in view of job markets at home and abroad and emphasizes on filling teacher
vacancies and in-service hands-on teacher training at industries. The NSDP (2011) sets demand-
driven, flexible, and responsive TVET at its core and sets out a number of strategies toward that
goal. It places particular importance on upgrading the competency-based skills qualifications and
recognition system—National Technical and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF)—and
advocates for greater involvement of the private sector in standard setting and training provision.
It also highlights the criticality of having accurate skills and labor market information system in
planning appropriate skills development strategies.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 81

 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION ACCESS AND EQUITY
3. The Seventh FYP highlights teaching and research 4. Bangladesh has made significant progress in providing
as being the main functions of universities. The GoB equitable access to primary and secondary education
prioritizes infrastructural development including during the past decades. However, there are still
libraries and laboratories and procurement of scientific challenges regarding access and equity to postsecondary
equipment. To foster science and research education, education, especially among socioeconomically
the government is investing in establishing new science disadvantaged groups and females. The NEP envisions
and technology universities and creating interest among provisions of special stipends and interest-free/low-
the young generation to study science and technology, interest student loans to poor and meritorious female
especially ICT education. The NEP lends support in students to pursue higher education. The banking sector
this direction. It encourages teachers and students of is expected to be persuaded to arrange soft student
tertiary education institutions to take part in research loans for higher education students. It also stipulates
activities and promises adequate research funding to merit-based scholarships for high-performers of the HSC
capable researchers to undertake original researches and examination. The NSDP calls for improvement of access
fellowship grants for young researchers. Universities to skills development to under-represented groups,
are also encouraged to promote institution-based including the less educated, women, and people with
consultancy activities among their faculty members disabilities. It makes provisions for several measures for
to strengthen their research capacities and outreach equity, including setting up microcredit schemes for poor
activities. Science researches are particularly encouraged trainees, removal of Grade 8 prerequisite from formal
by the NEP to undertake researches to find solutions for courses, expansion of female-oriented training courses,
the country’s problems, and more resource allocation to awareness raising to communities, and provision of
researches in science is envisaged. Science researchers incentives, especially in rural areas. The Strategic Plan for
are expected to establish collaborative relationships Higher Education in Bangladesh notes the government’s
among universities and industrial organizations. The concerted efforts toward equal opportunity of access to
NEP particularly emphasizes on engineering research quality higher education and gender parity and equity,
activities by engineering universities and promotes which are being vigorously pursued.
them as a means to nurture problem-solving skills of
students and resolve engineering problems of local
industries. Medical research has also been identified as MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE
an important area for improving the health care services 5. Governance and management of the sector and of
and the government has decided to establish new public and private institutions need to be improved
medical universities outside Dhaka for promoting and to meet the growing demand while at the same time
expanding the territory of advanced medical research. ensuring the quality and relevance of tertiary education
Importance of access to online knowledge resources in Bangladesh. The NEP advocates for several strategies
such as journals through information technologies is to promote accountable, dynamic, transparent, and
also highlighted as a way to share and access research corruption-free administration of postsecondary
results. Research activities are not confined to universities. education. For overall education sector, it envisions
The NEP also encourages tertiary-level colleges to the enactment of the Education Law to ensure proper
engage in research activities. The Strategic Plan for implementation of the NEP and formation of autonomous
Higher Education in Bangladesh views research and statutory Higher Education Commission as an
development as an integral part of modern economic advisory body to education agencies. It also calls for
planning both by government and private industry. A establishment of new teacher selection commission
closer relationship between industry and university for nongovernment institutions and advocates for
must be established so that research carried out in the merit-based competitive promotion process for
universities is geared to the needs of the industry and the nongovernment teachers. In higher education, the NEP
country. demands the establishment and strengthening of the
BAC to accredit the study programs in universities and to

82
examine and evaluate performance of both public and FINANCING
private universities against the National Qualifications
Framework currently being formulated by the UGC. The 6. One of the education policy priority areas emphasized
NEP recognizes that the UGC is the body that coordinates in the education sector review report is the provision
and leads matters of higher education in the country. It of adequate funding for education. In the context of
highlights the need to resolve inconsistencies of roles postsecondary education, in addition to the increased
between universities and the UGC and calls for revision allocations to the sector, the focus should be on the
of the UGC Act and further strengthening of the UGC. diversification of financing sources to ensure effective
For tertiary colleges, it puts the National University mobilization of the necessary funds. Private financing
at the center of administration and strongly calls for and private provision of skills training, supported by
decentralization of the National University functions at the public financing, can be one of the main providers of
divisional level. Autonomy is seen as a must for higher various TVET programs (the Seventh FYP). The NEP calls
education institutions, provided that a proper monitoring for government budget to be allocated on priority basis
and accountability system of government on use of funds in the sector of vocational and technical education.
is in place. In TVET, the NSDP supports the strengthening Particularly in the TVET sector, considerable emphasis
of partnerships with the private sector, especially is placed on private provision of trainings with the
through Industrial Skills Councils, so they increase governance and financial supports from public sector.
their role in the governance and delivery of skills training. Private entities are strongly encouraged to establish new
The National Skills Development Council (known training institutions in partnership with the government.
as NSDC), a tripartite forum with representatives from Consistent with the above, the NSDP policy mentions that
the government, employers, and workers, is in charge necessary steps should be taken to ensure that additional
of overseeing all activities of public and private TVET financing options, including microcredit, are available
providers and coordinating with all the stakeholders in for both students and training providers, to increase
the skills development. It calls for further strengthening both the scope and amount of skills training. In higher
of the BTEB to assume quality assurance and regulatory education, the Strategic Plan for Higher Education in
responsibilities, including establishment of a national Bangladesh acknowledges the importance of government
qualification framework. To further strengthen the skills contribution; however, it is on the decline and this trend
development sector, the government has launched a needs to be reversed. Universities are expected to be
National Skills Development Authority (NSDA) to be actively engaged in institutional-level and individual-
responsible for overall coordination, for which an Act level resource generation to meet expenditures for
is being drafted, and the National Human Resource education and research (the NEP). The NEP hinted that
Development Fund (NHRDF) to mobilize additional and tuitions and fees of universities will be determined
reliable resources (the Seventh FYP). according to the financial capacity of parents so that
universities will be able to make greater use of students’
fees.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 83

 ANNEX 3
SECTOR SPECIFIC SKILLS ANALYSIS (MEDICAL EDUCATION
SECTOR IN BANGLADESH)

BACKGROUND
1. The Bangladesh health sector involves varied levels of skills for service delivery. Service
providers constitute about two-thirds of the health workforce and health management and
support workers constitute the remaining third in Bangladesh. Service providers comprise super
specialists, specialists and teachers of various specialties, graduate physicians, diploma physicians,
nurses, midwives, and medical technologists of different disciplines. Besides mainstream allopath,
alternative types of medical care (comprising homeopath, ayurved, and unani) are also in practice
and thus requires workforce for those types.
2. Medical education at the graduate level has expanded significantly over the past two
decades, led mostly by private sector expansion. Private medical institutions are nearly double
the number, accounting for almost two-thirds of medical seats. Among prospective medical
students, strong preference remains for enrollment in the government medical colleges due to less
cost, perceived higher quality of education, and good reputation associated in comparison to the
private colleges. Nonetheless, near 100 percent enrollments across medical seats—regardless of
public or private institutions—are seen each year, indicating high demand for medical education
among higher secondary school graduates in Bangladesh.
3. Gender parity has favored female enrollments in medical colleges in recent years. The
medical colleges, including dental education, especially in the government, have seen a good rise in
the participation of females. In the early 1990s, less than 30 percent of government medical college
graduates were females, which rose to 53 percent as of 2015. Specifically, 62 percent of graduating
doctors from government dental medical colleges are female. However, transition to practicing
doctors among female medical college graduates remains a concern. Studies have shown that
sociocultural factors, such as marriage and child bearing, often lead to female doctors’ discontinuing
their practice and higher education.

Table 3.1: Number of Medical Colleges and Seat Intake Capacity, by Provider Type

Total Number of Private MBBS seats in Government

Private Share (%)
Medical Colleges Share (%) Medical Colleges
1992 13 0 1,450 0
1996 18 28 1,650 12
2006 40 65 3,396 52
2011 77 70 7,285 59
2016 104 65 9,957 62
Source: ADirectorate General of Health Services (DGHS), MIS various years.

84
4. Postgraduate education,69 which leads to medical professionals is more prominent in rural areas
specialization in the medical field, is predominantly due to quality-of-life issues and high turnover rates in
public led in Bangladesh. The enrollment capacity of the remote and rural areas (Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014).
sector for postgraduate studies has increased sevenfold Doctors and nurses often refrain from postings in remote
between 1992 and 2015 (Figure 3.1). Most of the increase areas, due to challenging living and working conditions
in enrollment capacity has been from the expansion of the (Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014). Higher-level doctors are
public sector. Out of 34 organizations, the 22 government often deployed for shorter periods—on average a year,
organizations affiliated with the public universities indicating that doctors remain in remote area posts for
account for 51 percent of seats in postgraduate medical less time (FMRP 2005).
programs. Enrollment capacity in the private medical
organizations has remained stagnant—only 10 private 6. Nursing and allied skills are also deemed to be
providers with less than 200 seats have been involved in huge shortage. A Grade 12 graduate can generally
in the delivery of postgraduate medical programs since enroll in the four-year B.Sc. in Nursing or a three-year
2012. Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery. Diploma in Nursing
(and Midwifery) completion is the entry qualification for
5. Despite the improvement in enrollment capacities, Post-Basic B.Sc. in Nursing, which is a two-year program.
graduate and specialist medical physician skills are in For effective skill mix, internationally recommended
short supply in terms of the demand, especially in rural doctor-nurse ratio should be 1:3. Because Bangladesh
areas. Annually, Bangladesh produces 3,000 specialist has registered physicians as 4.90 per 10,000 population
and super specialist physicians, which is way below what (MIS 2016), nurses should have been 14.7 per 10,000
is needed, especially in certain disciplines. For example, population. However, there are only 2.90 registered
shortage of anesthesiologists is considered to be one nurses per 10,000 population in Bangladesh (MIS 2016).
of the key reasons for the reduction of comprehensive Government hospitals’ vacancy posts average around
emergency obstetrics care services at government upazila 22 percent with some remote districts reporting vacancy
health complexes. Another area where skilled physicians rates as high as 70 percent (MIS, 2014). Thus, a huge
are in shortage are dental surgeons—in 2016, Bangladesh shortage of nurses remains in Bangladesh, especially in
had seats for 1,917 dental surgeons from 34 government rural and remote areas.
and private dental colleges. The shortage of skilled

3063
2983
2566
2351
2042

1614

1614

1592
445
425

367
259

1992 1997 2007 2012 2014 2015

Total Government Private Autonomous

Figure 3.1: Number of Available Seats across Postgraduate Organizations, by Type

Source: DGHS, MIS various years.

69
Postgraduate qualifications are offered by two bodies—Bangladesh College of Physicians and Surgeons (BCPS), which offers Member of College of Physicians and Surgeons (MCPS)
and Fellow of College of Physicians and Surgeons (FCPS), and Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), whose offers vary from diploma to master’s (Masters in Surgery
- MS, Masters in Public Health - MPH, Masters in Medical Education - MMEd, and so on) to Doctor in Medicine - MD. Depending upon the postgraduate qualification, usually one to five
years are required after graduation and internship.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 85

 Table 3.2: Graduate Nurse Production Capacity over Years

Post-Basic B.Sc. in Nursing Course Basic B.Sc. in Nursing Course

Year No. of Institutions No. of Seats No. of Institutions No. of Seats
Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total
2011 4 9 13 500 270 770 9 8 17 775 230 1,005
2017 4 37 41 400 1,475 1,875 14 45 59 1,035 2,185 3,220
Source: DGHS, MIS various years.
Note: Govt = Government; Pvt = Private.

7. Participation in nursing programs is also likely to be ministries, the BTEB also offers diploma (three-year) and
influenced by sociocultural challenges. Between 2011 certificate (one-year) programs in health technology
and 2017, seating capacity for undergraduate nursing across various disciplines like laboratory, radiology,
and post-basic nursing increased considerably (Table pharma, physiotherapy, dental, medical, patient care,
3.2). However, Bangladesh Nursing and Midwifery Council and integrated medical (Sabur and Huque 2016). Entry
(BNMC) had registered 2,436 B.Sc. in Nursing and 4,436 qualification is Secondary School Certificate (Grade 10)
Post-basic B.Sc. in Nursing (including 814 post-basic B.Sc. pass. Despite the different skills providers, vacancies of
in Public Health Nursing), which is lower than the total medical technologists in government health services are a
capacity intake across the sector. This indicates that there regular phenomenon (Figure 3.2).
may be demand-related issues to producing adequate
nursing skills in the country.
KEY CHALLENGES TO SKILLS PROVISION IN
8. Medical technologist are key health support staff MEDICAL AND ALLIED SERVICES
supplied by institutions under both the health
and education ministries. Medical technologists are 9. Need for coordination between different
responsible for technical jobs under the supervision of medical skills providing entities. Institutions
medical experts. Different disciplines include laboratory, offering postgraduate courses need to coordinate
radiology, physiotherapy, sanitary inspection, dentistry, and streamline their programs because of concerns of
pharmacy, radiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech pluralistic qualifications with different equivalencies
therapy, optometrist, refraction, ophthalmic assistant, across some disciplines. On the other hand, the BTEB
and cath-lab technician. Courses include certificate, under the MoE is also conducting medical technology
diploma, bachelor, and master’s degrees. In addition and nursing courses without coordination with other
to public and private institutions under the health skills providing institutions in the health sector. There

38 42 40
28 28 33 33 33
22 24 25 21 18 21
15 15 18 11 10
6 7

Pharmacy Laboratory Radiography Radiotherapy Physiotherapy Sanitary Dental

Inspection
2013 2014 2015

Figure 3.2: Vacancy Rate across Government Sanctioned Positions for Various Medical Technologists
Source: DGHS, MIS various years.

86
are also discrepancies in the examination system and POLICY OPTIONS
professional accreditation by the BNMC, State Medical
Faculty, Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh, Bangladesh 13. Improve coordination among the different medical
Homeopathic Board, and Bangladesh Board of Unani skills providing entities. As suggested in the Fourth
and Ayurvedic Systems of Medicine, which likely leads Health Population and Nutrition Health Sector Program
to varied levels in the quality of education and skills (HPNSP) 2017–2022, the postgraduate institutions (BCPS
development. and BSMMU) need to coordinate and delineate their roles
and streamline their programs to avoid confusion among
10. Lack of modern teaching-learning facilities in the people and duplication and wastage of resources. The
medical education institutions. The quality of medical roles of other entities, including the BTEB, need to be
education is affected adversely due to underdeveloped reviewed and aligned with the needs of the sector.
teaching-learning facilities, including access to labs and
instruments, medical research journals, and high-speed 14. Increasing teaching strength at the medical colleges/
Internet connectivity, which are important inputs for a institutions and universities through creation of teaching
conducive learning environment. posts and opportunities for research and professional
development of teachers. A human resource assessment
11. A chronic dearth of qualified teachers undermines in medical teaching is warranted to determine the needs
teaching strength in medical education institutions. of the sector for planning and policy purposes.
Adequate skilled teachers are one major challenge to
increasing the capacity of the sector in producing the 15. Upgrading teaching-learning facilities in the
needed skills. Only postgraduate qualification holders medical colleges—using competitive funds based on
are considered in Bangladesh as specialist and super institutional development plans to upgrade facilities.
specialist physicians and can be recruited as teachers Generation of additional funds through research and
in the medical universities, colleges, and other medical development work may be explored through funds
institutions. For example, the DGHS reports around 215 allocated to promote collaborative research with medical
(35 percent) posts of professors, 214 (23 percent) posts of industry sectors.
associate professors, 327 (23 percent) posts of assistant
16. Establishment of medical universities. The
professors, 214 (40 percent) posts of senior consultants,
Government has established three medical universities
and 1,837 (50 percent) posts of junior consultants were
and plans to set up another. With the medical universities
vacant as of 2016.
in place, the past/current affiliation of the medical
12. A culture of research is still underdeveloped in the colleges with the general public universities will be
medical education sector in Bangladesh. One of the discontinued. However, not all medical universities have
criteria and standards of Bangladesh Medical and Dental developed capacities, including physical facilities. Thus, a
Council (BMDC) for recognizing medical colleges requires transitional plan would be necessary.
each medical college to establish a research cell with
17. A strategic plan for medical education is needed.
adequate provision of various national and international
Since the population-physician ratio in Bangladesh
literatures and computer facilities to support medical
has crossed the minimum recommended threshold
research and innovation (BMDC 2009). However, most
(4.9 against 2.5) but is very low for nurse, midwife,
medical colleges do not have research cells—a study finds
technologists, and other para-professionals, expansion of
that only in 3 out of 13 medical colleges established such
medical and nursing education and training institutions is
cell (Abdullah and Sabur 2016).
a high priority. A strategic plan which provides consensus-
based actions and guidelines for the development of the
medical education sector based on skills needs over the
short to medium and long term is warranted.

Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 87

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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88
LIST OF GOVERNMENT
ORGANIZATIONS
OFFERING
POSTGRADUATE
MEDICAL
QUALIFICATIONS
1. Centre for Medical Education, Dhaka
2. Chittagong Medical College
3. Dhaka Dental College
4. Dhaka Medical College
5. Institute of Child and Mother Health,
Dhaka
6. Institute of Nuclear Medicine and
Ultrasound, Dhaka
7. Mymensingh Medical College
8. National Institute of Cancer Research
and Hospital, Dhaka
9. National Institute of Cardiovascular
Diseases, Dhaka
10. National Institute of Chest Diseases and
Hospital, Dhaka
11. National Institute of Child Health, Dhaka
12. National Institute of Kidney Diseases
and Urology, Dhaka
13. National Institute of Mental Health,
Dhaka
14. National Institute of Opthalmology,
Dhaka
15. National Institute of Preventive and
Social Medicine, Dhaka
16. National Institute of Traumatology and
Orthopedic Rehabilitation, Dhaka
17. Rajshahi Medical College
18. Rangpur Medical College
19. Shahid Ziaur Rahman Medical College,
Bogra
20. Sher-e-Bangla Medical College, Barisal
21. Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka
22. MAG Osmani Medical College, Sylhet
For further queries, please contact:

World Bank Office Dhaka

Plot- E-32, Agargaon, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka-1207
Bangladesh
Tel: 880-2-5566-7777
Fax: 880-2-5566-7778
Email: [email protected]
www.worldbank.org/bangladesh