UNIT-I

DC CIRCUITS
Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:

 Outline the basic terminology used in electrical circuits

 Illustrate Kirchhoff’s laws
 Describe resistor, inductor and capacitor
 Illustrate various energy sources
 Analyze series, parallel and series- parallel circuits
 Solve DC networks using Superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems
 Analyze RL and RC series circuits for DC excitation
1.1 Basic Definitions:

Voltage: It is the electro motive force which drives the charge flow in the conductor and is a
measure of potential difference between two terminals. It is represented by ‘V’. The unit of
voltage is volts.

Current: The rate of flow of these charges is called as current which is represented by ‘I’.
The unit of current is Amperes represented by ‘A ’and is expressed as
dq
i=
dt

Where ‘q’ is the charge and ‘t’is time

Power: The DC power is defined as the product of the voltage and current. It is produced by
the fuel cell, battery and generator. The unit of power is ‘watts’.

P=V*I

1.2 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (R, L&C)

1.2.1Resistor: A resistor offers resistance to the flow of current. The resistance is the
measure of opposition to the flow of current in a resistor. More resistance means more
opposition to current. The unit of resistance is ohm and it is represented as Ω.

When one-volt potential difference is applied across a resistor and for that one ampere of
current flows through it, the resistance of the resistor is said to be one Ω. Resistor is one of
the most essential passive elements in electrical and electronics engineering

Symbol:

R (Ω.)
Resistor consists of two terminals as shown in the fig above.

1.2.2. OHM’S LAW:

Whenever, we apply a potential difference i.e. voltage across a resistor of a closed electric
circuit, current starts flowing through it. The statement of Ohm's law says that The current (I)
is directly proportional to the applied voltage (V), provided temperature and all other factors
remain constant.
Where, R is constant of proportionality. This equation presents the statement of Ohm's law.

Here, we measure current in Ampere (or amps), voltage in unit of volt. The constant of
proportionality R is the property of the conductor; we know it as resistance and measure it in
ohm (Ω).

The applications of ohm's law are that it helps us in determining either voltage,
current or impedance or resistance of a linear electric circuit when the other two quantities
are known to us. Apart from that, it makes power calculation a lot simpler, like when we
know the value of the resistance for a particular circuit element, we need not know both the
current and the voltage to calculate the power dissipation since, P = VI.

To replace either the voltage or current in the above expression to produce the result

We can see from the results, that the rate of energy loss varies with the square of the voltage
or current. When we double the voltage applied to a circuit, obeying Ohm's law, the rate at
which energy is supplied (or power) gets four times bigger. Similarly, the power dissipation
at a circuit element is increased by 4 times when we make double the current through it.

1.2.3 V-I Characteristic of a Resistor:

The voltage –current characteristic of a resistor is always linear

1.2.4 Inductor:
An inductor is a coil which exhibits the property of “Inductance” , which means any sudden
changes or instantaneous changes in the current are opposed by this property of inductor.
Definition of Inductance

If a changing flux is linked with a coil of a conductor there would be an emf induced in it.
The property of the coil of inducing emf due to the changing flux linked with it is known as
inductance of the coil. Due to this property all electrical coil can be referred as inductor. In
other way, an inductor can be defined as an energy storage device which stores energy in
form of magnetic field.

Symbol :

unit: units of inductance is “Henry(H)”. The inductance of a coil is expressed as

N∅
L=
I
where N is number of turns of coil
 is the flux
‘I’ is the current flowing through inductor coil
The voltage induced across an inductor is expressed as
di
V =L .
dt

1.2.5 Capacitor:
The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form
of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates,
much like a small rechargeable battery.

The Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors

ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being
the Farad (abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.

Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a
charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt. Note that
capacitance, C is always positive in value and has no negative units. However, the Farad is a
very large unit of measurement to use on its own so sub-multiples of the Farad are generally
used such as micro-farads, nano-farads and pico-farads.
Symbol :

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of the
charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore
given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the more familiar formula for
the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V.

We can also say that the charge is stored on the capacitor in the form of “electrostatic
field”.This property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic
field is called the Capacitance of the capacitor.

1.2.5 Resistors Inductors &capacitors in series and parallel :

when Resistors are connected in series as shown in the fig below,the equivalent resistance is
the sum of individual resistances of the resistors connected in series .similarly if the resistors
are connected in parallel as shown in the fig below, the equivalent resistance is equal to the
sum of reciprocal resistances of all the individual resistors

Series Req=R1+R2+R3+R4

1 1 1 1
Parallel Req= + + +
R1 R2 R3 R 4

Inductors in Series and parallel:

Inductors can be connected together in a series connection when the are daisy chained
together sharing a common electrical current
Inductor in Series Circuit

Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ….. + Ln etc.
Then the total inductance of the series chain can be found by simply adding together
the individual inductances of the inductors in series just like adding together resistors in
series.

Inductors in Parallel Circuit

Capacitors in a Series Connection

When adding together Capacitors in Series, the reciprocal ( 1/C ) of the individual

capacitors are all added together ( just like resistors in parallel ). Then the total value for
capacitors in series equals the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.
Parallel Capacitors Equation

1.2.6 Types of Energy Sources:

There are basically two Types of Energy Sources; 1) Independent sources and 2) Dependent
sources.

1.2.6.1Independent sources

Independent sources are classified into 1) voltage source and 2) current source.

Voltage Source:

The source which provides voltage to the circuit is considered as voltage source. There are
two types of voltage sources. They are:1) Ideal Voltage Source 2) Practical Voltage Source

Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives constant voltage across its
terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage
source is shown in the Fig. 1.5(a). This is connected to the load as shown in Fig. 1.5(b). At
any time the value of voltage at load terminals remains same. This is indicated by V- I
characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.5 (c).

But practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in series with
voltage source and is represented by Rse as shown in the Fig.1.6.
Because of the Rse voltage across terminals decreases slightly with increase in current and it is
given by expression,

For ideal voltage source,Rse=0

Current Source
Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its terminals irrespective of
the voltage appearing across its terminals. The symbol for ideal current source is shown in the
Fig. 1.9 (a). This is connected to the load as shown in the Fig. 1.9 (b). At any time, the value
of the current flowing through load IL is same i.e. is irrespective of voltage appearing across
its terminals. This is explained by V-I characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.9 (c).

But practically, every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel with
current source and it is represented by Rsh. This is shown in the Fig. 1.10.

Because of Rsh, current through its terminals decreases slightly with increase in voltage at its
terminals.

For ideal current source, Rsh = ∞ and generally not shown.

1.2.6.2 Dependent sources

Dependent sources are those whose value of source depends on voltage or current in the
circuit. Such sources are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig. 1.13 and further
classified as,

1) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source :

It produces a voltage as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
VDVS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (a).

2) Current Dependent Current Source:

It produces a current as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
CDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (b).

3) Current Dependent Voltage Source:

It produces a voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
CDVS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (c).

4) Voltage Dependent Current Source:

It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
VDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (d).

K is constant and V1 and I1 are the voltage and current respectively, present elsewhere in the
given circuit. The dependent sources are also known as controlled sources.
1.2.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is Kirchhoff’s second law that deals with the
conservation of energy around a closed circuit path.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is one of his fundamental laws we can use for circuit
analysis. His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the
voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero. This is because a circuit loop
is a closed conducting path so no energy is lost.

In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the potential differences around the loop
must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0. Note here that the term “algebraic sum” means to take into
account the polarities and signs of the sources and voltage drops around the loop.

So when applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a specific circuit element, it is important

that we pay special attention to the algebraic signs, (+ and -) of the voltage drops across
elements and the emf’s of sources otherwise our calculations may be wrong.

But before we look more closely at Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) lets first
understand the voltage drop across a single element such as a resistor.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences in
any loop must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0. Since the two resistors, R1 and R2 are wired
together in a series connection; they are both part of the same loop so the same current must
flow through each resistor.

Thus the voltage drop across resistor, R1 = I*R1 and the voltage drop across resistor,
R2 = I*R2 giving by KVL:
1.2.7.1voltage division rule:

We can see that applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to this single closed loop produces the
formula for the equivalent or total resistance in the series circuit and we can expand on this to
find the values of the voltage drops around the loop.

1.2.8.Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is Kirchhoff’s first law that deals with the conservation of
charge entering and leaving a junction.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law is one of the fundamental laws used for circuit analysis.
His current law states that for a parallel path the total current entering a circuit’s junction
is exactly equal to the total current leaving the same junction. This is because it has no
other place to go as no charge is lost.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a junction
must be equal to zero as: Σ IIN = Σ IOUT.
Lets look at a simple example of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) when applied to a single
junction.
 Here in this simple single junction example, the current ITleaving the junction is the
algebraic sum of the two currents, I1and I2 entering the same junction. That is IT = I1 + I2.
Note that we could also write this correctly as the algebraic sum of: IT - (I1 + I2) = 0.
So if I1 equals 3 amperes and I2 is equal to 2 amperes, then the total current, I T leaving
the junction will be 3 + 2 = 5 amperes, and we can use this basic law for any number of
junctions or nodes as the sum of the currents both entering and leaving will be the same.
Also, if we reversed the directions of the currents, the resulting equations would still
hold true for I1 or I2. As I1 = IT - I2 = 5 - 2 = 3 amps, and I2 = IT - I1 = 5 - 3 = 2 amps. Thus we
can think of the currents entering the junction as being positive (+), while the ones leaving
the junction as being negative (-).
Then we can see that the mathematical sum of the currents either entering or leaving the
junction and in whatever direction will always be equal to zero, and this forms the basis of
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule, more commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law, or (KCL).

1.2.8.1CurrentDivision
Statement: The electrical current entering the node of a parallel circuit is divided into the
branches. Current divider formula is employed to calculate the magnitude of divided current
in the circuits.
Let's understand the basic definitions:

Node: A point where two or more than two components are joined.
Parallel circuit: The circuit in which one end of all components share a common node, and
the other end of all components share the other common node.

For two resistors

Let's consider a parallel circuit having two resistors R1 and R2. The current It enters the node.
We are interested to calculate the current that is flowing through. The general formula and
circuit now take the form:
.
 In the circuit above

(or)

where i is the current flowing through all the resistors. Note that the numerator on the right
isR2, not R1. Remember that a larger resistance will carry a smaller current.

1.3 Analysis of Simple circuits with D.C. Excitation

1.3.1MESH ANALYSIS:

Mesh analysis is a technique used to solve the complex networks consisting of more number
of meshes. Mesh analysis is nothing but applying KVL to each and every loop in circuit and
solving for mesh currents. By finding the mesh currents we can solve any require data of the
network.

Let V1 = 30v, V2 = 40v, R1 =4 ohms, R2 = 2 ohms and R3 = 4 ohms

i1, i2 are the mesh currents, here positive direction of currents areassumed, but in general
we can assume current directions in any fashion and can solve.
Applying KVL to first loop we get, V1 – i1R1 – (i1+i2) R2.
V1 = (R1+R2) i1 + i2.R2. ----1

Applying KVL to second loop we get, V2 – i2R3– (i1+i2)R2.

V2 = (R1+R2) i1 + i2.R3. ----2

Hence by solving eq. 1 and 2 we can get mesh currents i1 and i2.
1.3.2NODAL ANALYSIS:

Nodal analysis is a technique used to solve the complex networks consisting of more number
of nodes. Node analysis is nothing but applying KCL to each and every node in circuit and
solving for node voltages. By finding the node voltages we can solve any require data of the
network

For the above circuit current division takes place at two

nodes 1 and 2.

Let, I3,I4,I5 are the currents flowing through R1,R2 and

R3.

Applying KCL at node 1, I1 = I3+I4

= Va / R1 + (Va-Vb) / R2

= Va(1/R1 + 1/R2) - Vb / R2 ----1

Applying KCL at node 2, I2+I4 = I5

I2+(Va-Vb) / R2 =Vb/ R3

I2 = - Va/ R2 +Vb(1/R3 + 1/R2) ----2

By solving above eq.1 and 2 we can get node voltages V1 and V2.

1.4. NETWORK THEOREMS:

Network theorems are also can be termed as network reduction techniques.Each and every
theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us see some important theorems with DC
excitation with detailed procedures
1.4.1 SUPER-POSITION THEOREM:
“In an any linear, bi-lateral network consisting number of sources, response in any
element(resistor) is given as sum of the individual responses due to individual sources, while
other sources are non-operative”

Let V = 6v, I = 3A, R1 = 8 ohms and R2 = 4 ohms

Let us find current through 4 ohms using V source, while I is zero, then equivalent circuit is

Let i1 is the current through 4 ohms, i1 = V / (R1+R2)

Let us find current through 4 ohms using I source , while V is zero.then equivalent circuit is

Let i2 is the current through 4 ohms, i2 = I. R1 / (R1+R2)

Hence total current through 4 ohms is = I1+I1( as both currents are in same direction or
otherwise I1-I2)

1.4.2 THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources cand be replaced by
simple series circuit consisting of equivalent voltage source in series with equivalent
resistance, where equivalent voltage is called as open circuit voltage and equivalent
resistance is called as thevenin’s resistance calculated across open circuit terminals while all
energy sources are non-operative”

Procedure:
1) To calculate Thevinen’s equivalent voltage Vth (which is also called as open circuit
voltage), remove the terminals at which the current is to be calculated.
 2) Calculate the Rthacross terminals ‘a’&’b’ by open circuiting current sources and short
circuiting voltage sources.
3) Draw the thevinen’s equivalent voltage along with the resistance in series as shown in
fig below

1.4.3. NORTON’S THEOREM:

A complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources can be replaced by
simple parallel circuit consisting of equivalent current source in parallel with equivalent
resistance, where equivalent current source is called as short circuit current and equivalent
resistance is called as norton’s resistance calculated across open circuit terminals while all
energy sources are non-operative

Procedure:

1)Find the branch (terminals A&B) across which current is to be calculated and remove it.
2) calculate the resistance RN, also called as norton’s current by open circuiting current
sources and short circuiting voltage sources.
3) Find Isc by short circuiting the terminals along which the current is to be calculated (i.e.,
A&B)
4)Replace the network with a network which has current source Isc in parallel with resistance
RN as shown in fig below.
1.5. Time Response of Series RL &RC circuit
If the output of an electric circuit for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
as time response. The time response consists of following two parts.

 Transient Response
 Steady state Response
In this chapter, first let us discuss about these two responses and then observe these two
responses in a series RL circuit, when it is excited by a DC voltage source.

Transient Response
After applying an input to an electric circuit, the output takes certain time to reach steady
state. So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the
response of the electric circuit during the transient state is known as transient
response.Transients occur in the response due to sudden change in the sources that are
applied to the electric circuit and / or due to switching action.
Inductor Behavior
Assume the switching action takes place at t = 0. Inductor current does not change
instantaneously, when the switching action takes place. That means, the value of inductor
current just after the switching action will be same as that of just before the switching action.
Mathematically, it can be represented as
IL(0+)=IL(0-)
Capacitor Behavior
The capacitor voltage does not change instantaneously similar to the inductor current, when
the switching action takes place. That means, the value of capacitor voltage just after the
switching action will be same as that of just before the switching action.
Mathematically, it can be represented as
VC(0+)=Vc(0-)
1.5.1Time Response of series RL circuit
Consider the following series RL circuit diagram.
In the above circuit, the switch was kept open up to t = 0 and it was closed at t = 0. So, the
DC voltage source having V volts is not connected to the series RL circuit up to this instant.
Therefore, there is no initial current flows through inductor.
When the switch is closed at t=0, the current i flows in the entire circuit, since the DC
voltage source having V volts is connected to the series RL circuit.
The current, i begins to flow through the circuit but does not rise rapidly to its maximum
value of Imax as determined by the ratio of V / R (Ohms Law).
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) gives us:
V=VR+VL ------(a)
Where VR is the voltage across resistor and VL is the voltage drop across inductor
di(t)
V=i(t).R+L.
dt
di(t ) R V
. + i ( t )= ------(1)
dt L L
The above equation is in differential form and the solution of equation which is in differential
form can be given by
−R
t
i(t)=K1e L +K2 ------(2)

Applying initial and final conditions ,at t=0 and at t=, we get
−R
At t=0, i(0)=K1e L
(0)
+K2 , initially, current i(0)=0

0=K1+K2 --------(3)
−R V
At t =, i()=K1e L
()
+K2, at final value i()=
R
V K1
= +K 2
R ❑
V
K2=
R
−V
Substituting in equation (3) we get k1=
R
From this equation 2 can be written as
V −R V
i(t)= (1-e L t)where (im= ¿
R R
−R
t
i(t)=im (1-e L
¿
t is in Seconds
e is the base of the Natural Logarithm = 2.71828
The Time Constant, (τ ) of the LR series circuit is given as L/R and in which V/R represents
the final steady state current value after five time constant values. Once the current reaches
this maximum steady state value at 5τ, the inductance of the coil has reduced to zero acting
more like a short circuit and effectively removing it from the circuit.
Therefore, the current flowing through the coil is limited only by the resistive element in
Ohms of the coils windings. A graphical representation of the current growth representing the
voltage/time characteristics of the circuit can be presented as.

Time constant : The inverse of the coefficient of the response i(t) is called as time constant
L L
represented by . From equation 1, coefficient of i(t)= , inverse of this is
R R
L
=
R
The time constant of RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the current through the
inductance to reach 63.21%of its final steady state value
Voltage across inductor:
From equation (a), we know that
VL=V-VR(t)
−R
t
= v-v+ve L

−R
t
= ve L

The voltage across inductor is shown in the characteristics above.

since the voltage drop across the resistor, VR is equal to I*R (Ohms Law), it will have the
same exponential growth and shape as the current. However, the voltage drop across the
inductor, VL will have a value equal to:  Ve(-Rt/L). Then the voltage across the inductor, VL will
have an initial value equal to the battery voltage at time t = 0 or when the switch is first
closed and then decays exponentially to zero as represented in the above curves.
The time required for the current flowing in the LR series circuit to reach its maximum steady
state value is equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5τ. This time constant τ, is measured
by τ = L/R, in seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and L is the value of the
inductor in Henries. This then forms the basis of an RL charging circuit were 5τ can also be
thought of as “5*(L/R)” or the transient time of the circuit.

1.5.2 Time Response of RC circuit:

When an increasing DC voltage is applied to a discharged Capacitor, the capacitor draws a
charging current and “charges up”, and when the voltage is reduced, the capacitor discharges
in the opposite direction. Because capacitors are able to store electrical energy they act like
small batteries and can store or release the energy as required.
If a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor forming an RC circuit, the capacitor will
charge up gradually through the resistor until the voltage across the capacitor reaches that of
the supply voltage. The time also called the transient response, required for the capacitor to
fully charge is equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5T.
This transient response time T, is measured in terms of τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the
value of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads. This then forms the
basis of an RC charging circuit were 5T can also be thought of as “5 x RC”.

The figure below shows a capacitor, ( C ) in series with a resistor, ( R ) forming a RC
Charging Circuit connected across a DC battery supply ( Vs ) via a switch. When the switch
is closed, the capacitor will gradually charge up through the resistor until the voltage across it
reaches the supply voltage of the battery. The manner in which the capacitor charges up is
also shown below.

Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully
open. These are the initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the
switch is closed the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the
resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) the capacitor appears to be a
short circuit to the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit
restricted only by the resistor R. Then by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the voltage
drops around the circuit are given as:
V=VR+Vc
V= i(t).R+Vc(t)
dv (t)
V=C. .R+Vc(t)
dt
dv (t) 1 V
. + v (t)= -----(1)
dt RC RC
solution to equation 1 is given by,
−t
v(t)=K1e RC +K2--------(2)
−0
At t=0, initial condition , v(0)=K1e RC +K2

K1+K2=0-------(3)
−❑
At t=, final condition , v()=K1e RC +K2

V=K2
Substituiting this in equation no 3, we get K1=-V
The voltage equation is given by
−t
vC(t)=V-Ve RC Volts

Voltage across Resistor:

We have V=VR+VC
VR=V-VC
−t
=V-V-Ve RC
−t
VR=Ve RC

Current in the circuit i(t) is given by

dv
I(t)=c. ----- (4)
dt
From eqn 1, we have
dv (t) V 1
= − v (t )
dt RC RC
(from equation 3, we have v(t))

−t
dv ( t ) V V −V e RC
= −
dt RC RC
−t
V RC
= e
RC

From eqn (4),

dv
I(t)=c.
dt
−t
V RC
=c. e
RC
−t
V
= e RC
R

This transient response time T, is measured in terms of τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the
value of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads. This then forms the
basis of an RC charging circuit were 5T can also be thought of as “5 x RC”.
Time constant of RC circuit:The time constant of RC circuit is defined as the time taken by
the voltage across the capacitance to reach 63.21%of its final steady state value. =RC
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:
1.Define a circuit
2.Define Resistance
3.Define Voltage
4.Define Voltage drop
5.Define current
6.What is a Series circuit?
7.Define Capacitor
8.Define Capacitance
9.Define Inductance
10)Define KCL
11)Define KVL
12)Define response
13) Define steady state response
14)Define Transient response
15)Define Transient
16) Define time constant of RL circuit
17)Define time constant of RC circuit

NUMERICALS :

1)Find the voltage at node P using nodal analysis.

2)For the circuit shown below , find current in loop 1 using mesh analysis

3)For the circuit shown below, find the current passing through 3 using superposition
theorem

4)Find the Thevinen’s voltage across terminals A and B for the circuit shown below

5)For the circuit given below find the value of current I between terminals A and B using
Norton’s theorem
Answers: 1)9V 2)4.3A 3)5A 4)8.57V 5)4 A