STD-AC1 365.

1R-ENGL 2000 IObb2949 054928b 734 m

AC1 365.1R-O0

Service-Life Prediction-
State-of-the-Art Report

Reported by AC1 Committee 365

american concrete institute

P.O. BOX 9094
FARMINGTON HILLS, MICHIGAN 48333-9094

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 STDmACI 3 b 5 - L R - E N G L 2000 m 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0549287 b 7 0 m

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Service-Life Prediction-
State-of-the-Art Report

Most AC1 Standardsandcommitteereportsreports in thegeneralareas of materialsand

aregatheredtogetherin the annuallyrevisedproperties of concrete,constructionpractices
AC1 Manual of ConcretePractice.Theseveralandinspection,pavements and slabs,struc-
volumesarearranged to grouprelatedmaterialturaldesignandanalysis,structuralspecifica-
togetherandmaybepurchasedindividuallyortions,andspecialproductsandprocesses.
in setS.The AC1 Manual of Concrete Practice is
available
alsoCD-ROM.
oncomplete
A catalog of all AC1 publications
is
AC1 Committees prepare
standards
and
available
without
charge.

American Concrete Institute

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AC1 Certification Programs Enhancement of AC1 Documents

The final quality of a concrete structure depends on The technical committees responsible for AC1 committee
qualified people to construct it. AC1 certification pro- reports and standards strive to avoid ambiguities, omis-
grams identify craftsmen, technicians, and inspectors sions, and errors in these documents. In spite of these
who have demonstrated their qualifications. The follow- efforts, the users ofAC1 documents occasionally find
ing programs are administered by AC1 to fulfill the grow- information or requirements that may be subject to more
ing demand in the industry for certified workers: than one interpretation or may be incomplete or incor-
rect.
Concrete Flatwork Finisher
To assist in the effort for accuracy and clarity, the
Concrete Flatwork Technician Technical Activities Committee solicits the help of indi-
Concrete Field Testing Technician-GradeI viduals using AC1 reports and standards in identifying
and eliminating problems that may be associated with
Concrete Strength Testing Technician
their use.
Concrete Laboratory Testing Technician-GradeI Users who have suggestions for the improvement of
Concrete Laboratory Testing Technician-GradeII AC1 documents are requested to contact the AC1 Engi-
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Concrete Transportation Construction problem and specific section in the document;
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 AC1 365.1R-O0

Service-Life Prediction-State-of-the-Art Report

Reported by AC1 Committee 365
James R. Clifton*' Dan J. Naus**
Chairman Secretary

S. L. Amey' M. Geiker D. G . Manning

J . P Archibald C. J. Hookham P. K. Mukherjee

N. R. Buenfeld W. J. Irwin J. Pommersheim
P. D. Cady* A. Kehnemui M. D. Thomas
C. W. Dolan R. E. Weyers*

'Report chapter coordinators

'Deceased
tReport coordinator

This report presents current information on the service-life prediction o$ Chapter 2"Environment, design,and construction
new und existing concrete structures. This infi~rmatimis important to both considerations, p. 365.1 R-3
the owner und the design professional. Important fuctors controlling the
service life oj'ccmcrete und methodr~k~giesfi~r evaluating the condition of
2.1-Introduction
the existing concrete structures, including definitions ofkey physical prop- 2.2-Environmental considerations
erties. Ure also presented. Techniquesfor predicting the service life of con- 2.3-Design and structural loading considerations
crete und the relationship between economics and the service life <$
structures are discussed. The eramples provided discuss which service-life 2.4-Interaction of structural load and environmentaleffects
techniques are applied to concrete structures or structural components. 2.5-Construction-related considerations
Finully, needed developments are identified.

Keywords: construction;
corrosion; design; durability;
rehabilitation; Chapter Hn-service inspection, condition
repair; service life. assessment, and remaining service life, p. 365.1 R-í 1
3.1-Introduction
CONTENTS 3.2-Evaluation of reinforced concrete aging or degrada-
tion effects
Chapter 1-Introduction, p. 365.1 R-2 3.3-Condition, structural, and service-life assessments
l . 1-Background 3.4-Inspection and maintenance
1.2-Scope
1.3-Document use Chapter &Methods for predicting the service life
of concrete, p. 365.1R-17
4.1-Introduction
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and 4.2-Approaches for predicting service life of new concrete
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, de- 4.3-Prediction of remaining service life
signing, executing,and inspecting construction. This docu- 4.4-Predictions based on extrapolations
ment is intended for the use of individuals who are 4.5-Summary
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations
of its content and recommendations and who willaccept Chapter 5-Economic considerations, p. 365.1 R-24
responsibility for the application of the material it con- 5.1-Introduction
tains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and 5.2-Economic analysis methods
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
5.3-Economic issues involving service life of concrete
not be liable for anyloss or damage arising therefrom.
structures
Reference to this document shall notbe made in contract
documents. If items found in this document are desired by AC1 365.LR-CXlbecame effective January 10,2000.
Copyright O 2M)o, American Concrete Institute.
the ArchitectEngineer to be a part of the contract docu- All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
ments, they shall be restated in mandatory language for in- means, including the making of copies byany photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
corporation by the ArchitectJEngineer. tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

365.1R-1
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 Chapter 6-Examples of service-life techniques, level below acceptable, or failure of elements. Functional ser-
p. 365.1R-27 vice life is the time in service until the structureno longer ful-
6.1-Example I-Relationship of amount of steel corro- fills the functionalrequirements or becomes obsolete due to
sion to time ofconcrete spalling change in functional requirements, such as the needs for in-
6.2-Example Il-Comparison of competing degradation creased clearance, higher axle and wheel loads, or road wid-
mechanisms to calculate remaining life ening. Economic service lifeis the time in service until
6.3-Example III-Utilization of multiple input to calcu- replacement of the structure (or part of it) is economically
late thelife of a structure more advantageous than keeping itin service.
6.4-Example IV-When to repair, when to rehabilitate Service-life methodologies have application both in the
6.5-Example V-Utilization of reaction rate to calculate design stage of a structure-where certain parameters are
the lifeof a sewer pipe established, such as selection of water-cementitious materi-
6.6-ExampleVI-Estimating service life and mainte- als ratios (wkm), concrete cover, and admixtures-and in
nance demands of a diaphragm wall exposed to sa- the operation phase where inspection and maintenance
line groundwater strategies canbe developed in support of life-cycle cost
6.7-ExumpleVII-Applicationof time-dependent reli- analyses. Service-life design includes the architectural and
ability concepts toa concrete slab and low-rise shear structural design, selection and design of materials, mainte-
wall nance plans, and quality assurance and quality control plans
for a future structure (CEB/RILEM 1986).Based on mixture
Chapter 7-Ongoing work and needed proportioning,includingselection of concreteconstituents,
developments, p. 365.1 R-36 knownmaterialproperties,expectedserviceenvironment,
7.1-Introduction
structuraldetailing(such as concretecover),construction
7.2-Designing for durability methods, projected loading history, andthe definition of end-
of-life, the service can life be predicted and concrete witha rea-
Chapter &References, p. 365.1 R-37 sonable assurance of meeting the design service life can be
8.1-Referenced standards and reports
specified (Jubb 1992, Clifton and Knab 1989). The acceptance
8.2-Cited references of advanced materials, such as high-performance concrete, can
depend on life-cycle cost analyses that consider predictions of
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION their increasedservice life.
1 -1-Background
Service-life concepts forbuildings and structures date Methodologies are being developed that predict the service
back to when early builders found that certain materials and life of existingconcrete structures. To predict the service life
designs lasted longer than others (Davey 1961). Throughout of existing concrete structures, informationis required on the
history, service-lifepredictions of structures, equipment, and present condition of concrete, rates of degradation, past and
other components were generally qualitative and empirical. future loading, and definition of the end-of-life (Clifton
The understanding of the mechanisms and kineticsof many 1991). Based on remaining life predictions, economic deci-
degradationprocesses of concrete hasformed a basisfor sions can be made on whether or not a structure should be
making quantitative predictions of the service life of struc- repaired, rehabilitated, or replaced.
tures and components madeof concrete. In additionto actual Repair and rehabilitation are often used interchangeably.
or potential structural collapse, many other factors can gov- The first step of each of these processes should be to address
ern the service life of a concrete structure. For example, ex- the cause of degradation. The distinction between rehabilita-
cessive operating costs can lead toa structure’s replacement. tion and repair is that rehabilitation includes the process of
This document reports onthese service-life factors, for both modifying a structure to a desired useful condition, whereas
new and existing concrete structures and components. repair does not change the structural function.
The terms “durability” and “service life”are often errone- To predict the service life of concrete structures or ele-
ously interchanged.The distinction between the two terms is ments, end-of-life should be defined. For example, end-of-
evident when their definitions, as given in ASTM E 632, are life can be defined as:
compared: Structural safety is unacceptable due to material degra-
Durability is thecapability of maintaining theserviceabil- dation or exceeding the designload-carrying capacity;
ity of a product, component, assembly, or construction over
Severe material degradation, such as corrosion of steel
a specified time. Serviceability is viewed as the capacity of
reinforcement initiated when diffusing chloride ions
the above to perform the function(s) for which they are de-
attain the threshold corrosion concentration at the
signed andconstructed.
reinforcement depth;
Service life (of building componentor material) isthe pe-
riod of time after installation (or in the case of concrete, Maintenance requirements exceedavailableresource
limits;
placement) during which all the properties exceed themini-
mum acceptablevalues whenroutinelymaintained.Three Aesthetics becomeunacceptable; or
types of service life have been defined (Sommerville 1986). Functional capacity of the structure is no longer suffi-
Technical service life isthe time in service until a defined un- cient for a demand, such as a football stadium with a
acceptable stateis reached, suchas spalling of concrete, safety deficient seating capacity.

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 STDwACI 3bS.LR-ENGL 2000 Obb2947 05492913 L b 5 W
SERVICE-LIFE
PREDICTION-STATE-OF-THE-ART
REPORT 365.1R-3

, Essentially all decisions concerning the definition of end- dition to material selection and proportioning to meet con-
of-life are combined with human safety and economic con- crete strength requirements, a conscious effort needs to be
siderations. In most cases, the condition, appearance, or ca- made to design and detail pavements and bridges for long-
pacity of a structure can be upgraded toan acceptable level; term durability (Sommerville 1986). Amoreholistic ap-
however, costs associated with the upgrade can be prohibi- proach is necessary for designing concrete structures based
tive. Guidance on making such decisions is included in this on service-life considerations. This chapter addresses envi-
report. ronmental and structural loading considerations, as well as
their interaction, and design and construction influences on
1.P-Scope the service life of structures.
This report begins with an overview of important factors
controlling the service life of concrete, including past and 2.2-Environmental considerations
current design of structures; concrete materials issues; field Design of reinforced concrete structuresto ensure adequate
practices involved withplacing, consolidating, and curing of durability is a complicated process. Service life depends on
concrete; and in-service stresses induced by degradation structural design and detailing, mixture proportioning, concrete
processesandmechanical loads. Methodologiesused to production and placement, construction methods, and mainte-
evaluate the structural condition of concrete structures and nance. Also, changes in use, loading, and environment are im-
the condition and properties of in-service concrete materials portant.Becausewaterorsomeotherfluidisinvolved in
are presented. Methods are reviewed for predicting the ser- almost every form of concrete degradation, concrete perme-
vice life of concrete, including comparative methods, useof ability is important.
accelerated aging (degradation) tests, application of mathe- The process of chemical and physical deteriorationof con-
matical modeling andsimulation, and application of reliabil- crete with time or reduction in durability is generally depen-
ity and stochastic concepts. This is followed by a discussion dent on the presence and transport of deleterious substances
of relationships between economics and the life of struc- through concrete,* and the magnitude, frequency,effect and of
tures, such as when it is more economicalto replace a struc- applied loads. Figure2.1 (CEB 1992) presents the relationship
ture than torepair or rehabilitate. Examples are described in between the conceptsof concrete durability and performance.
which service-life techniques are applicable to concrete The figure shows that the combined transportation of heat,
structures or structural components. Finally, needed devel- moisture, and chemicals, both within the concrete and in ex-
opments to improve the reliability of service-life predictions change with the surrounding environment, and the parameters
are presented. controlling the transport mechanisms constitute the principal
elements of durability. The rate, extent, and effect of fluid
1.3-Document use transport are largely dependent on the concrete pore structure
This document can assist in applying available methods (size and distribution), presence of cracks, and microclimateat
and tools to predict service life of existing structures and the concrete surface. The primary mode of transport in un-
provide actions that can be taken at the design or construc- cracked concrete is through the bulk cement paste pore struc-
tion stage to increase service life of new structures.
tureandthetransitionzone(interfacialregionbetweenthe
particles of coarse aggregate and hydrated cement paste). The
CHAPTER 2"ENVIRONMENT, DESIGN, AND physical-chemicalphenomenaassociatedwithfluidmove-
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
2.1-Introduction ment through porous solids is controlled by solid's
the perme-
Reinforced concrete structures have been and continue to ability
(penetrability).
Although
coefficient
the of
be designed in accordance with national or international con- permeability of concrete depends primarily on the w/cm and
sensus codesand standardssuch as ACI 3 18, Eurocode 2, and maximum aggregatesize, it is also influenced by age, consol-
Comité Euro International du Béton(1993).The codesare de- idation, curing temperature,drying, and the addition of chem-
veloped and based on knowledge acquired in research and icalormineral admixtures. Concreteisgenerallymore
testing laboratories, and supplemented by field experience. permeable than cement paste due to the presence of microc-
Although present design procedures for concrete are domi- racks in the transition zone betweenthe cement paste and ag-
nated by analytical determinationsbased on strength princi- gregate (Mehta 1986). Table 2.1 presents chloride diffusion
ples,designs are increasinglybeingrefinedtoaddress and permeability results obtained from the 19 mm maximum
durability requirements (for example, resistance to chloride size crushed limestone aggregate mixtures presented in Table
ingress and improved freezing-and-thawing resistance). In- 2.2.?Additional information on the types of transport process-
herent with design calculations and construction documents es important with respect to the various aspects of concrete du-
developed in conformance with these codes is a certain level rability,suchassimplediffusion,diffusionplusreaction,
of durability,such as requirementsfor concrete cover to pro- imbibition(capillarysuction),andpermeation, is available
tect embedded steel reinforcement under aggressiveenviron-
mental conditions. Although the vast majority of reinforced 'Absorption is the process by which a liquid is drawn into and tends to fill perme-
concrete structureshave met and continue to meet theirfunc- ahle p r e s in a porous solid body; also the increue in mass of a porous solid body
resulting from thepenetration of a liquid into its permeable pores. Permeability is
tionaland performance requirements, numerousexamples defined as the ease with which a fluid can flow through a solid. Diffusion isthe move-
ment of one medium through another.
can be cited wherestructures,such as pavements and bridges, 'The results presented are for this testing method. and would be somewhat different
have not exhibitedthe desired durabilityor service life. In ad- if another testing method had been used.

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 STD=ACI 365.1R-ENGL 2000 U 0662949 0549291 O T 1 m
365.1R-4 AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

Suunural k i y
- Matends
DURABILITY
EXeCUlic4l curing
* Form Concrete * Workmanship Moisture
Detailing * Reinforcement Heat

f i f t
I I
Nature and Distribution of P a r *
4 I
I TNLCPOÆ
Mechanisms I
I I I I
J* Dneriœauon

1 I
I
t II I
I
e
+ ' COmnlOn
I

I
I I1

PERFORMANCE
I 4
SlUfFC
"J Condium
I

Scrviccability

* Microcracks can also be included under this heading.

Fig. 2.1-Relationshipsbetween the concepts of concretedurability and pegormance
(CEB 1992).

Table 2.1-Chloride transport and permeability results for selected concretes*

no! I I
MixtureCuretime,
daw
1
Rapid test for permeability
to Cl-, 3% NaCl solution,
total charge,
Coulombs
44 0.013 -II 37 8.3
1
7 1 65 0.013 -II I 29 I 7.5
1 942 0.017 -II 28 9. I
2
7 852 0.022 -II 33 8.8
I 3897 0.062 0.030 130 I I .3
3
7 3242 0.058 0.027 I20 11.3
1 5703 O. 103 0.560 I20 12.4
4 '
7 4315 0.076 0.200 12.5 I70
I 591 1 0.104 0.740 200 13.0
5
7 4526 0.077 0.230 I50 12.7

6
1 ) 7065 o. I12 I 4.100 I 270 I 13.0
7 1 5915 0.085 I 0.860 I 150 I 13.0
'Whiting, 1988.
'Refer to Table 2.2 for description of mixtures.
*Average of three samples taken at depths from 2 to 40 m m
OTOconvert from Darcys to m*, multiply by 9.87 x IO".
"Permeabilitytoo small to measure.

elsewhere (Lawrence 1991, Pommersheim and Clifton 1990, are generally handled througha specification that addresses
Kropp and Hilsdorf1995). the concrete mixture (for example strength, w/cm, and ce-
Two additionalfactors are considered with respect tofab- ment content), and details (such as concrete cover), as dictat-
rication of durable concrete structures: the environmental- ed by the anticipated exposure. Summarized in the following
exposure conditionand specific designrecommendations paragraphs are descriptions of theprimarychemical and
pertaining to the expected form of aggressive chemical or physical degradation processes that can adversely impact the
physical attack (for example, designing the structure to pre- durability of reinforced concrete structures and guidelines
vent accumulationof water). Exposureconditions or severity for minimizing or eliminating potential consequences of

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 ~~

STDmACI 365.lR-ENGL 2000 m 0662949 054929Z T38 m

SERVICE-LIFE PREDICTION-STATE-OF-THE-ART REPORT 365.1 R-5

Table 2.2-Concrete mixture proportions and characteristics*

Quantities, kg/m3
Coarse Fine Mixture Air
no. Cement
aggregate
aggregate
Water Admixture(s)+ w/cm Slump, cm content. %
I 446 152 1032 132 I .6

*Whiting. 1988.
'A = Microsilica fume at 59.4 kg/m3;B = Type F high-range water reducer at 25 rnlkg; C = Type F high-range water reducer at
13 mlkg; and D = Type A water reducer at 2 ml/kg.
*For Mixture I expressed as ratio of water to total cementitious material content.

these degradationmechanisms.Combined effects where are generally basedon strength or exposure conditions (AC1
more than one of these processes can besimultaneously oc- 318, AC1 201.1R, AC1 301, AC1 350R, AC1 357R).AC1
curring are also briefly addressed. Available methods and 224R providescrack-control guidelines andAC1 515.1R
strategies for predictionof the service life of a new or exist- provides information on barriersystems for concrete.
ing reinforcedconcrete structure with respect tothese mech- 2.2.1.2 Delayed ettringiteformation-Structures under-
anisms are described in Chapter 4. going delayed ettringite formation (DEF) can exhibit expan-
2.2.1 Chemical attack-Chemical attack involves the al- sion and cracking. The distress often is attributed to
teration of concrete through chemical reaction with either excessive steam curing that prevents the formation or causes
the cement paste, coarse aggregate, or embedded steel re- decomposition of ettringite that is normally formed during
inforcement. Generally, the attack occurs on the exposed the early hydrationof portland cement. Use of cements with
surface region of the concrete (cover concrete), but with high sulfate contents in which the sulfate has very low solu-
the presence of cracks or prolonged exposure, chemical at- bility can also lead to DEF. In one case where this has been
tack can affect entire structural cross sections. Chemical reported (Mielenz et al. 1995), it was thought that the occur-
causes of deterioration can be grouped into three catego- rence of DEF was due to the sulfate formed in the clinker of
ries (Mehta 1986): the cement being present as anhydrite and as a component of
1 . Hydrolysis of cement paste components by soft water; the silicate phases which are slowlysoluble. Ettringite is the
2 . Cation-exchange reactions between aggressive fluids product of the reaction betweensulfate ions, calcium alumi-
and cement paste; and nates, and water. If structures susceptibleto DEF are later ex-
3. Reactions leading to formation of expansion product. posed to water,ettringite can reformin the pasteas a massive
Results from prolonged chemical attack range from cos- development of needle-like crystals, causing expansive forc-
metic damageto loss of structural section and monolithic be- es that resultin cracking. The extent of development of DEF
havior. Chemical attack of embedded steel reinforcement is dependent on the amount of sulfate available forlate
can also occur. ettringite development in the particular concrete and on the
2.2.1.1 Leaching-Pure water that contains little or no presence of water during the service life. Elevated tempera-
calcium ions, or acidic ground water present in the form of tures also increase the potential fordamage due to DEF. Pre-
dissolved carbon dioxide gas, carbonic acid, or bicarbonate vention or minimization of DEF can be accomplished by
ion, tend to hydrolyzeor dissolve the alkalioxides and calci- lowering the curingtemperature, limiting clinker sulfate lev-
um-containing products resultingin increasing permeability. els, avoiding excessive curing for potentially criticalsulfate
The rateof leaching is dependent on the amount of dissolved to aluminate ratios, preventing exposure to substantial water
salts containedin the percolatingfluid, rate of permeation of in service, andusingproper air entrainment. Neither the
the fluid through the cement paste matrix, and temperature. mechanismsinvolved in DEF northeirpotential conse-
The rate of leaching can be loweredby minimizing the per- quences relative to concrete durability are completely under-
meation of water through the concrete (interconnected capil- stood. DEF leads to a degradation in concrete mechanical
lary cavities) by using low-permeabilityconcretesand properties, such as compressive strength, and can promote
barriers. Factors relatedto the productionof low-permeability increased permeability. A detailed review of over 300 publi-
concretes include low w/cm, adequate cement content, poz- cations dealing with DEF is available (Day 1992).
zolanic additions, and proper compaction and curing condi- 2.2.1.3 SuEfateattack-Sulfatespresent in the aggre-
tions. Polymeric modification can also be used to provide gates, soils, ground water, andseawater react with the calci-
low permeability concretes. Similarly, attention should be um hydroxide[Ca(OH)2] and the hydratedtricalcium
given to aggregate size and gradation, thermal and drying aluminate (C3A)to form gypsum and ettringite, respectively.
shrinkage strains, avoiding loads that produce cracks, and These reactions can result in deleterious expansion and pro-
designing and detailing to minimize exposure to moisture. duce concretes with reduced strength because of decomposi-
Requirements in codes and suggested guidelines for w/cm tionandexpansion of the hydratedcalcium aluminates.

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 Increased resistance of structures to sulfate attack is provided low, by adding lithium salts, or by diluting the reactive ag-
by fabricating them using concrete thatis dense, haslow per- gregate with less-susceptiblematerial.
meability, and incorporates sulfate-resistant cement. Because 2.2.1.6 Steelreinforcement corrosion-Corrosion of
it is the C3A that is attacked by sulfates, the concrete vulnera- conventional steel reinforcement in concrete isan electro-
bility can be reduced by using cements low in C3A, such as chemical process that forms either local pitting or general sur-
ASTM C 150 TypesII and V sulfate-resisting cements. Under face corrosion, Both water and oxygen must be present for
extreme conditions, supersulfated slag cements assuch ASTM corrosion to occur. In concrete, reinforcing steel with ade-
C 595 Types VPor VS can be used. Also, improved sulfate re- quate cover should not be susceptible to corrosion because
sistance canbeattained byusing admixtures, such as poz- thehighlyalkaline conditions present within the concrete
zolans and blast-furnace slag. Requirements and guidelines for (pH>12) cause a passive iron-oxide film to form on the steel
the useof sulfate-resistant concretes are based onexposure se- surface. Carbonation and the presence of chloride ions, how-
verity and are provided in AC1 3 18 and AC1 201.2R. The re- ever, can destroy the protective film. Corrosion of steel rein-
quirementsareprovided in terms of cementtype,cement forcement also can be accelerated by the presence of stray
content, maximumw/cm, and minimum compressive strength, electrical currents.
depending upon the potential for distress. Penetrating carbon dioxide (COZ) from the environment
2.2.1.4 Acid and base attack-Acids can combine with reduces the pH of concrete as calcium and alkali hydroxides
the calcium compoundsin the hydrated cement paste to form are converted into carbonates. The penetration of CO, gen-
soluble materials that are readily leached from the concrete erally is a slow process, dependent on the concrete perme-
to increase porosity and permeability. The main factors de- ability, the concrete moisture content, the CO, content, and
termining the extent of attack areoftype acid, and its concen- ambient relative humidity (RH). Carbonation can be acceler-
tration and pH.Protectivebarriers are recommendedto ated by the presence of cracks or porosity of the concrete.
provide resistance against acid attack. Concretes that have low permeability and have been proper-
As hydratedcement paste is an alkaline material, concrete ly cured provide thegreatest resistance to carbonation. Also,
made with chemically stable aggregates is resistant to bases. concrete cover over the embedded steel reinforcement can be
Sodium and potassiumhydroxides in high concentrations increased to delay the onset of corrosion resulting from the
(r20%), however, can cause concrete to disintegrate. AC1 effects of carbonation.
5 15.1R providesa list of the effects of chemicals on concrete. The presence of chloride ions is probably the majorcause
Under mild chemical attack, a concrete with low w/cm (low of corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement. Chlorideions
permeability) can have suitable resistance. Because corro- are common in nature and small amounts canbe unintention-
sive chemicals can attack concrete only in the presence of ally contained in the concrete mixture ingredients. Potential
water, designs to minimizeattack by bases might also incor- external sourcesof chlorides include those from accelerating
porate protective barrier systems. Guidelines on the use of admixtures (for example, calcium chloride), application of
barrier systemsare also provided in AC1 515.1R. deicing salts, or exposure to seawater or spray. Maximum
2.2.1.5 Alkali-aggregate reactions-Expansion and permissible chloride-ion contents, as well as minimum con-
cracking leading to loss of strength, stiffness, and durability crete cover requirements, are provided in codes and guides
of concrete can result from chemical reactions involving al- (CEB 1993, AC1 318, AC1 222R.andAC1 201.2R). Two
kali ions from portland cement, calcium and hydroxyl ions, methods are most commonly used for determination of chlo-
and certain siliceous constituents in aggregates. Expansive ride contents in concrete: acid soluble test (total chlorides),
reactions can also occur as a result of interaction of alkali and water-soluble test. The chloride ion limits are presented
ions and carbonate constituents. Three requirements are in terms of type of member (prestressedor conventionally re-
necessary for disintegration due to alkali-aggregate reac- inforced) and exposure condition (dry or moist). Becausewa-
tions: 1) presence of sufficient alkali; 2) availability of ter, oxygen, and chloride ions are important factors in the
moisture; and 3) the presence of reactive silica, silicate, or corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement,concrete perme-
carbonate aggregates. Controlling alkali-aggregate reac- ability is thekey to controllingthe process.Concrete mixtures
tions at the design stage is done by avoiding deleteriously should be designed to ensure low permeability by using low
reactive aggregate materials by using preliminarypetro- w/cm, adequate cementitous materialscontent, proper aggre-
graphic examinations and by using materials with proven gate size and gradation, and mineral admixtures. Methodsof
service histories. ASTMC 586 provides a method for assess- excluding external sources of chloride ions from existing con-
ing potential alkali reactivity of carbonate aggregates. AC1 crete, detailed in AC1 222R, include using waterproofmem-
201.2R presentsa list of known deleteriouslyreactive aggre- branes, polymer impregnation, and overlay materials. AC1
gate materials. Additional procedures for mitigating alkali- 222R also notes that enhanced corrosion resistance can be
silica reactions include pozzolans, using low-alkalicements provided by corrosion-resistant steels, such as stainless steel
(that is, restricting the cement alkali contents to less than or stainless steel cladding; application of sacrificial or non-
0.6% by weight sodium oxide [Na20] equivalent), adding sacrificial coatings, suchas fusion-bonded epoxy powder; use
lithium salts, and applying barriers to restrict or eliminate of chemical admixtures, such as corrosion inhibitors during
moisture. The latter procedure is generally the first step in the constructionstage; and cathodic protection, either during
addressing affectedstructures. The alkali-carbonatereaction the constructionstage or later in life. Additional information
can becontrolled by keeping the alkali content of the cement on barriers that canbe used to enhance corrosion resistance is

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~ ~
 STD-AC1 3 b S - L R - E N G L 2000 m 0662949 0549294 800 .S
SERVICE-LIFE
PREDICTION-STATE-OF-THE-ART
REPORT 365.1R-?

provided in AC1 5 15.1R. The resistance of structurescan also evaporation; however, if the sealer is not properly selected
be increasedby designing and detailing them to promote the and applied, it cancause the moisture content in the concrete
runoff of moisture. Maintenance effortsto minimize a struc- to increase, and not preventthe occurrence of crystallization.
ture's exposure to chlorides and other aggressive chemicals 2.2.2.2 Freezing-and-thawing attack-concrete, when
should also be instituted. in a saturated or near-saturated condition, is susceptible to
2.2.1.7 Prestressing steel corrosion-High-strength damage during freezing-and-thawing cycles produced by
steel, such as that used in pre- or post-tensioning systems, the natural environment or industrial processes. One hy-
corrodes in the same manneras mild steel. In addition, it can pothesis is that the damage is caused by hydraulic pressure
degrade due to corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, generated in the capillary cavities of the cement paste in a crit-
and hydrogen embrittlement.Microorganisms can also cause ically saturated condition as the water freezes. Factors control-
corrosion by creating local environments conducive to the ling the resistanceof concrete to freezing-and-thawing action
corrosion process through the intakeof available food prod- include air entrainment (sizeand spacing of air voids), perme-
ucts and production of highly acidic waste products in the ability, strength,and degree of saturation. Selectionof durable
environment around the reinforcement. Although corrosion aggregate materials is also important. Guidelinesfor produc-
of prestressing steel can be either highly localized or uni- tion of freezing-and-thawing resistant concrete are provided in
form, most prestressingcorrosion-relatedfailures have been AC1 201.2R and AC1 318 in terms of total air content as a
the result of localized attack resulting in pitting, stress cor- function of maximum aggregatesize and exposure condition.
rosion, hydrogen embrittlement, or a combination of these. Requirements for maximum permissible w/cm are also provid-
Pitting isan electrochemicalprocess thatresults in local pen- ed, based on the concrete cover and presence of aggressive
etrations into the steel to reduce the cross section so that itis agents, such as deicing chemicals. Because thedegree of sat-
incapable of supporting its load. Stress-corrosion cracking uration is important, concrete structures should be designed
results in the brittle fracture of a normally ductile metal or al- and detailed to promote good drainage.ASTM C 666 is used
loy understress (tension orresidual) in specific corrosive en- to indicate the effects of variations in the properties of con-
vironments. Hydrogen embrittlement, frequently associated crete on the resistance to internal damage due to freezing-
with exposure to hydrogen sulfide, occurs when hydrogen and-thawing cycles. Ranking concrete according to resis-
atoms enter the metallattice and significantly reduce its duc- tance to freezing and thawing(critical dilatation) for defined
tility. Hydrogen embrittlement can also occur as a result of curing and conditioning procedurescan be accomplished
improper application of cathodic protection to the post-ten- through ASTMC 67 l . This test allows the user to specify the
sioning system. Due to the magnitude of the load in the post- curing history of the specimen and the exposure conditions
tensioning systems, the tolerance for corrosion attack is less that most nearly match the expected service conditions. An
than for mild steel reinforcement. Corrosion protection is estimate of the susceptibility of concrete aggregates for
provided at installation by either encapsulating the post-ten- known or assumed field environmental conditions is provid-
sioning steelwith microcrystallinewaxes compounded with ed in ASTMC 682. The effect of mixture proportioning, sur-
organic corrosion inhibitors within plastic sheaths or metal face treatment, curing, or other variables on the resistance of
conduits (unbounded tendons), or by portlandcement concrete to scaling can be evaluated using AST" C 672.
(grouted tendons). Degradation of prestressing steel iscriti- These proceduresareprimarilyfor comparative purposes
cal because of its potential effects on monolithic behavior, and are not intendedto provide a quantitative measure of the
tensile capacity, and ductility. length of service that canbe expected froma specific type of
2.2.2 Physical attack-Physical attack generally involves concrete. Also, not all testing methods include criteria or
the degradation of concrete due to environmentalinfluences. suggestions for acceptance. Structures constructed without
It primarily manifests itself in two forms: surface wear and adequateair entrainment can have an increasedrisk for
cracking (Mehta and Gerwick 1982). Concrete damage due freezing-and-thawingdamage.
to overload is not consideredin this document but can lead 2.2.2.3 Abrasion, erosion, and cavitation-Abrasion,
to loss of durability because theresulting cracks can provide erosion, and cavitation of concrete results in progressive loss
direct pathways for entry of deleterious chemicals (for ex- of surface material. Abrasion generally involves dry attri-
ample, exposure of steel reinforcementto chlorides). tion, while erosion involvesa fluid containing solid particles
2.2.2.1 Salt crystallization-Salts can produce cracks in in suspension. Cavitation causes loss of surface material
concrete through development of crystal growth pressures through the formationof vapor bubbles and their suddencol-
that arise from causes, such as repeated crystallizationdue to lapse. The abrasion and erosion resistance of concrete is af-
evaporation of salt-laden water in the pores. Structures in fectedprimarily by thestrength of the cementpaste, the
contactwith fluctuating water levels orin contact with abrasion resistance of the fine and coarse aggregate materi-
ground water containing large quantities of dissolved salts als, and finishing and curing. Special toppings, such as dry-
(calcium sulfate [Caso,], sodium chloride [NaCl], sodium shake coats of cement and ironaggregate on the concrete sur-
sulfate [Na2S04])are susceptible to this typeof degradation, face, canbeusedto increase abrasion resistance. If un-
in addition to possible chemical attack, either directly orby checked, abrasion or erosion can progress fromcosmetic to
reaction with cementor aggregate constituents. Oneap- structural damage over a fairly short time frame. Guidelines
proach to the problem of salt crystallization is to applyseal- for development of abrasion and erosion-resistant concrete
ers or barriers to either prevent wateringress or subsequent structures are provided inAC1 201.2R and AC1 210R, re-

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 spectively.Concrete that resists abrasion and erosion can still a more permeable concrete resulting in faster chloride penetra-
suffer severe loss of surface material due to cavitation. The tion and diminished service life.
best way to guard againstthe effects of cavitation is to elim- Another important design parameter is the definition of
inate its cause(s). structural loads. Minimum design loads and load combina-
2.2.2.4 Thermaldamage-Elevated temperature and tions are prescribed by legally adopted building codes (for
thermal gradients affect concrete’s strength and stiffness. In example, AC1 3 18). There is a balance between selectionof
addition, thermal exposure can result in cracking or, when a design to meetminimum loading conditions and selection
the rate of heating is high and concrete permeability low, sur- of a more conservative design that results in higher initial
face spalling can occur. Resistance of concrete to daily tem- price but can provide lower life-cycle cost. The longevity of
perature fluctuations provided
is by embedded steel a structure designed to meet minimum loads prescribed by
reinforcement as described inAC1 318. A design-oriented the buildingcode or responsible agency can be more suscep-
approach for considering thermal loads on reinforced con- tible to degradation than the moreconservative design. This
crete structures is provided in AC1 349.1R. Limited informa- is consideredfurther in Section 2.4.
tion on the design of temperature-resistant concrete 2.3.1 Background on code development-While AASHTO
structures is available (AC1 216R, AC1 SP-80). AC1 349 and (199 1) specifies a 75-year design
life for highway bridges, AC1
AC1 359 generally handleelevated temperature applications 318 makes no specific life-span requirements. Other codes,
by requiring special provisions, such as cooling, to limit the such as Eurocode, are based on a design life of50 years, but
concrete temperature to a maximumof 65 C, except for local not all environmentalexposures are considered. AC1 3 18 ad-
areas where temperatures can increase to 93 C.At that tem- dresses serviceability throughstrengthrequirements and
perature, thereis the potentialfor DEF to occur if concrete is limitations on service load conditions. Examples of service-
also exposed to moisture. These codes, however, do allow load limitations include midspan deflectionsof flexural mem-
higher temperaturesif tests have been performed to evaluate bers,allowable crack widths,andmaximum service level
the strength reduction, and the design capacity is computed stresses in prestressed concrete. Other conditions affecting
using the reducedstrength. Because the response of concrete service lifeare applied to the concrete and the reinforcement
to elevated temperature is generally the result of moisture material requirementsand detailing. These include an upper
change effects, guidelines for development of temperature- limit on the concrete w/cm, a minimum entrained-air con-
resistant reinforced concrete structures need to address fac- tent depending upon exposure conditions, and concrete
tors, such as type and porosity of aggregate, permeability, cover over the reinforcement. Most international design
moisture state, and rate of heating. codes and guidelines have undergonesimilar changes in the
2.2.3 Combined effects-Degradation of concrete, particu- past 30 years. For example, concretes exposed to freezing
larly in its advanced stages, is seldom due to a single mecha- and thawing in a moist condition or to deicing chemicals,
nism. The chemical and physical causes of degradation are AC1 318-63 allowed a maximum w/cmof 0.52 and air en-
generally so intertwined that separating the cause from the ef- trainment, while AC1 318-89 allows a maximum w/cmof
fect often becomes impossible (Mehta 1986). Limited infor- 0.45 with air entrainment. In 1963, an appendix was addedto
mation is available relative to the assessment of the remaining AC1 318 permitting strength design. Then in 1971, strength
service life of concrete exposed to the combined effects of design was movedinto the body ofAC1 318, and allowable-
freezing-and-thawing degradation (surface scaling) and cor- stress designwasplacedinto the appendix. The useof
rosion of steel reinforcement (Fagerlundet al. 1994). strength design provided more safety and it was possibly
more cost-effective to have designs with a known, uniform
2.3-Design and structural loading considerations factor of safety against collapse, rather than designs with a
Designers of a new project involving concrete structures uniform, knownfactor of safety against exceeding an allow-
address service life by defining several critical concrete pa- able stress. Realizing that design by strength limits alone
rameters. These include items suchas w/cm, admixtures, re- could leadto some unsuitable conditions under service loads,
inforcement protection (cover or use of epoxy coating), and service-load limitations listed above were adopted in AC1
curing methods. The designer also verifies numerous ser- 318. The service-load limitations are based on engineering
viceability criteria, such as deflection and crack width. Other experience and not on anyrigorous analysis of theeffects of
factors to promote durability are also addressed at this stage these limitations on theservice life of the structure.
(for example, drainage to minimize moisture accumulation 23.2 Load and resistance factors-Strength-design meth-
and joint details). ods consider the loads (demands) applied tothe structure and
Many of the parameters importantto service lifeare estab the resistance of the structure (capacity) to be two separate
lished by AC13 18. Error, omission, or improper identification and independentconditions. The premise is that the strength
of these parameters are design deviations that can compromiseof the structure should exceed the effects of the applied
construction. For example, a structure’s exposure rating is ei- loads. Symbolically thiscan be written as
ther deemed severe due to vehicles carrying salted water into
a parking garage, or moderate, assuming that salt water pro- Capacity > demand (over thedesired service life).
vided from other sources is marginal. Because that decision af-
fects the AC1 318 required w/cm, it affects the price of the Formulation of this approach is done in two steps. First,
concrete. Improper selection can lead to
of the exposure rating the computed service loads are increased to account for un-

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 certainties in the computation. Second, the strength of the particular external influence requires engineering interpreta-
structure is reducedby a resistance factor that reflects varia- tion. The effect of external influences, such as exposure or cur-
tions in material strengths and tolerances andalso the effects ing conditions, on the changesin concrete properties has been
of errors in predictive formulas and the possible conse- reported(Neville 1991; Sturrup et al. 1987; Avram 1981;
quence of failure. Price 1951).Guidance for prediction of change due to external
The load and resistance factor calibration process deals ex- influences is found in AC1357R3,AC1 209R, and AC1 215R.
clusively with strength calculations. Service life, other than as As noted previously, the deleterious effects of environmen-
affected by cover and concrete strength, generally is not a tally related processeson the service life of concrete are con-
variable in the calibration process. Consequently, the selec- trolled by two major factors: the presence of moisture and the
tion of load andresistance factors, as currently formulated, of- transport mechanism controlling movement of moisture or
fers no particular insight into the long-term performance of aggressive agents (gas or liquid) within the concrete. The
the structure. When AASHTO specifies a 75-year servicelife, transport mechanism is controlled by the microstructure of
the primary concern is fatigue effects on the reinforcement. the concrete, whichin turn is a function of several other fac-
AASHTO’s service life is tied to a total number of vehicle tors suchas age, curing, and constituents. The microstructure
passes. This leads to limitations on service load stresses in the comprises a network of pores and cracks in the concrete. The
reinforcement but not on the design load and resistance fac- pore characteristics are a function of the original quality of
tors. the concrete, while cracking occurs in the concrete due to ex-
ternal loading as well as internal stresses. Ingress of aggres-
2.4-Interaction of structural load and sive agents is more likely to occur in the cracked region of the
environmental effects concrete than in an uncracked area. It is, therefore, possible
Actions to eliminate or minimize any adverse effects re- that cracks occumng due to the service exposures affect the
sulting from environmental factors and designing structural remaining service life of the concrete. Mercury-intrusion po-
components to withstand the loads anticipated whilein ser- rosimetry is one method that determines pore-size distribu-
vice do not necessarily provide a means to predict the ser- tioninconcrete.Visualandmicroscopictechniquescan
vice life of a structure under actual field conditions (CEB
determine the presenceand extent of cracking in concrete.
1992; Jacob 1965). The load-carryingcapacity of a structure
is directly related to the integrity of the main constituents A quantitative measurement of the concrete microstruc-
during its service life. Therefore, a quantitative measure of ture canbe considered in terms of permeability. Models have
the changes in the concrete integrity with time provide a been proposed to indicate the relationship between micro-
means toestimate the service life of a structure. structure and permeability, however,they require validation.
Most of the techniques for measuring concrete permeability
Load tests on building components can be used to deter-
are comparativeand a standard test method does not exist. At-
mine the effect of different design andconstruction methods
tempts have been made to quantify pore-size characteristics
and to predict the ability of the structure to withstand applied
loads. The load-caving capacity of components degraded from measurementsof permeability or vice versa (Roy et al.
over time due to environmental effects requires additional 1992;Hooton 1986). Standard methods have also been devel-
engineering analysis and judgment to determine their ability oped for testing nonsteady-state water flow (Kropp and Hils-
to withstand service loads. Often these evaluations are car- dorf 1995). Extensive development work isneeded before
ried out at great expense, but they only provide short-term such techniques can be applied to predict the remaining ser-
information and cannotadequatelypredict the long-term vice lifeof a structure. Researchers have also proposed the de-
serviceability of the concrete (Kennedy 1958). Also, load velopmentofindicesforvariousdegradationprocesses
tests can cause damage, such as cracking, that can lead to a (Basson and Addis 1992). Periodic measurements of water,
reduction in durability and service life. gas, chloride permeability,or depth of carbonation are means
Many researchers have tried to quantify the environmen- of quantifying the progressive change in the microstructureof
tally induced changes by measuring the physical properties concrete in service (Philipose et al. 1991; Ludwig 1980). This
of concrete specimens after subjecting them to various com- type of an approach has been used to predict the service life of
binations of load and exposure (Woods 1968; Sturrup and dams subject to leaching of the cement paste by percolating
Clendenning 1969;Gerwick 1981).Most of the physical and soft water (Temper 1932). The rate of lime loss was measured
mechanical propertiesare determined using relatively small to estimate the dam service life.
specimensfabricated in the laboratory or sampledfrom
structures. The properties measured reflect the conditionof 2.5-Construction-related considerations
the specimens tested rather than the structure in the fieldbe- Construction plans and specifications affect fabrication of
cause the test specimen and structure often are exposed to reinforced concrete structures, which in turn affects service-
somewhat different environments.Quantifying the influence life performance. They establish a basic performance level for
of environmental effects on the abilityof the structure to re- the structure. Durability criteria, crack widths, concrete cover,
sist the applied loadsand todetermine the rate of degradation and stress levels are established during the design phaseand
as a result is a complex issue. The application of laboratory are reflected in the plans and specifications. Also, the con-
results to an actual structure to predict its response under a struction standardsand approval requirements are defined.

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 The ways and means of construction are the contractor’s viation from these standards can resultin service-life compli-
responsibility.Mostoften,the construction methodsem- cations suchas those listed as follows.
ployed meet both the intent and the details of the plans and
specifications. In some instances, however, the intentof the
. . .
rvlce-hfe
plans and specifications are not met, either through misun- Reinforcement outof Cracking due to inability to
derstanding, error, neglect, or intentional misrepresentation. specification support design loads.
With the exception of intentional misrepresentation,each of
these conditions can be discussed through an examinationof Deficient cover Accelerated corrosion
the construction process. Service-life impairment can result potential, possible bond
during any of the four stages of construction: material pro- failure, reduced fire
curement and qualification, initial fabrication, finishing and resistance.
curing, and sequential construction. With the exception of
materialprocurement and qualification,addressedunder Excessive cover Potential reduction in capacity,
Section 2.3, each stage and thecorresponding service life im- increased deflection,
pacts are discussed as follows. increased crack width at
2.5.1 Initialfabrication-Initial fabrication is defined as all surface, decreased corrosion
the constructionup to and including placement of the concrete. risk.
Thisworkincorporatessoil/subgradepreparationandform
placement; reinforcement placement; and concrete material Insufficient bar spacing Inability to properly place
procurement, batching, mixing, delivery, and placement. concrete, leading to
2.5.1.1 SoiVsubgrade preparation and form phcement- reduced bond, voids,
Improper soiVsubgrade preparation can lead to excessive or increased deflection and
differentialsettlement.Thiscanresult inmisalignment of cracking, increased corrosion
components or concretecracking.Initialpreparationand risk.
placement of the formwork not only establishes thegross di-
mensions of the structure but also influences certain details of Improper tendon duct Improper strains due to
reinforcement and structure performance. Examples of the im- placement prestress deviations.
pact of these factors on service-life performance are summa-
rized as follows.
Contaminated grout or Prestressing system
improper use of corrosion degradation.
inhibitor
Improper soil/subgrade Structural damage such as
propagation cracking, component 2.5.1.3 Concrete batching, mixing, and delivety-con-
movement or misalignment. Crete can be batched either on the project site or at a remote
batch plant and transported to thesite. Activitiesinfluencing
Formwork too wide Excess concrete weight, theservice-life performance include batchingerrors, im-
potential long-term deflection, proper equipment operation, or improper preparation.
or excessive cracking. Many concrete batch operations incorporate computer-
controlled weight and batching equipment. Sources of error
Formwork too narrow or Decreases structural capacity, are lack of equipment calibration or incorrect mixture selec-
shallow excess deflections, or cracking. tion. Routine maintenance and calibrationof the equipment
ensures proper batching. Because plants typically have tens
Formwork too deep Probably none,if structural to hundredsof mixture proportions, batching the wrong mix-
depth increases thenexcess ture is a possibility. Errors, such as omission of air-entrain-
ing admixture, inclusion of excessive water, or low cement
weight canbe compensated by
content, are likelyto have the greatest impact on service life.
excess strength, otherwise
Equipment preparation is the source of more subtle effects.
same as too wide. For example, wash water retained in the drum of a transit mix
truck mixes with newly batchedconcrete to result in a higher
Formwork not in Excess waviness can encroach w/cm than specified. This effect is cumulatively deleterious
alignment on cover, reducing bond and to service life through lower strength, increased shrinkage
increasing potential for cracking, or higher permeability.
corrosion. Ambient temperature, transit time, and admixture control
are some of the factors controllingthe mixture quality in the
2.5.1.2 Steel reinforcementplacement-Tolerances for re- delivery process.AC1 305 and AC1306 specify proper proce-
inforcement placement are givenin AC1 318 and AC1 SP-66. dures to ensure concrete quality. Workability at the time of de-
These documentsare referenced in project specifications.De- livery, as measured by the slump, is also a long-term service

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 life issue.Low slump is often increased by adding water at the joints can resultin bearings seizing up, localized bearing fail-
site. If the total water does not exceed that specified, concrete ures, cracking, crushing of seal materials, accelerated deteri-
integrity and service life will not be reduced.If the additional oration of the superstructure and substructure components,
water increases the total available water above that specified, and unsightly staining of the substructure.
then the increased w/cm can compromise the service life.
2.5.1.4 Concrete pfacement-Proper placement, includ- CHAPTER SIN-SERVICE INSPECTION,
ing consolidation and screeding, is important to the service CONDITION ASSESSMENT, AND REMAINING
life of concrete structures. Lackofproperconsolidation SERVICE LIFE
leads to such thingsas low strength, increased permeability, 3.1-Introduction
loss of bond, and loss of shear or flexural capacity. These in Detection and assessment of the magnitudeand rate of oc-
turn diminishservice life by acceleratingthe response to cor- currence of environmental factor-related degradation are key
rosive environments, increasing deflections, or contributing factors in predicting service life and in maintaining the capa-
to prematurefailures. bility of reinforced concrete structures to meet their opera-
2.5.2 Finishing and curing-Improper finishing or cur- tionalrequirements.Itis desirable to haveanevaluation
ing leads to premature deterioration of the concrete and re- methodology that, given the requireddata, provides the pro-
duction of service life (for example, production of a porous cedures for performing both a current condition assessment
and abrasive cover concrete). The following summarizes and certifying future performance.Such a methodology
common service-life issues affecting slabs and other struc- would integrate service history, material and geometrychar-
acteristics, current damage, structural analyses, and a com-
tures:
prehensive degradation
model. For completeness, the
methodology should also include the capability to evaluate
the roleof maintenance in extending usable lifeor structural
Adding water during Dusting, scaling, blistering,
reliability. Figure 3.1 presents a flow diagramof a methodol-
finish or reworking bleed or premature loss of surface,
ogy proposed as a guide in assessments of safety-relatedcon-
water into surface and loss of surface hardness.
crete structures in nuclear power plants (Naus et al. 1994).
The diagram is an adaptation of a procedure proposed to
Lack of proper curing Excessive shrinkage, lower evaluate thestructuralcondition of buildings(Rewerts
strength, cracking, or curling. 1985). This chapter provides informationto rate the current
condition and assess remaining service life.
Use of calcium chloride Degradation of embedded
reinforcing steel.
3.2-Evaluation of reinforced concrete aging or
degradation effects
A standard for curing concrete that maintains the original Performance of a structure is measured by the physical
service-life design intent has been prepared (AC1 308R). condition andfunctioning of component structural materials.
2.5.3 Sequential construction-Reinforced concrete struc- Tests are conducted on reinforced concrete to assess perfor-
tures are seldom completedin a single construction activity. mance of the structure as a result of (Murphy 1984):
Complementary or sequential constructioncan adversely af- Noncompliance of propertieswith specifications;
fect the service life of the structure if not properly accom-
Inadequacies in placing, compacting, or curing of con-
plished. The followingtwoexamplesillustrate how this
crete;
service-life impairment can occur.
2.5.3.1 Shoring und reshoring-In multiple-story Damage resulting from overload, fatigue, freezing and
buildings, shoring is used to support the formworkfor plac- thawing, abrasion, chemical attack, fire, explosion, or
ing concrete on the next floor. The normal practice is to re- other environmental factors; or
move the shoring when the form is removed and then to Concern about the capacity of the structure.
reshore until the concrete has gained sufficient strength to Testing is also undertaken for the verification of models,
carry the construction loads. Premature form removal leads materials, and environmental parameters used for calculating
to cracking of the affected component. The cracking reduc- the service life in the design phase. The validated or im-
es the stiffness of the slab, increases the initial deflections proved modelsare then usedfor optimization of the building
and the subsequent creep deflections. Even when the con- operation and maintenance.
crete eventually gains its full strength, the cracked member Prediction of the remaining service life of a concrete struc-
has greater deflection than a comparable uncracked mem- ture requires the accumulation of data such as depicted in Ta-
ber, and can be more vulnerable to ingress of hostile envi- ble 3. l . Verification that the structural conditionasisdepicted
ronments. in the construction documents, such as drawings, determina-
2.5.3.2 Joints-Joints are placed in buildings and bridg- tion of physical condition, quantification of applied loads, and
es to accommodate contraction and expansion of the struc- examination of any degradation are important.The questions
ture due to creep, shrinkage, and temperature. Improperly faced in predicting service life are: establishing how much
designed or installed joints can lead to excessive cracking, data should be accumulated, the desired accuracyof the pre-
joint failure, moisturepenetration into the structure, and dictions, available budgets for the predictive effort, as well as
maintenance problems. Water passage through faulty bridge subsequent levelsof inspection, maintenance,and repair.

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 I STRUCTURAL
ASSESSMENT IC O N W E D SERVICE
PLANNlNGANSPECTlON EVALUATIONS
REPAlR AND
I I

EXAM=
DOCUMENTATION
I
I

EXAMINATION
STRUCTURAL

RELIABILITY

- FlELDTESllNG
-j
DEVELOP
ASSESSMENT

ADDITIONAL
INSPECflON f- I YES I
AND
LABORATORY TEST DATA I PRO- I
TESTING REQUIRED
REPARATIONS I
I
STRUCTURAL
I I
ANALYSIS + i I
I I
Fig. 3.1- Concrete component evaluation methodology. Source: Adaptation of a procedure presented in Rewerts 1985.

Table 3.1-Example of types of information needed for service-life assessment*

Conformance of structure to original design
Documentation review
Preliminary site visit
Visual inspection for compliance with construction documents
Pachometer (covermeter) survey to locate and characterize steel reinforcement (for example, size and spacing)
Preliminary analysis
lnsDection for Dresence of deeradation
Visual inspection
Crack survey
Delaminationhpall survey
Chloride survey
Carbonation survey
Sample removal
Laboratorv testine ~~

-Petro=hic studies (for example, aircontent, air-void distributioGnstable &gregates, types of distress, and estimaion of W&)
Chemical studies (for example, chemical constituents of cementitious materials, pH, presence of chemical admixtures, and characteristicsof paste and
aggregates)
Concrete and steel reinforcement material prowties (for example. strength and modulus of elasticity)
Degradation assessment ~~

Current-versus-specified material properties

Concrete absorption and permeability (relative)
Concrete cover (for example, cores, or pachometer or covermeter measurements)
Presence of excessive concrete crack widths, spalling, or delaminations
Depth of chloride penetration and carbonation
Steel reinforcement corrosion activity (for example, half-cell potential measurements, and galvanostatic pulse, fourelectrode. and corrosion probes
Environmental aggressivity (for example, presence of moisture, chlorides, and sulfates)
Structural reanalyses for current conditions
Reanalyses for typical dead and liveloads
Examination of demands from other loads (for example, seismic and wind)
T h i s list is MI a11 indusive.

Chapter 2 indicates that the abilityof a reinforced concrete 3.2.1 Concrete material system-Primary manifestations
structure to meet its functional and performance requirements of distress that can occur in reinforcedconcrete structures in-
over an extendedperiod of time is largely dependent on the du- clude cracking and delaminations (surface parallel 'cracking),
rability of its components. Techniques for the detectionof con- excessivedeflections,andmechanicalproperty(strength)
Crete componentdegradationshouldaddresstheconcrete, losses. Whether the concrete was batch4 using the proper
steel reinforcement, and anchorage embedments. constituentsandmixtureproportioning,or was properly

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Table3.2-Nondestructivetestmethodsfordeterminingmaterialpropertiesofhardenedconcrete in
existing construction(AC1 228.2)
Possible methods
Property Primary Secondary Comment
Cores for compression testing Penetration resistance Strength of in-place concrete; comparison of
Compressive strength (ASTM C 42 and C39) (ASTM C 803; pullout testing strength in differentlocations; and drilled-in
drilled in) oullout test not standardized ~ ~~~~~

Rebound number (ASTM C 805); Rebound number influenced by near surface

Relative compressive strength ultrasonic pulse velocity - properties; ultrasonic pulse velocity gives
(ASTM C 597) - result through
average - thickness
Splitting-tensile strength of core ln-place pulloff test (AC1503R; Assess tensile strength of
Tensile strength (ASTM C 496) BS 1881:Part2071
Density I Specific
gravity of samples
ASTM C 642) 1 gage
Nuclear
II
content
Moisture I metersMoisture I gage Nuclear -
Static modulus of elasticity Compression test of cores - -
(ASTM C 469)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Requires knowledge Of density and
Dynamic modulus Resonant frequency testing of (ASTM C 597); impactecho; (except ASTM C 215); dynamic elastic modulus
of elasticity sawed specimens (ASTM C 215) spectral analysis ofsurfaœ is typically than the static elastic modulus
waves (SASW)
Length change of drilled or - Measure of incremental potential length change
Shrinkagdexpansion sawed specimens (ASTM C 341)
Resistanceto Electrical indication of con- Establishes relative susceptibility of concrete to
penetration 90-day ponding test (AASHTO-T-259) Crete's ability to resist chloride chloride ion intrusion; assess effectiveness of
ion Denetration (ASTM C 12021 chemical sealers. membranes. and overlavs
Air content; cement content; and Petrographic examination of concrete Petrographic examination of Assist in determination of cause(s) of distress;
aggregate properties (scaling, samples removed from structure aggregates (ASTM c 294? degree Of damage; quality Of 'Oncrete when
alkdi-aggregate reactivity, f w z - (ASTM C 856, ASTM C 457); Cement ASTM C 295) originally cast and current
-
ing-and-thawing - susceptibility content (ASTM C 1084)
ComelllSHRP rapid test - Establish
field
in if observed
deterioration
Alkali-silica reactivity (SHRP-C-3 15) is due to alkali-silica reactivity
Phenolphthalein (qualitative corrosion protection valueof concrete
Carbonation, pH with depth and susceptibilityof steel
indication); pH meter to corrosion; deDth of carbonation
SASW; ultrasonic pulse Rebound number permits
Fire damage rebound
C 805) velocity;
(ASTM impxt-mho; impulse- demarcation of damaged concrete
reswnse
Freezing-and-thawing damage Petrography SASW, impulse response -
Acid-soluble (ASTM C 1152) and Specific ion probe Chloride ingress increases susceptibility of steel
Chloride ion content water-soluble (ASTM C 12 I81 (SHRP-S-328) reinforcement to corrosion
SHRP surface airtlow method - Measures in-place permeability index of near
Air permeability (SHRP-S-329) surface concrete (15 mm)
Acresistance using four-probe SHRP resistance AC resistance useful for evaluating effectiveness
of
Electrical resistance of concrete resistance meter admixtures and cementitious additions; SHRP
(SHRP-S-327) method useful for evaluating effectivenessof sealers

placed, compacted,and cured are important because they can tent or nature of the distress. This is generally accomplished
affect the service life of the structure. Measurement of these through removalof cores or other samples using a procedure
factors should be part of the overall evaluation process. In- such as provided in ASTM C 42.
place permeabilitytests can also be conducted onconcrete to When core samples are removed from areas exhibiting dis-
locate areas that are more susceptible to degradation. tress, a great deal can be learned about the cause and extent of
3.2.1.1 Nondestructive test methods-Nondestructive test deterioration through strength (Hindo and Bergstrom 1985)
methods are used to determine hardened-concrete properties and petrographic studies (ASTM C 856). Additional uses of
and to evaluate the condition of concrete in structures. Table concrete core samples include calibration of nondestructive
3.2 and 3.3 present nondestructive test methods for determin- testing devices, conduct of chemical analyses, visual examina-
ing material properties of hardened concrete in existing con- tions, determinationof steel reinforcementcorrosion, and de-
structionandtodeterminestructuralpropertiesand assess tection of the presence of voids or cracks (Munday and Dhir
conditions of concrete, respectively (AC1 228.2R). A descrip- 1984, Bungey 1979).
tion of the method and principle of operation, as well as appli- 3.2.1.3 Mixture composition-Thequestionofwhether
cations,forthemostcommonly used nondestructivetest the concrete in a structure was cast using the specified mix-
methods is provided elsewhere (AC1 228. lR, AC1 228.2R, ture composition can be answered through examination of
Bungey 1996, Malhotra 1984, Malhotra and Carino 1991). core samples (Mather 1985). By using a point count method
3.2.1.2 Destructive test methods-Visualand nonde- (ASTM C 457), the nature of the air void system (volume
structive testing methods are effective in identifying areas of and spacing) can be determined by examining a polished sec-
concrete exhibiting distress but oftencannot quantify theex- tion of the concrete under a microscope. An indication of the

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Table3.3-Nondestructivetestmethodstodeterminestructuralpropertiesandassessconditions of
concrete (AC1 228.2)
I Methods I
ProDertv I PriM I Secondw I Comment
location Covermeter; ground penetrating x-ray and *IWy radiography Steel location and distribution; concrete cover
radar (GPR) (ASTM D 4748)
Verify thicknessof concrete; providemore certainty
Concrete component Impact-echo (I-E); in structural capacity calculations;I-E requires knowledge
thickness GPR (ASTM D 4748) Intrusive probing
of wave soeed.and GPR of dielectric constant
Observe and measure rust and area reduction insteel;
Steel area reduction Ultrasonic thickness gage observe corrosionof embedded post-tensioning
(requiresdirect with Intrusive probing; radiography components; verify location and extent of deterioration;
provide more certainty in structural capacity calculations
Local or global Load test, deflectionor Ascertain acceptability without repairor strengthening; Acceleration,
streneth and behavior strain measurements disolacement measurements determine accurate~
load rating
Corrosion potentials Half-cell potential - Identification of location of active reinforcement corrosion
(ASTM C 876)
Corrosion rate Linear polarization - Corrosion rate of embedded steel;rate
(SHRP-S-324 and S-3301 influenced bv environmental conditions
Locations of Impactecho; Infrared D 4580); Assessment of reduced structural properties; extent andloca- Sounding (A
delaminations, voids, thermognphy (ASTM D 4788); pulseecho; SASW; intrusive tion of internal damage anddefects; sounding limitedto
and other hidden defects drilling and borescope impulse-response; radiography;
shallow GPR
delaminations

type and relative amounts of fine and coarse aggregate, as quired, radiographic, ultrasonic, and eddy current
techniques
well as the amount of cementitious matrix and cement con- are available. AC1 355. lR, AC1 SP-103, and AC1 SP-I 30
tent, can also be determined (ASTM C 856; ASTM C 85). provide additional information on anchorage to concrete.
Determination of the originalw/cm is not covered by a stan-
dard test procedure, but the original water(volume of capil- 3.3-Condition, structural, and service-life
lary poresoriginallyfilled with capillaryandcombined assessments
water) canbe estimated (BS 188 1, Part 6).Thin-section anal- 3.3.1 Current condition-Determining the existing perfor-
ysis can also indicate the type of cementitious material and mance characteristicsand extent and causes of any observed
the degree of hydration, as well as type and extent of degra- distress is accomplished through a condition assessment by
dation. A standard method also does not exist fordetermina- personnel having broad knowledgein structural engineering,
tion of either thetype or amount of chemical admixtures used concrete materials, and construction practices. Several docu-
in the original mixture. Determination of mixture composi- ments are available to aid in conducting a condition assess-
tion becomes increasingly difficult aasstructure ages, partic- ment of reinforcedconcrete structures andcomponents (AC1
201.1R; AC1 224.1R; AC1 437R; AC1 207.3R; AC1 31 1.4R;
ularly if it hasbeen subjected to leaching,chemical attack, or
AC1 362R; ASTM C 823; Bresler 1977; Perenchio 1989;
carbonation.
ASCE 1 1-90; Kaminetzky 1977). The condition assessment
3.2.2 Steel reinforcing material systems-Assessments of commonly uses a field survey involving visual examination
the steel reinforcing systemare primarily relatedto determin- andapplication of nondestructive anddestructivetesting
ing its presence and size, and evaluating the occurrence cor- of techniques, followed by laboratoryandofficestudies.
rosion. Determination of material properties such as tensile Guidelines for conduct of surveys of existing buildings have
and yield strengths, and modulus of elasticity, involves the re- been prepared (Perenchio 1989; ASCE 11-90). Before con-
moval and testing of representative samples. Pertinent nonde- ducting a condition assessment, a definitive plan should be
structivetestmethodsthataddressthesteelreinforcing developed to optimize the information obtained. The condi-
material system are provided in Table3.2 and 3.3. AC1 222R tion assessment begins witha review of the as-builtdrawings
provides detailed informationon the mechanism of corrosion and other information pertaining to the original design and
of steel in concrete and procedures for identifying the corro- construction so that information, such as accessibility and
sion environment and active corrosion in reinforced concrete. the position of embedded-steel reinforcement and plates in
3.2.3 Anchorage embedments-Failure of anchorage em- the concrete, are known before the site visit. Next, a detailed
bedments in concrete structures occurs as a result of either visual examinationof the structure is conducted document
to
improper installation, cyclic loading,or deterioration of the information that could result fromor lead to structural distress,
concrete. Visual inspections canevaluate the general condi- such as cracking, spalling, leakage, and construction defects,
tion of the concrete near anembedment and providea curso- such as honeycombing and cold joints, in the concrete. photo-
ry examination of theanchor to checkforimproper graphs or video recordings made during the visual examina-
embedment, weld or plate tearing, plate rotation, or plate tioncanprovide a permanentrecordof this information.
buckling. Mechanical tests can verify that pullout and torque Assistanceinidentifyingvariousforms of degradation has
levels of embedments meet or exceed values requiredby de- been prepared (AC1201.1R). After the visual survey has been
sign. Welds or other metallic components can be inspected completed, theneed for additional surveys, suchas delamina-
using magnetic-particle or liquid-penetrant techniques for tion plane, corrosion,or pachometer is determined. Results of
surface examinations, or if a volumetric examination is re- these surveysare used to select portionsof the structureto be

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SERVICE-LIFE PREDICTION-STATE-OF-THE-ART REPORT R-1365.1 5

PROCEDURE APPLIES
The building or a portion of it has undergone general or
TO ALL OR PARTOF local damage (for example, environmental or earth-
EXISTING
CONCRETE BUILDINGS quake effects);
I There is doubt concerning the structure's capacity; and
EVALUATION BY
STATIC
I I EVALUATION BY
THEORETICAL STRESS
I Portions of abuildingaresuspected to be deficient in
design, detail, material, or construction.
LOAD TEST ANALYSIS
I
Methods for strength evaluationof existing concrete struc-
tures include either an analytical assessment or a load test
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Fig. 3.2).
PERFORM REPAIRS NECESSARY An analytical assessment is recommendedwhen sufficient
FOR THE STATIC LOAD TEST
I0 IDENnFY PROPERTIESOF THE background information is not available (for example, section-
II ESTABLISH THE MAGNITUDE OF
THE TEST LOADS
* INSTALL DISPLACEMENT AND
STRAIN INSTRUMENTAlION
STRUCTURAL. MATERIALS
USING DESTRUCTIVE OR A
COMBINATION OF DESTRUCTIW
AND NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING METHODS
al characteristics, material properties,and construction quali-
ty),astaticloadtest is impracticalbecause of thetest
PROVIDE SCAFFOLDING TO
complexity or magnitude of the load required, sudden failure
SUPPORT THESTRUcrURE IN
CASE OF FAILURE
during a static load test can endanger the integrity
of the mem-
APPLY THETEST LOADS WITH-
ber or the entire structure, or it is required by an authority.
OUT SHOCK OR VIBRATION AND Some supplemental destructive or nondestructive tests de-
RECORD THE DISPLACEMENT
AND STRAIN DATA scribed previously can be required to obtain this information.
AFTER 24 HOURS. RECORD THE For the evaluation it is recommended that the theoretical
DISPLACEMENT AND STRAIN
DATA analyses follow principles of strength design and that astruc-
REMOVE THETEST LOADS AND ture be considered satisfactory if capacity, deformation, and
AFTER 24 HOURS. RECORD THE
DISPLACEMENT AND STRAIN other serviceability criteria satisfy the requirements and in-
DATA
tent ofthe AC1 318.
Static-load tests should be utilized only when the analytical
method is impractical or otherwise unsatisfactory. Situations
where a static load test of a bridge or building component is
Fig. 3.2-Recommended procedure for strength evaluation recommended include those where at least of the
one following
of existing concrete buildings (AC1 437). cases and all of the following conditions apply (AC1 437R).
Cases include incidences where structural element details are
studied in greater detail.Many of the investigation techniques not readily available; deficienciesin details, materials, or con-
have been identified in the previous section. Any elements struction are best evaluatedby a load test; and the design ex- is
that appear to be structurally marginal, due to either unconser- tremely complex with limited prior experience for a structure
vative design or effects of degradation, are identified and ap- of this type. Conditions include:1) results of a static load test
propriate calculation checks made (refer to Section 3.3.2). A permit a reasonable interpretation of structural adequacy; 2)
report is prepared after the field and laboratory results have principal structural elements under investigation are primarily
been collated and studied and calculations completed. flexural members; and 3) adjacent structure's effects can be ac-
3.3.2 Structural assessment4nce thecriticalstructural counted for in the evaluation of the load test results. Before
components havebeen identified through the condition assess- conduct of aload test, some repair actions can be required and
ment, a structural assessment can be required to determine the an approximate analysis should be conducted. After establish-
current condition,to form the basisfor estimating futureper- ing the magnitude of the testload, the load is applied incremen-
formance or service life, or both. As of part
the assessment it tally with deflections measured. The structure is considered
is importantto note irregularitiesor inconsistenciesin proper- to have passedthe load test if it shows no visible evidence of
ties of materials, in design, in construction and maintenance failure, such as excessive cracking or spalling, and it meets
practices, and the presence and effects of environmental fac- requirements for deflection. In certain applications, service-
tors. Although the assessment of a structure involves more ability requirements, such as allowable leakage at maximum
than its load-carrying ability(for example, the permeability load, can alsobe a criterion.
of hydraulic structures), an assessment of structural demand 3.3.3 Service-life assessments-Any viable design method
versus capacity is the first step. Performance requirements or assessment of service life involves a numberof essential
otherthanstructuralcapacity are thenaddressedthrough elements: a behavioral model, acceptance criteria defining
supplementary tests to establish characteristics,such as leak- satisfactory performance, loads under which these criteria
age rateor permeability. should be satisfied, relevant characteristic material proper-
Procedures to evaluate the strength of existing structures ties, and factors or margins of safety that take into account
have been published (AC1 437R). The recommendations de- uncertainties in the overall system (Sommerville 1992). The
veloped are intended to establish the loads that can be sus- selection of materials and mixture proportions, such as the
tained safely and serviceably by an existing building under maximum w/cm, and structuraldetail considerations, pro-
several conditions: vides one approach used for design of durable structures.An-
There is evidence of possible structuralweakness (for other approach entails prediction of service life using
example, excessivecracking or spalling); calculations based on knowledge about the current damage,

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 preinspection portinapetion

/ ’

min xm a Defect Size

Fig. 3.3-Defect detectabilityfunction (Ellington and Mori Fig. 3.ARole of in-service inspection on strength distribu-
1992). tion (Ellingwoodand Mori 1992).

degradation mechanisms, and the rates of degradation reac- (Viola 1983, Turkstra et al. 1988, Ciampoli 1989, Bartlett
tions. Development of a more comprehensive approach for and Sexsmith 1991). The effect of in-service inspection on
design of durable structures requires integration of results the distribution of resistance is illustrated in Fig. 3.4. The
obtained from alarge number of studies that have been con- frequency distribution of resistance, based on prior knowl-
ducted relative to concrete durability. edge of the materials used to fabricate the structure, con-
struction, and standard methods of analysis, is indicated by
3.4-Inspection and maintenance the curvefdr) in the figure. Scheduled maintenance and
In-service inspection and preventive maintenance are a rou- repair can cause the characteristics of the resistance to
tine part of managing aging and degradation in many engi- change. The effect of inspection and maintenance is illus-
neered facilities(House 1987).The structural integrityof civil trated by the (conditional) densityfR(rlB), in which B is de-
structures, suchas bridges and offshore platforms exposed to pendent on what is learned from the in-service inspection.
extreme climatic conditions,are routinely assessed. Theseas- The in-service inspection probably causes the mean value
sessmentsrecordperformance and estimatethestructure’s of the resistance distribution to increase because of basic
ability to continue to meet functional
and performance require- conservatism in structural design. Quantitative data on the
ments. Also, in-service inspection and maintenance strategies capabilities of in-service inspection methodsare required for
can be used to predict reliability and usable life of structures. determining the appropriate modifications to the frequency
One approachto predicting the structure’s reliability or its distribution,fR(r), and to take optimum advantage of in-ser-
service life under future operating conditions is through vice inspection in the reliability analysis.
probability-based techniques involving time-dependent reli- Once it has been established that a component has been
ability analyses. These techniques integrate information on subjected to environmentalfactors that have resultedin dete-
design requirements, materialand structural degradation, rioration, the effects of these factors can be related to a con-
damage accumulation, environmental factors, andnonde- dition or structural reliability assessment. Structural loads,
structive evaluation technologyinto a decision tool that pro- engineering material properties, and strength-degradation
vides a quantitative measure of structural reliability. The mechanisms are random. The resistance, R(t), of a structure
technique can also investigate the role of in-service inspec- and the applied loads, S(t), both are stochastic functions of
tion and maintenance strategies in enhancing reliability and time. At any time, t, the margin of safety, M(t), is
extending usable life. In-service inspection methods can im-
pact the structural reliability assessment in two areas, detection M ( t ) = R(t) - S ( t ) (3- 1)
of defects and modifications to the frequency distributionof
resistance. Several nondestructive test methods that detect the Making the customary assumption that R and S are statisti-
presence of defect
a in a structure tend to be qualitative in na- cally independent random variables, the probability of fail-
ture in that theyindicate the presence of a defect but may not ure, Pfit),is
provide quantitative data about the defect’s size, precise lo-
cation, and other characteristics that would be needed to de-
termine its impact onstructural performance. None of these
methods candetect a givendefect with certainty. The imper-
fect nature of these methods can be described in statistical in which F A X )andf d x ) are the probability distribution func-
terms. This randomness affects the calculated reliability of tion of R and density functionof S.Equation (3-2) provides
a component. Figure 3.3 illustrates the probability, d(x), of one quantitative measure ofstructural reliability and perfor-
detecting a defect of size x. Such a statistical relation ex- mance, provided thatP p a n be estimated and validated.
ists, at least conceptually, for each of the applicable in-ser- For service-life prediction and reliability assessment, the
vice inspection methods. In-service inspection methods probability of nonfailure over some period of time, (O,t), is
also provide information that allow the probabilistic more important than the reliability of the structure at the par-
strength models used in reliability analyses to be revised ticular time provided by Eq. (3-2). The probability that a

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SERVICE-LIFE
PREDICTION-STATE-OF-THE-ART REPORT 365.1 R-17

structure survives during intervalof time (O,r), is definedby

I InspectionlRepair
a reliability function, L(0,r). If n discrete loads S,, S*, ..., S,,
occur at times rl, r2, ...,tn during (O,t), the reliability function
becomes

L(0, r ) = P [ R ( t , )> S , , ..., R ( t , ) > S,] (3-3)

If the load process is continuous rather thandiscrete, this ex-

pression is more complex.
The conditional probabilityof failure within time interval
(r,r+At), given that the component has survivedduring (O,r), Time
is defined by the hazard function Fig. 3.5-Role of in-service inspectiodrepair in controlling
hazardfunction (Ellingwood and Mori1992).
h ( t ) = -d( lnL(0, t ) ) / d t (3-4)
reinforced concrete elements in flexure and shear has been
reported (Mori and Ellingwood 1993,1994b).
which is especially useful for analyzing structural failures
due to aging or deterioration. For example, the probability
that time to structural failure, Tj occurs before a future CHAPTER 4”METHODS FOR PREDICTING THE
SERVICE LIFE OF CONCRETE
maintenance operation at t+Af, given that the structure has 4.1-Introduction
survived to t. can be evaluatedas The selection of concrete materials and mixture propor-
tions is usuallybased on empirical relationships between
concrete mixturesandlaboratoryand field performance.
PITfI t + AtJT’> r ) = 1 - exp[-~~+*’h(x)&] (3-5) This approach assumes that the concrete selected supports
the desired service life for the structure.
The hazard function for pure-chance failures is constant. Another approach for selectingconcrete involves predict-
When structural aging occurs and strength deteriorates, h(t) ing service life using calculations based on likely degrada-
charateristically increases with time as illustrated in Fig. 3.5. tion mechanisms that manifest in the structure and the
reaction rates of these mechanisms. While this approach is
Intervals of inspection and maintenance requiredas a con-
not often used, it can have an increasingly important rolein
dition for continuing theservice of a structure also can be de-
selecting concrete because of applications that require signif-
termined from the time-dependent reliability analysis. The
icantly increased service lives, increased use of concrete in
updated densityof R following each inspectionis
harsh environments, the high cost of rebuilding and maintain-
ing the infrastructure, and the development of high-perfor-
f R ( r ( B )= P [ r < R 5 r + d r , B ] / P [ B ]= c K f R ( r ) (3-6) mance concretes for which a record of long-term performance
is, as yet, not available. In addition, improved understanding
where K(r) is denoted the likelihood function and c is a nor- of the factors controlling the service life of concrete contrib-
malizing constant. The time-dependent reliability analysis ute to the development of more durable concretes.
then is reinitialized using the updated fR(+) in place of Many service-life prediction methods focus on the effectof
fR(r).The update causes the hazard functionto be discontin- one degradation process. Experience, however, has shown that
uous in time and lowers the failure probability in Eq. (3-5). degradation results when one or more degradation processes
The effect of in-service inspection or repair on the hazard are operative or from the interactionof the environment and
function is also illustrated in Fig. 3.5. loads (Hookham 1990). This synergistic effect complicates
Uncertainties in methods of in-service inspection or repair service-life predictionfor both new concrete structures where
affect the densityfR(rlB).A combination of methods isusu- environmental factorsand loads may have not been well de-
ally more effective from a reliability point of view than us- fined, and existing structures where the contribution to degra-
ing one method. When there are limited resources, it is most dation by variousinfluences is difficult to assess.Primary
effective to select a few safety-criticalelements and concen- factors that can limit the service life of reinforced concrete
trate on them (Hookham 1991, Ellingwood and Mori 1993). structures include the presence of chlorides, carbonation, ag-
Optimal intervals of inspection and repair for maintaininga gressive chemicals, such as acids and sulfates, freezing-and-
desired level of reliability can be determined based on ex- thawing cycling, and mechanical loads, such as fatigue, vi-
pected life-cycle cost. Preliminary investigations have found bration,andlocal overloads. Typically, only one primary
that life-cycle costs are sensitive to relative costs of inspec- factor limits the service life and is the focus of service-life
tion, maintenance,and failure. If the cost of failure is an or- prediction. As limited informationis available on the syner-
der of magnitude larger than inspection and maintenance gistic effect when more than one factor is operative, this
costs, the optimal policyis to inspect at nearly uniform inter- chapter focuses on the prominent environmental influences
vals of time. Additional information on applying the meth- noted previously.An overview of methods for predicting the
odologyto investigate inspection or repair strategies for service life of new andexisting concrete along with some ex-

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 365.1 R-18 AC1 COYMllTEE REPORT

amples of their applications are presented. Examples illus- concentration of reactants, temperature, and humidity,to ac-
trating the useof several of the service-life methods and celerate degradation. Accelerated testing programs,if prop-
models are provided in Chapter 6 . erly designed, performed, and interpreted, can help predict
the performance and service life of concrete. Accelerated
4.2-Approaches for predicting service lifeof new testing has been proposed as a method for predicting theser-
concrete vice life of several types of building materials (Frohnsdorff
Methods that have been used for predicting the service et al. 1980). The degradation mechanism in the accelerated
lives of construction materialsinclude estimates based on ex- test should be the same as that responsible for the in-service
perience, deductions fromperformance of similar materials, deterioration. If the degradation proceeds at a proportional
accelerated testing results, mathematical modeling basedon rate by the same mechanism in both accelerated aging and
the chemistry and physics of expected degradation process- long-term in-service tests, an acceleration factor, K, can be
es, and applications of reliabilityand stochastic concepts obtained, from
(Clifton and Knab 1989).Although these approaches are dis-
cussed separately, they often are usedin combination.
4.2.1 Predictions based onexperienceSemiquantitative
K = R,T/R,, (4-1)
predictions of the service life of concrete are based on theac-
cumulated knowledge from laboratory and field testingand where RAT is the rate of degradation in accelerated tests, and
experience. This contains both empirical knowledgeand R , is the rate of degradation in long-term in-servicetesting.
heuristics; collectively,these provide the largestcontribution If the relationship between the rates is nonlinear, then math-
to the basis for standards for concrete. It is assumed that if ematical modeling of the degradation mechanism is recom-
concrete is made following standard industry guidelines and mended to establish the relationship.
practices, it will have the required life. This approach gives ASTh4 E 632 gives a recommended practicefor develop-
an assumedservice-life prediction. The concrete can perform ing acceleratedshort-term tests that can obtaindata for mak-
adequately for its design life, especially if the design life is ing service predictions and for solving service-life models.
fairly short and theservice conditions are nottoo severe. This The practice consists of four main parts: problemdefinition,
approach breaks downwhen it becomes necessaryto predict pretesting, testing, and interpretation and reporting of data.
the service life of concrete that is required tobe durable for a Application of this practice to concrete has been discussed
time thatexceeds our experience with concrete, when new or (Clifton and Knab1989).
aggressive environments are encountered, or when new con- A difficulty in using accelerated testing in predicting ser-
crete materials are to be used. Several examples have been vice life is the lack of long-term data on the in-service per-
analyzed using this approachwith the conclusion that expe- formance of concrete as required in Eq. (4-1). Accelerated
rience or qualitative assessments of durability do not form a tests, however, can provide information on concrete degra-
reliable basis for service-life predictions and are only esti- dation that is needed to solve mathematical models for pre-
mates (Fagerlund 1985). dicting service lives.
4.2.2 Predictions based on comparison of performance- 4.2.3.2 Application-An example of the application of
The comparative approach has not been commonly used for accelerated testingservice-life predictions is provided below
concrete, but with a growing population of aging concrete (Vesikari 1986). In this application, the lifetime of a speci-
structures its use will increase. In thisapproach, it is assumed men in an accelerated test t* is related to the service life of a
that if concrete has been durable for a certain time, asimilar structure ti by
concrete exposed to a similar environment has the same life.
A problem with this approach is each concrete structure has
a certain uniqueness because of the variability in materials, t , = kt* (4-2)
geometry, constructionpractices, and exposure to loads and
environments. Also, over the years, the properties of con- where k is a constant that is derived from testing. This ap-
crete materials have changed. For example, portland cements proach is then applied to freezing-and-thawing resistance
are ground finer today than they were 40years agoto achieve testing of concrete as follows. Inan accelerated freezing-
increased early-age strength. This results in concrete with and-thawing test,theperformance of aspecimen is ex-
lower density and higher permeability (Neville 1987). An- pressed in terms of the number offreezing-and-thawingcy-
other problem with the comparison approach is the differ- cles needed to obtain aspecified damage level. Assuming the
ence in the microclimates (environmentat concrete surface) number of freezing-and-thawing cycles that a structure is
can have unanticipated effects on the concrete’s durability. subjected to annually constant,
is the service life of the struc-
In contrast, advances in chemical and mineral admixtures ture can be evaluated by
have led to the development and use of concrete with im-
provedperformanceand durability. Therefore,comparing
t , = k,N (4-3)
the durability of old and new concrete is notstraightforward,
even when conditions are as similar as possible.
4.2.3 Accelerated testing where
4.2.3.1 Approach-Most durability tests for concrete use k, = a coefficient related to environmentalconditions:
elevated loads or more severe environments, such as a higher and

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 N = number of freezing-and-thawing cycles damaging vaults for the disposalof low-level nuclear waste,which are
a laboratory specimen. subjected to sulfate attack, corrosion of reinforcement, leach-
This approach was further developed to predict the life of ing, and freezing-and-thawingattack,have been reviewed
concrete that is exposed to the combined effect of freezing- (Walton et al. 1990). Many of the degradation processes of
and-thawing andsalt-scaling action. In this case, theservice concrete, excluding those caused by mechanical loads,are as-
life was given by sociated withthe intrusion into concrete of one or moreof the
following: water, salts, or gases. For such processes, mathe-
t, = k f P (4-4) matical models that predict service life canbe developed by
considering the rate of intrusion of aggressive media into con-
crete and the rateof chemical reactionsand physical process-
where P is the freezing-and-thawing resistance index and is
es. Mathematical models have been developed for degradation
obtained by the Deutscher Beton Verein (DBV) freeze-salt
processes controlledby the intrusionof water, salts, and gases
test (Vesikari 1986).Values of the environmental factor k are
f
based on field investigations that analyzethe correlation be-
into concreteby convection and diffusion (Pommersheim and
Clifton 1990). Most models that predict service life include
tween the degreeof damage of the structure, ageof the struc-
numerical variables relatedto transport processes, suchas the
ture, and the freezing-and-thawing resistance of the structure.
chloride ion diffusion coefficient in corrosion models. Stan-
The following study illustrates the application of an accel- dard methods have been developed for testing nonsteadystate
erated test method estimate
to the service life of concrete ex-
water flow in concrete (Kropp and Hilsdorf 1995). Further-
posed to sulfate salts. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
more, methods for testing ion diffusion, such as chlorides, are
combined theresults of accelerated tests and long-termtests
also available (Nord Test 1995). Reliable data on transport
(Kalousek et al. 1972). In the long-termtests, concrete spec-
properties,however,oftenare not available andstandard
imens were continuously immersed in a 2.1 % sodium sulfate
ASTM test methods have notbeen developed.
(Na2S04) solution until failure occurred, defined as an ex-
pansion of O S % , or until the investigation was completed. 4.2.4.1 Model of corrosion of reinforcing steel-Most
The age of specimens at the completion of the continuous- corrosion modelsfor reinforced concrete follow thesame ap-
immersion study ranged from 18 to 24 years. Companion proach, and are based on a model that has been developed to
specimens were subjected toan accelerated testin which the predict the service life of reinforcing steel (Tuutti 1982). The
specimens were exposedto repeated cycles of immersion in modelisbasedonthecorrosionsequenceschematically
a 2.1 % sodium sulfate (Na2S04)solution for 16 h and forced shown in Fig. 4.1, in which active corrosion (propagation pe-
air drying at 54 C for 8 h. Comparing the times for speci- riod) starts after the end of an initiation period of no corro-
mens to reach an expansion of 0.5% in the accelerated test sion. The corrosion process is initiated by the diffusion of
and the continuous immersion test,it was estimated that one chloride ions to the depth of the reinforcing steel or by car-
year of accelerated testing was equivalent to eight years of bonation reducing thepH of the concrete in contact with the
continuous immersion. In this case, Eq. (4-1) becomes steel or by the combinationof chloride ions and carbonation.
Other transport properties are not covered by the model.
K = 8 = R,,/RLT (4-5)
Sorption could be another important transport process that
also follows a t1’2dependence, where t is time. Cracking of
the concrete wouldincreasethediffusioncoefficient and
where sorptivity of the concrete, thus accelerating corrosion.
RAT = rate of expansion in the accelerated test, and In the following, only theeffect of chloride ions on the ini-
RLT = rate of expansion in the long-term continuous im- tiation period isconsidered. The length of the initiation peri-
mersion test. od islargelycontrolled by the rate of diffusion of the
A 2.1 % solution of sodium sulfate (Na2S04)is a severe en- chloride ions in the concrete and by the threshold concentra-
vironment and if concrete is exposed to a lower concentra- tion for the process. The one-dimensional diffusion process
tion of sulfate, the life expectancy would be expected to be follows Fick’s second law of diffusion (Tuutti1982)
longer. This method can be usedto predict the service life of
concrete continuously immersedin a different concentration
of sulfate ions, provided the accelerationfactor is known. a q a t = Da2qaX2 (4-6)
4.2.4 Mathematical models-Mathematical models are no
better than their underlying conceptual base,so any solution where
calculatedusing a modelhasuncertaintiesrelated to the
D = diffusion coefficient;
model as well as the material and environmental parameters.
Several models have been developed to predict the service x = distance from the concrete surface tothesteelrein-
life of concrete subjected to degradation processes such as forcement; and
corrosion, sulfate attack, leaching, and freezing-and-thaw- t = time.
ing damage (Clifton1991).The use of mathematical models Because chloride ions react with the tricalcium aluminate of
to predict service life of concrete has been discussed (Pom- portland cement, the concentration has two components -
mersheim and Clifton 1985). Models used to predict service concentration of bound chloride ions (cb)and concentration
life of concrete used in the construction of underground of free ions (cf),related throughR

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Table 4.1-Effect of cover and diffusion coefficient

ontimetoinitiatlon of corrosion of reinforced
concrete
~

Chloride ion diffusion coefficieotD, rn2/s'

5 x 1O"l I 5x I 5x
Cover. m m I Time, yr
25 0.56 5.6 56
50 2.3 23.0 230
75 5.0 50.0 500
100 9.0 90.0 900
*Based on setting C, / C,,= 0.55, with C,= 0.4%(by mass cement), and L = 300 mm.

Fig. 4.1-Schematic of conceptual model of corrosion of

steel reinforcement
in concrete (Tuutti 1982). where
e$ = complement of error function (Crank 1975);

t = time:
Because either carbonation or sulfate ions can release the n = general solution, summation ofall
bound chloride ions, R is usually assumed to be O. possible terms;
Accordingto Tuutti's model, the corrosion rate in the D = diffusion coefficient;
propagation period iscontrolled by the rate of oxygen diffu- x = e€fectiveconcrete cover depth
sion to thecathode, resistivity of the pore solution, and tem- (for example, uncracked thickness); and
perature. The initiation period is usually much longer than L = thickness of concrete element.
the propagation period.For example, in one bridge deck the In the presentcase, however, only then = O term ofEq. (4-8)
initiation period has been estimated to be over five times needs to be considered. Higher-order terms have insignificant
longer than the propagation period (Tuutti1982). A conser- contributionsto the summation, reducing the equation to
vative estimate of the service life is usually made by only
considering the initiation period. If the concrete is continu-
ously saturated with water, the model predicts that corrosion (4-9)
processes active in the .propagation
. . period become the rate-
controlling processes becauseof the extremely low diffusion
rate of oxygen throughthe water. A conceptually similarbut where 1 - y = x/L. The model was solved for thecase where
the threshold concentration C, of chloride ions was 0.4%
more complex model has been developed that predicts that
(based on the mass of the cement), the concentration of chlo-
reinforced concrete submerged in seawater can be unaffected
ride ions at the surface of the concrete C, was 0.7% (based
by corrosion for thousands of years due to the absenceor low
on the mass of cement), n = 50 mm, L = 300 mm, and Ci= O
level of oxygen present (Ba2ant 1979,1979a).
at t = O. Results for different concrete cover depths and chlo-
The concepts Of have been used to predict ride
ion diffusivity coefficients are presented in Table 4.1.
theeffects ofthe chloride-iondiffusioncoefficient andthe ne results showthatthe effect of the is DroDortional
depth of coveron the lengthof the initiation period (Clifton et to 2. For example, increasing x from 25to 100 mm increases
al. 1990). The period to initiate corrosionof a reinforced con- the service life by a factor of (IOO/24)*or 16. The model also
crete elementis determinedas follows: COis the concentration predicts that a 10-fold decrease in the diffusion coefficient
of the concrete,and Ci is
of chloride ions at the outside surface results in a 10-fold increasein the predicted service life. Al-
the concentration at the depth of the reinforcement, that is though laboratory estimationsof diffusion coefficients are too
assumed to be initially O. The initiation period is completed conservative for accurate estimates of the life of reinforced
when Ci= C,, the threshold concentration to initiate steel concrete, they do indicate the relative effectsof important ma-
reinforcement corrosion. The general solution to Eq. (4-6) terial and design variableson service lives.
for a reinforced concrete element under constant environ- Different solutions to Fick's second law have been devel-
mental conditions is oped to evaluate concrete under environmental conditions
that vary with time (Amey et al. 1998). In such cases, the sur-
C face chloride concentration also changes with time (for ex-
-(Z, t ) = (4-8) ample, by the applicationof chloride deicing salts).To obtain
CO
a relation that allowsa surface build-upof chlorides, an equa-
tion other than Eq. (4-9) should be used due to the change in
boundaryconditions.Althoughthere isno conclusiveevi-
dence for what function @(r) should be assigned to represent
that build-up, there is some intuitive support for a linear or

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 square root build-up For the case where
of chloride over time. ships are developed for reaction kinetics, the concentration
O(t) = kt, where k is a constant undera linear build-up condi- of reacted sulfate in the form of ettringite, the thickness of a
tion, the following simplified solution shouldbe used spalled concrete layer, the time for a layer to spall, and the
degradation rate. The depth of degradation (R)is linear in
C(X, t) = (4-1O ) time, thatis, d s e c , and is given by

R = Xspall/Tspull
= ( E B 2 c , C o D i ) / [ a o z1( - v ) ] (4-12)

the thickness of the reaction zone causing the

spalling;
where erfc ( ) = the complementary error function. For the the timefor the spall to occur;
case where @(t)= kt'", where k is a constant under a square Young's modulus;
root build-up condition, the following simplified solution the linear strain causedby a concentration
should be used of sulfate reacted in a specific volume of
concrete (such as 1 mole of sulfate reacted
in 1 m3 of concrete);
C(x, t ) = k d { e -x2/4Dt - ( d e r f c ( L ) ) } (4-11) the sulfate concentration in bulk solution;
2 f i2t f i t
the concentrationof reacted suifate in
the formof ettringite;
Equations (4-10) and (4-1 1) are most suited for evaluating the intrinsic diffusion coefficient of
air-borne deicing salts applications. Additional information sulfate ions;
on models can be obtained from Vesikari (1988), who de- roughness factor for fracture path;
scribes mechanistic models empirically fitted to data from the fracture surface energy of concrete; and
field and laboratory studies, and HETEK (1996). Corrosion Poisson's ratio.
induced by chloride ions and by carbonation is addressed, and Some of the input data required to solve the model should
boththeinitiationandpropagationperiodsaremodeled. be obtained from laboratoryexperiments, while someof the
These models are useful in identifying the factors controlling parametric valuesare not available for specific concretes and
the service life of reinforced concrete when corrosion is the therefore typical values should be used. In the example cal-
major degradation process. They are solved using empirically culation (Atkinson and Hearne 1990), the rate of attack for a
derived coefficients for the quality of concrete, environments, sulfate-resistant portland cement (similar to ASTM C 150
and intensity of active corrosion. Effects of different typesof Type V) was predicted tobe only about30% lower than that
cements, extent of carbonation, and compressive strengthof for ordinary portland cement(similar to ASTM TypeI). The
concrete on corrosion are considered by the coefficient for the results agree with the generally accepted view that the per-
quality of concrete. The reliability of these models whenpro- meability of the concrete (reflected in the sulfate diffusion
jected to other concretes and environments needsto be deter- coefficient) is more important in controlling sulfate attack
mined before they are used. than the chemical composition of thecement.
Probabilistic modelsand computational methods for chlo- 4.2.4.3 Leaching-A leaching model for the dissolution
ride ingress in concrete have alsobeen developed (Engelund of gypsum and anhydrite (James and Lupton1978) has been
1977). used to predict the rate of dissolution of portland-cement
4.2.4.2 Sulfate attack-A mechanistic model has been mortar exposed to flowing water (Jones 1989).It has the form
developed to predict the effect of ground water containing
sulfates on the servicelife of concrete (Atkinson and Hearne
1990). The model is based on the following: dM/dt = 2.6KA( C,y- C)e (4- 13)
Sulfate ionsfromtheenvironmentpenetratethecon-
crete by diffusion; where
Sulfate ions reactexpansivelywith aluminates in the M = the mass lost in time t from an area A;
concrete; and K = theexperimentallyobtained dissolution-rate con-
Cracking and delamination of concrete surfaces result stant (linearlydependenton the flow velocities
from the expansive reactions. within laminar flowregimes);
Cracking and delamination of the concrete surface ex- C, = the solutionpotential of water;
poses new surfaces to a concentration of sulfate ions similar C = the concentration of dissolvedmaterial
to that of the ground watersulfate concentration rather than at time t; and
the lower concentrationresulting from diffusion. The model 8 = the kineticorder of the dissolution process.
indicates that the rate of sulfate attack is controlled by the The rate of dissolution of both silica and calcium from
concentration of sulfate ions and aluminates, diffusion and portland cement mortar was experimentally determined to
reaction rates, and the fracture energy of concrete. Relation- give second-order kinetics. A loss of 0.8 mm/yr of mortar

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havetime-to-failure distributions. The reliabilitymethod

takes into account the time-to-failure distributions. By ele-
vating the stresses that effect acceleratingfailure, probability
of failure functions can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.2.
These failure probabilities are based on the premise that time-
to-failure data follow a Weibull distribution (Martin 1985).
Testing multiple specimens is required to obtain the distribu-
tion. If the failure rate increases as the stress level increases,
the service life distribution at in-service stresses can be relat-
ed to the service-lifedistribution at elevated stress by the time
transformation functionpi(t) as follows (Martin 1985)

Time to Failure
Fig.4.2-Probability of failure at different stress levels
(Martin 1985). where tis time, Fi(t) is the life distribution atthe i'th elevated
stress level, and FJt) is the service-life distribution at the in-
service stress level. From Eq. (4-14), a probability of failure
stress time-to-failure (P-S-T) diagram can be prepared as
shown in Fig 4.3. The curves in the P-S-T diagram, such as
the F(t) = O. 10 curve, are iso-probabilitylines. The iso-prob-
ability lines give, for each stress level, the time at which a
given percent of a group of specimens can be expected to
have failed. The P-S-T diagram gives a basis to predict the
service life of concrete if the in-service conditions are in the
rangecovered by the diagram and are not anticipated to
change significantly.
The time-transformationfunction approach isapplicable if
'4 Ti Time the deterioration mechanism under all tested stress levels is
Fig. 4.3-Probability of failure stress-to-failure (P-S-T) dia- the same as that under in-service conditions. Deterioration
gram showing 10% probability of failure c u k e (Martin begins at the instant ofstress application, and deteriorationis
1985).
an irreversible cumulative process.
was predicted at a flow velocity of 3 m/s, which is inreason- 4.2.5.2 Combination of statisticaland deterministic
able agreement with the measuredloss of 1 m d y r at flow of models--Often, statistical models are combined with deter-
3ds. ministic models.For example, the mean service life of build-
4.2.5 Stochastic methods-The use of stochastic concepts ingshas been predicted by usingmeanvalues for the
in making service-life predictions of construction materials parameters in deterministicmodels that havebeen developed
hasbeenexplored by several researchers (Sentler 1984; (Siemes et al. 1985). The standard deviation of the service
Martin 1985). Service-life models using stochastic methods life is also calculated using the expression
are based on the premise that service life cannot be precisely
predicted (Siemes et al. 1985). A large numberof factors af-
fect the service life of concrete, and their interactions are not (4-15)
well known. These factors include the extent of adherence to
design specifications, variability in the properties of hard-
ened concrete, randomness of the in-service environment, where
and a material's response to microclimates. Two stochastic @tl) = standard deviation of service life;
approaches are the reliability methodand the combination of @X$ = standard deviation ofthevariables X . affecting ser-
statistical and deterministic models. J
vice life;
4.2.5.1 Reliability method-The reliability method com- = partial derivative of r , with respect to x.; and
bines the principles of accelerated degradation testing with J
n = number of variables.
probabilistic conceptsin predicting servicelife. This method The partial derivatives, dtl/d- are calculated for the mean
hasbeendiscussed(Martin 1985) and applied to coatings values of the stochastic variables. In this approach, it is as-
(Martin 1989) and roofingmaterials(Martin and Embree sumed that thexi variables are independent of each other.
1989).Application of the method is describedby considering Instead of normal distributions, log-normal distributions are
concrete subjectedto a hypothetical laboratory durability test. recommended for representing the service-life distributions
As is typicalof anyengineering material, supposedly iden- (Siemes et al. 1985). A model for carbonation has been devel-
tical concrete specimens exposed to the same conditions oped that demonstrates application of the stochastic method

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(Sentler 1984). The depth of carbonation x in concrete was 4.3.1.1 Modeling approach-The modeling approach is
represented by the following formof Fick's diffusion law illustrated by the work of Browne(1980).He used a diffusion-
based model for predicting the remainingservice life ofin-ser-
vice reinforced concrete structures exposed to chloride ions.
x2 = (2D/a)dp ' t (4-16)
The model only considers the initiation period (Fig. 4.1) and
assumes that the diffusion of chloride ions is the rate-con-
where trolling process. The following steps help make predictions
D = diffusion coefficient; about the service life:
a = concentration of concrete constituents thatcan Samples are obtainedfrom a concrete structure at dif-
carbonate; ferent depths from the concrete surface and their chlo-
dp = partial pressure difference forCO,; and ride contents determined; and
r = time. The followingequation is usedto obtain valuesof C,
When representedas a stochastic processthe depth of carbon- and D,,
ation is expressed by
~ ( xt ,) = C,[ I - erf(.x/2(~,~t)l.'~)] (4- 18)

where
C(x,r) = chloride concentration at depth x after time r, for
a constant chloride concentration of C, atthe
which is a normal density function f with mean, x , + Pt1/*, surface;
and variance, o2t'I2. The initial value of x , xo, accounts for D,. = chloride ion diffusion coefticient; and
faster carbonation taking place in the concrete surface layer. er- = error function.
Equation (4-17) gives the same mean rate of carbonation as Once the values of Co and D<,,are obtained, thenthe
Eq. (4-16), but with variability in the depth of carbonation chloride-ion concentration at any distance from the sur-
determined by a normal density function. The model was face, at any given time, can be calculated; and
solved for a case where the concrete cover over steel rein- A chloride ion concentration of 0.470, based on mass of
forcement was 25 mm, the concrete had a w/cm of 0.5, and cement, is usedby ßrowne (1980)asthethreshold
the concrete had carbonatedfor 50 years. An initial fast car- value. The time to reach the threshold concentration at
bonation was assumed (x0 = 3 mm). The statistical parame- the depth of the reinforcing steel gives the remaining
ters were based on data obtained during a field study of the service life.
relationship between the w/cm and depth of carbonation in 4.3.1.2 Corrosion measurernents-The measurement of
mm/yr1/2. Approximately 16% of the data were more than corrosion current density of steel reinforcement in concrete
one standard deviation from the mean value, indicating a has been used (polarization resistance technique) in estimat-
normal distribution. A probability of 2.3 X lo4 for carbon- ing the remaining service life of reinforced concrete in which
ation at 25 mm after 50 years was obtained. If the w/cm was corrosion isthe limiting degradation process (Rodriquezand
increased to 0.6, the probability becomes 3.3 X Andrade 1990; Andrade et al. 1989; Andrade et al.1990;
Clear 1989).
4.3-Prediction of remaining service life Rodriquez and Andrade (1990) and Andrade etal. (1989,
Although the methods for predicting the remaining ser- 1990) modeled corrosion current density to estimate the re-
vicelifeof existing concrete structures are basically the maining service life. The model measures reduction in steel
same as those for new structures, the existing structures can cross section instead of cracking or spalling of the concrete.
have the benefït of additional information available (for ex- The corrosion current density was converted toreductions in
ample,derivedmaterial properties andenvironmental ef- the diameter of reinforcing steel by the relationship
fects). Methods for predicting the remaining service lives of
concrete structures usuallyinvolve the following general
procedures: determining thecondition of the concrete, iden- e(t) = e;- o.o23*i,.,,,,*t (4-19)
tifying the cause(s) of any concrete degradation, determin-
ing the condition constituting the end-of-service life of the where
concrete, and making some type of time extrapolation from Q(r) = steelreinforcementdiameterattime r , mm;
the present state of the concrete to the end-of-service life 91 = initial diameter of the steel reinforcement, mm;
state to establish the remaining service life. i,, = corrosion rate (@/cm2);
4.3.1 Failure due to corrosion-Most of thereported r = time afterthe beginning of the propagation period,
workon predicting remaining service lives of reinforced years; and
concrete structures has dealt with corrosion of the concrete 0.023 = conversion factor of pA/cm2 into mm/yr.
reinforcement. Two major prediction approaches that have The results were converted into service-life predictions by
been pursued are the modeling approach and corrosion mea- modeling the effects of reducing the cross section of the re-
surements. inforcement onthe load capacity of the reinforced concrete.

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Based on the combination of laboratory, outdoor exposure, R , = nkdt,,

n-l
(4-21)
and field studies, Clear (1989) suggested using the following
relationships (that assume constant corrosion rates with time)
between corrosionrates i, and remaining service life: Equation (4-21) indicates that when n c 1 , the rate of degra-
i,,,, less than 0.5 pA/cm2-no corrosion damage dation decreases with time; when n = 1, the rate is constant:
expected; and when n > 1, the rate increases with time.
Defining Adj as the amount of damage at failure, it follows
i,,,, between 0.5 and 2.7 M/cm*--corrosion damage
from Eq. (4-21) that
possible in the range of 10 to 15 years;
icor, between2.7and27 pA/cm*-corrosion damage
expected in 2to 10 years; and lyf = (Adf/kd)*’” (4-22)
i,,,, in excess of 27 pi/cm2-corrosion damage
expected in 2 years or less. where ty is the time-to-failure. The remaining service life is
obtained by subtracting the age of the concrete when the in-
4.4-Predictions based on extrapolations spection was made fromt p
The remaining service life of concrete
a structure or element The value of n depends on the rate-controlling process. It
can be predicted from knowing its present condition and ex- can be obtained by a theoretical analysis of rate-controlling
trapolating to when it needs extensive repair, restoration, or processes, mathematical modelingof degradation processes,
should be replaced. The problem is to make the proper extrap- and empirically from accelerated degradation tests (Clifton
olation starting from its condition at inspection to a condition 1991;Clifton and Pommersheim1994).Values of n for com-
that is used to define end-of-service life. mon degradation processes are available (Clifton and Pom-
Rather than making an empirical extrapolation, the time- mersheim 1991).Examples of usingthe time order approach
order approach gives a technical basis for the extrapolation forpredicting remaining service lives are also available
(Clifton 1991). This approach has been previously used for (Clifton 1991; Clifton and Pommersheim 1994).
diffusion processes, for example, those involving depth of
carbonation or chloride ion diffusion. In the following, the 4.5-Summary
basis forthe approach is given. Methods that are used for predicting the service lives of
The amount of degradation of concrete is dependent on the construction materials include estimates based on experi-
environment,geometry of the structure, properties of the ence, deductions from performance of similar materials, ac-
concrete, the specific degradation processes, andthe concen- celerated testing, applications of reliability and stochastic
tration of the aggressive chemical(s). In the time-order ap- concepts, and mathematical modeling based on the chemis-
proach, these factors are constant and can be represented by try and physics of degradation processes. Often these ap-
a termkd (Pommersheim and Clifton 1990). Climate changes proaches are used in combination. The mostpromising
each season, butusually the variation betweenyears methods are accelerated testing, applying reliability and sto-
smoothes out overseveral decades. If this assumptionis val- chastic concepts, and using mathematical models.
id, then only the number of service years need to be repre- In comparison to predicting the life of new concrete, few
sented by the time function ty, and kd has an average value studies on predicting the remaining service life of in-service
over the period considered. Implicit in this analysis is that the concrete have been reported. Most of the reported studies
same degradationprocess(es) is active during the pastand fu- have dealt with corrosionof concrete reinforcement, reflect-
ture lifeof the concrete. ing the magnitude and seriousness of corrosion problems.
In this approach, theamount of degradation Ad can be rep- The most promising approach for predicting the remaining
resented by (Clifton 1991) service life of concrete involvesapplyingmathematical
models to the degradation process. Theoreticalmodels
should be developed, rather than relying solely on empirical
Ad = kdfy” (4-20) models. Many advantages of this approach are apparent, in-
cluding more reliable predictions, less data needed, and wid-
where er applications, such as applicabilitytoabroadrange of
Ad = amountof accumulative deterioration at time t,,, environmental conditions. Deterministic and stochastic mod-
(years); and els should be combined to give realistic predictionsof the ser-
vice life. F’urely stochastic models have limited application
n = time order.
because of the lack of adequate databases that determine sta-
Note thatif n = O, there is no degradation. If an initiation period tistical parameters. Accelerated testsdo not provide a direct
has occurred and its duration is known, then the right-hand sidemethod for making the life predictions but can be usefulin ob-
of Eq. (4-20) would be kd(ty-r,)”, with r(, being the duration of taining data required to support the useof analytical models.
the initiation period. In the development of the approach, the
term time order has been used to avoid confusion with the order CHAPTER !+ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
of a chemical reaction, for example, a second-order reaction 5.1-Introduction
that can indicate that two molecules react together. The development of newfacilities in both thepublic and pri-
The overallrate of degradation, Rd is given by vate sectors,as well as existing concrete structures and facili-

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 ties, requires decisions based on economics and service-life expressed in either present or annual value. The details
(or life-cycle) information.* Some of the questions that are en- are presented in ASTM E 964.
countered in making these service-life decisions include: Internal rate of return (IRR)-Provides the interest rate
Are higher initial construction capital investments jus- at whichtheequivalentnet cash flow(expressed in
tified to obtain longerservice life? terms of either present or annual value) equals zero for
Are higher initial construction capital investments jus- comparing alternatives and for comparison with the
tified to reduce operating or maintenancecosts? acceptable discount rate or desired rate of return. The
Are higher annual inspection and maintenance costs jus- details are presented in ASTM E 1057.
tified to increase the service life of an existing facility? Net benefits(NB)-Provides the differencebetween
Shouldoutdated facilities bereplaced with facilities benefit and cost (including disbenefit) items that can be
requiring less frequent, lesscostlyperiodicmainte- expressed in monetary terms, based on equivalent val-
nance? ues of either present or annual value. The details are
Should an existing facility be repaired or replaced to presented in AST" E 1074.
reduce day-to-day operating and maintenance costs, or Payback (PB)-Calculates the time to recover invest-
to increase its safety margin? ment costs and expenses from income or cost savings,
Service life and pertinent costs are the key elements when based on equivalent values expressed in terms of either
addressing these questions.In the above context, service life present or annual value for the selected discount rate.
refers to the effective periodfor subroutines, suchas periodic The details are presented in ASTM E 1 I2 l.
rehabilitation, as well as the system as a whole. Selecting While the ASTM procedures are directedatcomplete
technically feasible alternatives that result in the minimum building construction and investmentoptions, the methodol-
overall cost for the defined planning horizonconstitutes the ogies described are equally applicable to specific compo-
scenario for minimum life-cycle cost policy in facilities nents,such as the concrete structure. Furthermore,while
management. It is, then, the effects of serviceability (or ser- many engineering activities, particularly in the case of public
vice life) on cash flowover time thatconstitute the basis for works sector, involve cash flows that consist mostly or en-
rational management of facilities and assets. tirely of disbursements, those methods that involve income
(receipts), such as BCR, IRR, NB, and PB, are also applica-
5.2-Economic analysis methods ble. In situations where benefit or revenue streams are not
5.2.1 General-Economic analysis is a tool for making
quantifiable, a least-cost economic analysis can be per-
rational decisions in engineering situations where a choice
formed. This occurs because, in comparing alternatives, dif-
should be made from a group of alternatives with differences
ferences between comparable-costelements result in savings
that can be expressed in monetary terms. The first two steps
of one alternative over another. The life-cycle cost method is
involved in an engineering economic analysis are the same for
the simplest and most readily applicable procedure for engi-
all economic analysis methods. First, all technically feasible
neering economicanalysis. When usingthese techniques for
alternatives that are applicable should be identified. Doing
concrete structures, it is important that the alternatives be ana-
nothing can constitutea viable alternative. Second, cash-flow
lyzed on a common-cost basis.Only those costs relative to the
elements need to be costed-out and time-based cash flow dia-
concrete structure should be considered (or alternatively, facil-
grams prepared. In carrying out the latter,a target economic
ity-related costs shouldbe equitably assigned). Similarly,it is
service-life period (planning horizon) needs to be established
in which all thecost alternatives are evaluated. Therefore, en- critical that the beneficial aspects of rehabilitation be mea-
sured correctlyin terms of service-life gains.
gineering economic analysis can be used to make decisions
affecting the servicelife of a concrete structure. 5.2.3 Uncertainty and risk
5.2.2 Methods-Once the alternatives and their respective 5.2.3.1 Approach-Because engineering economic analy-
cash tlows havebeen established, a variety of techniques exist sis deals with the future, risk and uncertainty are inherent in
whereby the analysis can be carried out. All analyses should the process. ASTM E 1369 describes the rangeof techniques
provide the same result in terms of the selection of alterna- that are available for addressing uncertainties and risk. The
tives, but the nature of the scenario in which the alternatives two most commonly used approaches, stochastic processes
are being evaluated can favor the use of a particular proce- and sensitivity, are briefly discussed below in general terms.
dure. ASTM E 1 185, describes the following five methods: 5.2.3.2 Stochustic processes-In some cases, certain
Life-cycle cost (LCC)-Provides the equivalent of the future costs are predicated on the occurrence of events that
relevant cash flow in either present-value or annual- are governed by the laws of probability. Examples include
value terms for each alternative over the selected plan- flood damage costsfor concrete hydraulic structures resulting
ning horizon. The details are presented in ASTM E from peak flows in excess of design values and other casualty
917. losses such as fire, wind,and vandalism. If the probability of
Benefit-to-costratio(BCR)-Provides a ratio of bene- the event occurring during any given year is knownor can be
fit and cost items that can be quantified in monetary estimated from past records, then the most probable annual
terms for each alternative, based on equivalent values value assignable to the event is the productof the probability
and the cost of the consequence when the event occurs as
Standard terminology of building economics is provided in ASTM E 833 shown as follows

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A = Cp (5- 1) Table 5.1-Percentage differences between annual

values of first costs based on infinite life versus
finite life basis
where
Percentage difference forperpetual service
A = averageannual value of the unfavorable conse- at interest rate i, %
quence ofthe event over the long run; Finite life. vr I 5% I 10% I 15% I 25%
C = cost of unfavorable event when it occurs; and
p = probabilitythat the unfavorable event canoccur in
25
30
I
I
-30.0
-23.0
I
I
-9.2
-5.7
1
I
-3.0
-1.5
~

rI -0.4
-0.1
~

any given year(decimal). 40 I -14.0 I -2.2 I -0.4 I 0.0

Notethattheprobabilityshould range between zero (no 50 -8.7 -0.8 -0.1 0.0

chance of the event occurring) and 1 (certainty of the event ao -2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
occurring). 1O0 -2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

5.2.3.3 Sensitivity-Engineering economicanalysisdeals

with cash flows that extend from the present into the future. 5.3.2 Replacementanalysis-Replacementanalysisdoes
Uncertainties alwaysexist regarding the lengthof service life, not differ in principle from engineering economic analysis in
the timing, and the amounts of future receipts and disburse- other situations. Oneof the alternatives, however, is to retain
ments. Also, unanticipated expenditures or receipts can occur. an existing concrete structure that is being considered for re-
Sensitivity analysis determines the effect of variabilityin the placement; it is referred to as the defender.The other alterna-
elements of cash flow in an economic decision. The general tives considered in a replacement analysis (the challengers)
procedureinvolved in carryingoutasensitivityanalysis are possible candidates for replacing the defender. There could
should consistof the following: be any of a number of reasons for considering replacement of
Determining which elements of the cash fl0.w are most a structure, including:
likely to vary from estimated values; The inability of the existing structure to continue to per-
Estimating the probable range and choosing the incre- form its intended duties withoutextensiverepair or
ment of variation for each of the selected elements; modifications;
Selecting an evaluation method (such as present value, The inability of the existing structure to meet current or
annual value, or rate of return) to carry out the evalua- predicted future requirements due to changes in
tions; demand; and
Carrying out the computations using the selected evalua- The appearance on the marketof challengers that can
tionmethodforeachincrementwithintheestimated perform the dutiesof the structure more economically.
range of variability for each of the variable elements; and The major issue involving service life in replacement
Plotting the computedvalues (ordinate) againstthe analysis is thatit is almost never appropriate (in the ofcase the
respective increments of the element (abscissa) for each defender) to invoke the repeatability concept regularly used in
element in auestion. economic analysisof alternatives over periods of time longer
The plots thatresult from theabove procedures (spiderdi- than the service life of the alternative. Rather, the time period
agrams) immediately reveal thesensitivities of the elements for the replacement analysis (usually called planning horizon)
in question. The more vertical the plot,the greater the sensi- is based on the future need for the structure. If that period of
tivity. That is, a vertical line represents infinite sensitivity time exceeds the expected remaining service life of the de-
while a horizontalline depicts zero sensitivity. fender, the alternative involving the defender includes a de-
ferred challenger.In this case, a market value (salvagevalue)
5.3-Economic issues involving service life of has tobe estimated for the add-on challenger at the termination
concrete structures of the planning horizon. For convenience and becauseof the
5.3.1 New facility-predicted service life of candidate al- difficulty in predictingfuture events, it is common practice to
ternatives-The most commonly encountered issue in engi- limit the planning horizon to the remaining life of the defend-
neeringeconomic analysis relative to service life isthe er. Then it is necessary onlyto estimate the market values at
assignment of the service life values to candidate alterna- the endof the planning horizon for each challenger.
tives, such as leave as is, perform repairs or renovations, or 5.3.3 Break-even service life-In certain instances, the ele-
replace. Obviously, thisissue is important to the reliability of ments of the cashflow vary with time in such a way thatmin- a
the service-life assessment. At thesame time, it is becoming imum cost (or maximum
a profit,
depending
on
increasingly difficult to assign estimated service life due to circumstances) exists at some point in the service life of the
lack of historicalperspective due to the accelerated change in concrete structure. This situation commonly occurs in cases of
technology. Under present conditions, service-life termina- a structure that producesnet receipts that decreaseas a func-
tion is often dictated as much by functional obsolescence as tion of time.
it isby deterioration. Therefore, it is very important that a 5.3.4 Perpetual service (capitalized cost)-Most concrete
methodology forestimating service life be developed and ap- and civilstructures have very longlife expectancies,50, 100,
pliedconsistently to the alternatives under consideration. or more years. Examples include highways, bridges, dams,
Even if the absolute values may be in error, the comparisons major buildings, water supply systems, and sewage-collec-
between alternatives should remain reasonably valid. tion systems. Becauseit is difficult to predict future develop-

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 ments, it is often convenient to assume infinite life Once concrete cracking occurs. thatyear defines theending
(perpetual service) ininstances.
such service life of the structure.
Table 5.1 shows thatthere are not significant differences The life of a reinforced concrete structure orstructural
betweenperpetual service and finite timespansof approxi- member can be calculated as theamount of corrosionto
mately 25 years for high interest (25%), or 100 years cause cracking of thecover concrete andthe corrosionrate
for low interest rates (5%). ~ l ~ assets,
~ ,
such as land, undervarious conditions of materials, structures, and envi-
do possess perpetual life. ronments. That is

CHAPTER &EXAMPLES OF SERVICE-LIFE

TECHNIQUES
Seven examples representing applications of service-life where
techniques to concrete structures or structural components r =life ofthe structure or member:
are discussed in this chapter. Six of the examples were cho- QCr =amount of corrosion to cause cracking of the con-
sen because of their usefulness in approach and they were crete cover; and
applied to actual structures. The seventh example was se- q = corrosion rate.
lected because it illustrates the application of time-depen- Q,, is estimated from the diameter of the reinforcement bar
dent reliability methodsdescribed briefly in Section 3.4. It is d. and the concrete cover c, as in
not the intent of these examples to be all inclusive or fully
comprehensive butto give guidance onhow service-life Q,, = 0.590( 1 + 2 ( c / d ) ) O B s d (6-2)
techniques can be used (for example, establishment of in-
service inspection and maintenance strategies). Insight from
The corrosion rate 4 of the reinforcementis a function of the
service-life estimations isessentialtoestablish life-cycle
corrosion rate 4 ] of reinforcement in concrete with a known
costs for a structure and to justify constructing with more
Cl- content exposed to a specified condition, corrosion rate
costly materials with enhanced performance characteristics.
of concrete 42 of reinforcement in a concrete containing a
Also, decisions on using protection systems, repair materi-
known CI‘ content that corresponds to the condition of the
als, or demolition and reconstruction, should be based on
structure or member; and corrosion rate 43 of a structure or
life-cycle cost estimates. In the first four examples, visual member at reference conditions. The corrosion rate was de-
observations and measurements taken from existing struc- termined as follows
tures or materials were input intothe methodology. Five of
these examples address the situation of steel corrosion in
concrete structures, while one specifically addresses chemi-
cal attack of concrete. Example I illustrates the technique of
comparing cumulative steel corrosion toconcrete spalling to
obtain the service life. Example II gives an example of how
to treatcompeting degradation mechanisms. Example III de- 4 , = [(-0.50)-7.45N+44.1(W/C)2 (6-4)
scribes the challenge in evaluating the many measurements
needed to characterize the condition of a structure and pre-
dict its service life. ExampleIV describes how treating each + 66.64N( W / C ) ’ ] d / c * ;
process individually answersquestions, such as when to re-
pairandwhento rehabilitate. Example V describes how
complex environments canbe characterized and modeled
based on the reaction efficiency of an environment with the 42 = 2.54 - 0.05T - 6.76H - 22.430 - 0.97N (6-5)
concrete. Example VI provides an illustration of calculations
used to estimate service life and maintenance demands of a + 0.14TH + OSOTO + 0.01TN + 59.63HO
diaphragm wall exposed to saline ground water.Finally, Ex-
ample VI1 illustrates the application of time-dependent reli-
ability concepts for service-life predictions.
+ 3.30HN + 7.18NO ; and

6.1 Example !-Relationship of amount of steel

corrosion to time of concrete spalling
The first example describes an investigation of a 30-year- q2 = 0.55435 + 1.4027N, given the following (6-6)
old water-discharge structure of a thermal plant facing the
Tokyo Bay in Japan (Morinaga et al. 1994).The approach is where
based on an analysis that calculates the corrosion rate of the N = NaClbymassofmixingwater(%)= 165xCI‘/W:
steel reinforcement for each year based upon several param- Cl- = Chloride content i n concrete. kg/&;
eters, calculates the total amountof corrosion, and compares W = watercontent per unit volumeofconcrete. kg/m’;
that to the amount necessary for concrete cracking to occur. w/cm = water-cementitious materialsratio. %/IOO:

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T = temperature, C; and half-cell potential tests were conducted to assess existing

H = humidity, [H = (RH- 45)/100]; conditions. While alarge portion of the dock was found to be
RH = relative humidity, %; and in good condition, several anomalies were noted, as such
local
O = oxygen concentration, %/loo. throughdeck failures,structural and settlementcracking,
A reference condition of 15 C and 69% RH with20%oxygen spalling, abrasion, and scaling from freezing-thawing cycles.
was used. Most of the damage was in the deck and cantilevered portions
Field and laboratory investigations were conducted before of the dock. To further assess the structural capacity of the
calculations were made.The field investigations examined the dock relative to the proposed functional changes, the dock
concretesurfaces,removedconcretecores,removedcover was analyzed for bucket impact loads, increased traffic loads,
concrete to observe the condition of the steel reinforcement, and overall capacity. Results indicated that the dock’s condi-
judged the degreeof corrosion basedon a table (Morinagaet tion was acceptable for the proposed changes following re-
al.1994), andmeasuredthecoverthicknesses.Laboratory pairs, but overhead ore-crane
bucket drops could be
tests were performedto measure Cl- content, determine con- catastrophic. The repair design included partial replacement
crete compressivestrength, and estimate mixture proportions of the dock, epoxy injection of passive cracks, expansion
through chemicalanalyses. joint refurbishment, patching of scaling damage, and deck
Under conditions of constant CI‘ content, Eq. (6- 1) can be overlays. Followingrepair an estimation of the service life of
used to estimate the life of the structure or member. For the the dock was calculated.
current conditions, however, the Cl- content increases with In estimating the service life, models were established for
time. The life-prediction procedure used to address this in- the most likelyparameters that could cause loss of function,
cludes: such as impact loads, corrosion of steel reinforcement, and
Calculate corrosionrate at each year qi, based on average freezing-thawing damage. An impact loading from a bucket
Cl- content at each year; drop was considered to be asingular event that could becat-
Calculatecumulativeamount of corrosion at nth year astrophic to the overlayand deck andfitness-for-service
e,,,,,
by summing qito nth year, as follows would require an assessment of structural adequacy after each
event. Freezing-thawing damage was considered to be impor-
tant to exposed cantilever segments andthe deck but not life
limiting tothe structure. Reinforcing steel corrosion was con-
sidered to have the greatest potential to cause structural fail-
i=l
ure in this environment. Noticeable corrosion damage was
evident from cracking and spalling of cover concrete and lo-
where for the present studyr‘ = 1 andn = 30; and
cal reinforcingsteel section loss.Two models, basedon infor-
* Compare enyearwith the amount ofcorrosion that
mation presented elsewhere (Vesikari 1988, Sentler 1983),
cracks cover concrete e, and with end-of-service life
were prepared for predicting service life due to corrosion of
defined when Q,,,,, > Qcr steel resulting from carbonation and chloride penetration (de-
Results of the model were compared with the actual structure icing salts were used in large quantitiesduring winter).
under two environmental conditions-segments in a splash
The time to full-cover carbonation was estimatedby
zone and inan intertidal zone. The splash zone exhibited
more crackingand more spalledconcrete, while the intertidal
zone exhibited concrete that was in good to fair condition.
The results suggesta satisfactory correlation (53 to 90%) be-
tween the model prediction and the observed environmental where
condition, depending on the concrete and surrounding envi- tl = the time to full-cover carbonation, yr;
ronmental condition (suchas splash or intertidal zone). R, the rate of carbonation, mm/yr;and
=
L the remaining uncarbonated cover, mm.
=
6.2 Example Il-Comparison of competing From observations andmeasurements after applyingphe-
degradation mechanisms to calculate remaining nolpthalein solution, average values for R, = 0.028 cndyr
I¡fe and L = 0.95 cm, were determined and used in Eq. (6-8) to
The second example reports on an evaluation and analysis estimate full carbonation at tl = 34 years from present.
of an ore dock located off an island intersecting the Rouge and The time to chloride attack based on the existing state of
Detroit Riversin Michigan (Hookham 1990). The 11.4 m wide corrosion (corrosion had already initiated at some locations)
by 412 m long dock was builtin 1909 and consisted of a rein- was modeledas
forced concrete deck supported by cast-in-place pile capsand
wood piles. Additions or repairs to the dock were made in
1920,1939,
1950,
and1959.
Aphysical
evaluation
and
struc-
a t2 = [ Æ c x k, X ( L ’ ) 2 ]+ ( k , x L’) (6-9)
tural analysis of the dock were made in the late1980s to pro-
vide for increasedtrafficflow,designationofanewheavywhere
equipment lay-down area, and increased space for ore storage. t2 = time for chloride ions to reach the depth of the steel
Visual examinations, limited load testing, concrete core reinforcement, yr;
sampling and testing, carbonation testing, chloride profiling, L’ = concrete cover, cm;

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kc = quality coefficient of concrete; C, = concentration of chlorides in soil, %;

k, = coefficient of environment; and r,, = time ofwaterproofing failure, yr;
k, = coefficient of active corrosion. k = carbonation coefficient, mm/yrIn;
From the carbonation model (Eq. (6-8)), the total thick- di, = initial diameter of steelreinforcing bars, mm;
ness of uncarbonated concrete cover remaining was deter- rcb = corrosionratewithout chlorides, mm/yr;
mined to be 0.95 cm. On the basis of observed exposure rc1 = corrosion ratewith chlorides, mm/yr;
conditions andreview of research data (Tuutti1979, r = corrosion rate in air, mm/yr;
Vesikari 1988), values of 7.59, 0.85, and 4.0 were selected R, = strength ofthesteel reinforcement, MPa;
for kc, k,, and k,, respectively. Substituting these values into Rb = compressive strength of the concrete, MPa; and
Eq. (6-9) results in an estimated time for chloride ions to M = appliedbendingmoment of theroofingpanel, m m .
reach the depth of the steel as 9.62 years. Because tl >> f2, Distribution functions were determined for each of these pa-
chloride corrosionwas judged to dominate the system. rameters based on laboratory and field investigations and in-
Therefore, the remainingservice life of the structure was es- formation presented in the literature. Residual service life
timated fromr2 to be approximately 10 years. For design and waspredicted for the roofpanelsaccording to twolimit
safety reasons, a remaining life of approximately 5 years states: longitudinal cracking due to reinforcement corrosion
was recommended to the client. Follow-up condition sur- and ultimate flexural resistance. Variations in estimates of
veys have indicated that the owner’s use of salts has been service life for the tunnel roofpanels were attributedto vari-
discontinued,repairs were still functional, and that thestruc- ations in both external conditions-time of waterproofing
ture has additional service life beyond the predicted 5 years. failure, Cl‘ concentration in ground, operational loads, and
temperature and humidityinside tunnels, and internal condi-
6.3 Example IICUtilization of multiple inputto tions-structural parameters, and materialproperties. The
calculate the lifeof a structure simulations were carried out by generating random numbers
The third example describes the examination and analysis
for these conditions.
of several tunnels that are part of 260 km of underground
mains in operation in Moscow ( S h i h et al. 1994). The tun- The modeling procedure used a program basedon a flow-
nels are used for routing heat and water mains as well as chart algorithm that calculated the service-life distribution
electrical cables. Operationalexperience of tunnel structures for roof panelsby comparing the reinforcement cross section
shows that one of the main reasons requiring either change as a single realization of random function to a random value
or strengthening of separate members is inadmissible corro- of critical cross section. Minimum service life is the thresh-
sion of steelreinforcement that can leadto accidents and in- old valuefor time at which thefirst roof-panel failure occurs
terruption of normal operations. Several of these tunnels and is determined by approximating the failure probability
were evaluated for service life on the basis of in-place inves- for a tunnel of N panels. This type of analysis resulted in a
tigations and modeling of the steel reinforcement corrosion mean service life for a given tunnel andprovides some indi-
process. cation of when damage might first be observedon the tunnel
roof panels. Basic components of the flow-chart algorithm
Twenty-six kilometers of the tunnels were inspected be-
tween 1989 and1993to evaluate the general conditionof the include:
tunnels. Laboratory(CI‘ contents and concrete strength) and
in-place investigations (carbonation depths and reinforce- Obtain service life estimations for allroofpanelsof a
ment bardiameters) were also conducted to identify reasons tunnel by calculating the probability of failure due to
for corrosion anddetermine the corrosion rate for reinforce- longitudinal cracking or loss of bearing capacity due to
ment in the tension zone of the roof panel ribs. Visualexam- reinforcement corrosion for each roof panel.
inationsshowedthatonlythe stiffening ribs of theroof -For each sectionof steel reinforcement in a roof panel:
panels were being wetted, primarily due to penetration of Input data from measurements and observations;
ground water throughjoints. Longitudinal cracks of various Calculate values for remaining parameters iden-
widths along the steel reinforcement were noted as well as tified previously (for example, L, D,C,, and k);
spalling of concrete cover and exposure of steel reinforce- Determine initial diameters of steelreinforce-
ment. Chloride contents ranged from0.1 1 to 2.07% (by mass ment; and
of cement). Carbonation depths ranged from 2 to 36 mm. Calculate probability of corrosion and corrosion
Loss of steel reinforcement section ranged from none to rate due to carbonation, chloride ions, or the at-
completely corroded. mospheric conditions based on:
Because the studywas aimed at investigating probabilistic r,, , time for longitudinal cracking and spalling;
service-lifedistribution,Monte Carlo simulationmethods ret, time to reach chloride threshold at the
were used to evaluate how stochastic variations of the follow- steel reinforcement section; and
ing parameters in the course of corrosion propagation influ- tcb, time to carbonate concrete cover.
enced the servicelife ofroofpanels (such as, structural “Calculate the final quantities for parameters based
behavior) on interpolated values.
L = depth of concrete cover, mm; “Calculate the lifetime of a roofing panel and repeat
D = diffusion coefficient, mm2/yr; for all panels in the tunnel.

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-Establish the minimum service life T , (when thefirst

panel fails).
Make an histogram of estimates for longitudinal
C ( x , t ) = C,
{ 1 -er -
f i 2 2 1
(6-12)

cracking and spalling, and average service life

and minimum service life for the tunnel. where C(x,t) is the chloride concentration at the surface of
Use histograms to indicate when first roof panel the steel at thetime of interest t. For concrete, C(x,t)can be
fails and estimate the mean life of the tunnel. set equal to the chloride threshold to initiate corrosion. The
Repeatforeach tunnel. challenge is to carefully characterize a structure to accurately
When comparing algorithmresults to actual observations, estimate Co, D , and X so that the time at which time t be-
the estimations were reasonably close. The average remain- comes Tj (the time to initiate corrosion) can be estimated.
ing servicelife for roofing panels in tunnels operating under Several models have been developed relating the proper-
conditions of high temperature and humidity was 22 years, ties of the concrete and reinforcement to the time-to-corro-
based on cracking, and 73 years, basedon loss of bearing ca- sion concrete cracking (Cady and Weyers 1984, Weyers et
pacity. The minimum service life, or time after construction al. 1993). It was concluded thatthe corrosion rate of the steel
when the first panel would fail, was estimated as 33 years. was the dominant factor in estimating the time to cracking
Teor, and the rate was inversely proportionalto T,,,. The ex-
6.4 Example /\/-When to repair, when to rehabilitate act relationship between the corrosion rate and the time-to-
The fourth example presents a methodology to predict the cracking, however, has yet to be precisely defined. Based on
service life of a bridge deck by combining field data and the models andobservations, values of 2 to 5 years wereused
theoretical models (Cady and Weyers 1984; Weyers et al. for T,,,.
1993, 1994). The actual calculation of the service life was Subsequent work has resulted in the development of a use-
made by breaking down theentire process into several inde- ful model for predicting the time to cracking after corrosion
pendent phenomena, suchas corrosion initiation, visible cor- initiation (Liu and Weyers 1996, Liu 1996). The model is
rosiondamage requiring maintenance, and subsequent based on the measured fieldcorrosion rate that is used to de-
damage requiringrehabilitation. termine the critical mass of rust products required to crack
The premise of these studies lies in the fact that for a struc- the concrete while considering the concrete's properties and
ture to degrade, severalsubsequent processes occur that can the construction parameters, such as steel reinforcement bar
be independently modeled. The chloride level at the struc- diameter, spacing, and cover depth. At measured corrosion
ture's surface builds up to a near constant level thatis depen- rates of 0.01 to 0.05 Mm2 ( 1 to 5 pA/cm2) and cover depths
dent on the surrounding environment. The chloride diffuses of 51 and 76 mm, the time to cracking ranged from five to
through the concrete initiating reinforcement corrosion and one years, and tento two years, respectively.
eventually concrete spalling occurs. With time, the chloride To estimate the time between initial cracking and the ef-
penetrates deeper and involves more of the reinforcement in fective functional service life (EFSL), the following equa-
the corrosion process.This process continues until a signifi- tion was used
cant amount of damage has occurred, warranting repair and
rehabilitation.
The focus of the previously described approach is on defin- T = E S F L - (DER) (6-13)
ing the time when a bridge deck needs maintenance (repair and
patch) T,, and whenit might need resurfacing T r e u .The time
to initiate repair or patching of the structure T, can be calcu- where
lated by determining the time to corrosion initiation Tiand the ID = noticeable initial surface damage resulting from the
time after corrosion has initiated to significant corrosion T,,, initiation ofcorrosion; and
DR = deterioration rate.
The latter is defined as the amount of surface area deteriorat-
Tm = Ti + ' c o r (6- 1O)
ed per year afterinitial cracking. This requires that the dam-
age expected or noticed ona structure be quantified.
Before predicting the service life of a bridge deck, key pa-
In addition, the time to rehabilitation, or resurfacing, of the
rameters were obtainedfor the environment and thestructure
structure, Trel,b, canbe calculated using the value deter-
(Weyers et al. 1993). These parameters included theequilib-
mined for T,, determining the time after significant corrosion
rium surface concentration of chloride Co, the diffusion co-
occurrence to deteriorationTderand the equation thatfollows
efficient forchloride in the concrete D,the modified concrete
cover on the steel X,the initial damage seen on the surface
Trrhuh = T i + 'cor Tder (6-11 ) when spalling occursID,the deterioration rate on the surface
after significant spalling has occurred DR,and EFSL, the ef-
6.4.1 Methodology development-The amount of chloride fective functional service life based on surface damage.
at a given depth X and time t in a semiinfinite slab with con- Using data from 50 bridge decks in New York state, the
stant surface chloride concentrationCo can be expressed as a mean annual snowfall (MAS) and the average annual daily
solution toFick's second law traffic (AADT) were related to the equilibrium surface chlo-

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REPORT 365.1 R 4 1

ride concentrationCOmeasured a short distance into the con- such as concrete piles, might have total damage levels be-
crete. This characterization of environments had a correlation tween 20 and 40%,at the end of service life.
constant of R = 0.76, and the surface chloride concentration 6.4.2 Application of the methodology-Using the histori-
was represented as cal data, two primaryapproaches to predict theservice life of
bridge decks were evaluated: the diffusion-cracking-deterio-
C, = 0.110 X MAS-0.000189 X AADTL+ 3.349 (6-14) ration model (DCDM)andthe diffusion-spalling model
(DSM) (Cady and Weyers 1984). The DCDM predicts the
service life based on five processes:
where Co is in kg/m3, MAS is in cm, and AADTL is in
AADT per lane. Typical values forCo range from 1 to 9 kg/ Equations to
quantify
m3. In addition, 2700 samples from 321 bridges in 16 states DCDM processes process
were measured to obtain chloride concentrations as a func- Early damage related to construction defects Ea. (6- 15)
tion of depth. These data permitted Co values to be estimated Diffusion ofthe chloride through concrete and initiation of
Eq. (6-12)
for environmental exposure conditions of low, moderate, corrosion at a depth of reinforcing steel equalto the initial and (6-14)
observable levelof damage, 2.5%
and severe for the various states (Weyers et al. 1994). In ad-
dition, this allowed apparent diffusion coefficients D to be Corrosion of2.5% ofsteel and subsequent spalling m.(6-10)
calculated for each bridge deck and concrete mixture. Damage of concrete until cumulative damage results
of functional life (EFSL)
in end
I
Es. 6 - 1 3
To account for the fact that reinforcement is not necessar- Level of cumulative
damage at EFSL I
Eq(6-11)
ily atthe design depth, field data were compiled via pachom-
eter readings on actual cover versus design cover (Cady and The DSM predicts the service life based on two processes:
Weyers 1984). An effective concrete cover L was calculated
assuming a normal distribution of concrete covers and utiliz- Equations to
quantify
ing the following equation DSM processes process
Diffusion ofthe chlorideto a depth of reinforcing steel
,)4)y-&
y6!(
L = d-uo (6-15) whose corrosion definesthe EFSL and (6- 1.5)
Corrosion of reinforcing steelat the critical depth resulting Eq. (6-1 I)
where d is the designcover; d i s the standarddeviation; and in surface damage defining EFSL and (6-13)
a is a factor based on a normal distribution that allows L to
represent the cover depth for an amountof reinforcement at For these two approaches, Eq. (6-10) to (6-15) are used
or below a given cover depth. In other words, L represents with the primary difference between the DCDM and DSM
the effective cover depth for an amount of reinforcement at methods beingthe definition of L in Eq. (6-15). The DCDM
or less than d. Values of a corresponding to different cumu- model treatseach process separately and calculates initiation
lative amounts of reinforcing steel are provided as follows: from a smaller fraction of reinforcement. The DSM model
assumes that the percent surface damage defining EFSL is
Cumulative steel reinforcement, % a equal to the surface cover located overthe first layer of steel.
2.5 1.96
Based on observations of 249 bridges in Pennsylvania, a
5.0 1.65
rate of damage per year DR of 2.1% of the deck surface was
IO I .28
used. From the same data set, EFSL was defined as 40%
15 I .o4
damage of the deck surface based on the condition of the
20 0.85
decks at the time they were rehabilitated. From the study
30 0.52
where engineers defined the conditions of the EFSL for
40 0.26
decks, 12% damage in the worst traffk lane is the EFSL
(Weyers et al. 1993, 1994).For the substructures, 40%dam-
These results can be used to calculate the effective cover age of the total surface area was defined as the EFSL. The
depth L for different amounts of reinforcing steel in bridge models were applied usingdata obtained from several states
decks. for the values of Co, d, o,and D. The DCDM model corre-
Each bridgewas evaluated for theamount of damage that lated with historical estimates on bridge decks, however, the
occurs on the road surface for a given year and the amount DSM model gave more historically accurate estimates for
of damage necessitating rehabilitation (Cady and Weyers the piles andcaps. In both ofthese models, the degree of cor-
1984). This damage was viewed in two ways: damage from relation wasdependent on being able to accurately define the
spalling and total damage (spalls, delamination, patches). corrosion rate and the chloride diffusivity.
From a survey of historical data on a variety of structures, it
was determined that 1.4 to 5% spalls warrant the overlay- 6.5 Example W-Utilization of reaction rate to
ment ofa bridge deck. The functional service life, depending calculate thelife of a sewer pipe
on treatment, was determined when total damage between The fifth example addresses a variety of concrete sewer
9.3 to 13.6%of the pavementin the worst traffic lane, or 5.8 pipes that were studied in California from 1962 to 1976
to 10%of the pavementin the entire deck area, was reached. (Gilbert & Associates 1979). The study included physical
The study also showed that other components of a bridge, inspections of approximately 100 manholes and character-

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 ¡zed the general conditions of the sewer line. The data col- 6.6 Example VCEstimating service life and
lected were compared with a theoretical equation that had maintenance demandsof a diaphragm wall
been developed (Pomeroy 1974). The equation quantifies exposed to saline groundwater
The sixth example provides information on use of calcula-
several variables found in a sewer pipe environment that di-
rectly affect the rate of concrete deterioration. The equation tions to estimate the service life and maintenance demands of a
is as follows diaphragm wall exposed to saline ground water (9 gm C1-L) on
one side andaù on the other(Rostam and Geiker 1993, Geiker
et al. 1993). The calculations assume homogeneous concrete
C = 0.45k@.,,(1/A) (6- 16) in an 8 C environment and were made in connection with a
large Scandinavian traffic link. The 10 m high by 0.8 m thick
where walls were cast as diaphragm wallsin bentonite-filled furrows.
C = average rate of corrosion (chemical dissolution) of The concrete w/cm was limited to a minimum of 0.4 by the
concrete by acid, in./yr; casting method. Steel reinforcement was located at both sides
0.45 = experimentallyderived constant; of the walls.The combined selectionof concrete composition,
k = acid efficiency coefficient; cover, and provision for protective and remedial measures was
= flux of hydrogen sulfide (H$) gas to the pipe based on considerations of the following: environmental ex-
wall; and posure, possibility of obtaining the required quality by the
A = alkalinity ofthe concrete. castingmethod, andrequiredservicelifeofthestructure
The fluxof hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas QSwis expressedas (100 years) taking into account the requirements of the main-
tenance budget.
The durability of the walls was affectedby environmental
= 0.44(~v)~’~j[DS](b/P’) (6-17) aggressors attacking both from the internal and external fac-
es of the wall, such as chemical, physical, and mechanical
where forces. Chloride-induced corrosion was the primary degrada-
0.44 = empirical constant; tion mechanism considered. Due to self-dessication during
SV)^" = energy term: S = energy gradient ofwaste hydration, the concrete was initiallynonsaturated.The saline
stream; and v = velocity; ground water wasexpected to flowthrough the wall because
of a difference in moisture content and pressure. Chlorides
j = fraction of dissolved sulfide present as H2S, a
function ofpH (j= 1.0for pH c 4); accumulated at the air exposedside due to evaporationof the
[DS] = concentration of dissolved sulfide in waste flowing water. The service life tsl of the walls consisted of
stream; and the sum of three periods of time: time-to-steady-state mois-
ture transport (that is, time-to-concrete saturation by chloride
b/P‘ = ratio of surface width of waste stream to exposed
containing water), time-to-reach critical concentration at a
perimeter of pipe wall above water surface.
level of reinforcement at the wall face exposed to air, and
The flow characteristics of waste water moving through
time untilrequired repair.
concrete pipes of different diameters (0.69 m to 1.5 m) and
6.6.1 Time until steady-state moisture transport t,-The
the dissolved sulfide concentrations as a function of time
moisture transport in the wall is expected to occur by capil-
were measured in the California study. Finally, each man-
larysuctionthrough the first 1 0 0 mm andpermeation
hole was characterized by the average pH and penetration
through the remaining 700 mm (Betonbogen 1985). The
depth of attack at the crown and at the springline. The flow
time tc for saturation of the pore system withsaline water by
characteristics and the sulfide data were used with Eq. (6-
capillary suction can be calculated from the following (Be-
16) and (6-17) to calculate the predicted corrosion. The ac-
tonbogen 1985)
tual corrosion at the manholes was compared to the predict-
ed values and it was found that th,ey were 1 to 1.5 times
2
greater than thepredicted values. This was explained by the t,=zM (6- 18)
fact that the manholes were more turbulent than the pipe it-
self. Also, no measured values for the reaction efficiency, where
k, had been made. The authors assumed k to have a value of z = depth of penetration, assumed 0.1 m;and
one for the prediction of service life.
M = resistance number,assumed 7 x lo7 dm2.
Because the life of the concrete in this application is The permeation of water through the remaining part theof
closely tied to the production of sulfuric acid by the Thio-
wall is described by D’Arcy’s law, and the time t,, until the
bacillus bacteria, the rate of deterioration is tied significant-
remaining partof the wall becomessaturated with saline wa-
ly to k. Most of the other parameters in Eq. (6-16) are ter was estimated from
constant. Therefore, if k can be measured or approximated,
many of the other parameters in the California study could
be assumed. With reliable measurements, the values calcu- tp = ( L - z - x ) P A u / ~ 19)
(6-
lated for C can be used to determine when the failure con-
dition of a pipe is reached and to predict the service life of where
in-service pipes. L = wall thickness, 0.8 m;

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z depth of penetration by capillary suction, assumed

= Based on an assumed concrete cover (100 mm), the time to
0.1 m; reach a critical chloride level (assumedto be O. 1% by weight
x = distance between air exposed side and the evapora- of concrete for the actual type of structure and concrete) is
tion zone (see as follows); estimated to be r2 = 30 years.
p = density of the concrete, assumed 2300 kg/m3; 6.6.3 Time until required repair t r F o r Danish concrete
Au = difference in moisture content betweensaturated structures, 10 years of active corrosion leads to distress that
and nonsaturated concrete, assumed 40% of a total
requires repair. Forthe diaphragm walls, the moisture condi-
moisture content at 5 % by weight of concrete; and
tion impedes the corrosion process by decreasing the rate of
q = rate of water transfer according to
D’Arcy’s law (see as follows). oxygen diffusion to the cathode. Based on this, the time to
The value of x was estimated to be7 mm from develop damage sufficient to require repair is estimated as
twice the typical time, or t3 = 20 years.
X = L / ( 1 + K,(-,D,, 95%)/(K,,~,~(0.95
- $))) (6-20) 6.6.4 Service life estimate of walls-consequently, the
service life t,l of the actual structure under the conditions de-
scribed is estimatedto be
where
Kc transport coefficient for concrete, assumed
=
5x kg/(Pa m S ) ; fSl = t , + t a+ t3 = 17 + 30 + 20 = 67years (6-23)
KP = trans ort coefficientforpaste,assumed 2x

P,,,95% = -7 x10 Pa;

PS
pz
10-1 k (Pa m S ) ;

= saturated vapor pressure, 1073 Pa at 8 C; and

For a service lifeof 100 years to be achieved, remedial actions,
such as cathodic protectionor future maintenance,is required.

4 = relative humidity on the air exposed side, 6.7 Example VlCApplication of time-dependent
assumed 80%. reliability conceptsto a concrete slab and low-rise
The value of q was estimated at 4 x kg/m2 S from shear wall
Time-dependent reliability concepts are illustrated in exam-
q = Kc(-ph, 95%)/(L-x) (6-21) ple seven for two hypotheticalstructures-a reinforced con-
crete slab and a low-rise shear wall.The results presented are
For the described concrete wall and the above assumptions, drawn from recent research on aging of concrete structuresin
steady-state moisture flow occurred after tc +
17 years (that is, nuclear power plants(Mori and Ellingwood1994, 1994a).
tp= t l ) . At this time, chloride accumulation occurs. 6.7.1 Concrete s&The reinforced concrete slab of the
There could bea higher relative humidity, 95%RH,in the first example was designed using the requirements for flex-
evaporation zone thanthaton the air-exposedside. This ure strength found in AC1 3 18
would increase the estimated value of tl significantly.
6.6.2 Time to reach the critical Concentration at the rein-
forcement tzBased on the estimated rate of watertransfer, 0.9Rn = 1.40, + 1.7Ln (6-24)
the annual flowof saline water throughthe saturated wallis
estimated at 1400 g/m2. Taking into account the chloride in whichR,,is the nominalor code resistance, and D,, and L,,
concentration in the groundwater, the annual ingress of are the code-specifieddead and live loads, respectively. It is
chlorides is 12.4 g. As mentioned previously, the evapora- assumed that significant structural loads can be modeled as a
tion’frontis estimated to be 7 mm below the air exposed sur- sequence of load pulses, the occurrence of which is described
face. At thisdepth, chlorides are expected to accumulate and by a Poisson process witha mean rate of occurrence d, ran-
then diffuse back into the concrete. Diffusion through the
dom intensity S j and duration z. Such a simple load process
concrete is assumed to follow Fick’s Second Law. In this
has been shown to be an effective model for extreme loads
case, however, the surface concentration varies withtime so
Fick’s Second Law was modifiedas follows on structures, because the normal service loads challenge the
structure to only a small fraction of its strength (Lamabeeand
X
Cornell 1981; Pearce and Wen 1984). At the same time, the
t ) - (C(t ) - Ci)erf-
C, = C,v( (6-22) strength of the slab changes in time, initially increasing as
2 K t
the concrete matures and thendecreasing due to corrosion of
steel reinforcement. This situation is illustrated by the sam-
where
ple functions r(t) and s(t) for strength and load in Fig. 6. l .
c, = chloride concentration at depth x ;
The behavior of the resistance over time should be obtained
Cs = chloride concentration at surface;
Ci = initial chloride concentration; from mathematical models describing the degradation mech-
D = diffusion coefficient; anism(s) present (Chapter 4).
x = depth; With the assumption that loadoccurrence is a Poisson pro-
r = time; and cess, the reliability function (Eq. (3-3)) becomes (Elling-
erf = error function. wood and Mori 1993)

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I I I I I I 1 Neglecting strengthdegradation entirely in a time-dependent

.
I
g
S
&
1.1 - HLmear degradation, g(40) = 0.9
HNondegradmg, g(40) = 1.0
HStrength increases, then degrades I reliability assessment can be quite unconservative, depend-
ing onthe nature of the time-dependent behavior.
Forecasts of reliability of the type illustrated in Fig. 6.2
enable an analyst to determine the time periodbeyond
which the desired reliability of the structure cannot be en-
sured. At such time, the structure should be inspected. Inter-
vals of inspection and maintenance requiredas a condition for
continued operation can be determined from the time-depen-
dent reliability analysis. Also, optimized in-service inspec-
tionand maintenance strategies basedon either full or
partial in-service inspection and maintenance approaches
can be developed (Mori and Ellingwood 1994,1994a).
6.7.2 Concrete low-rise shear wall-A low-rise shear wall
O 10 20 30 4 0 5 0 with a height-width ratio equal to one is considered as the
Time, years second example. It issubjected to vertical loadD, that is uni-
Fig. 6.1-Meandegradationfunctions of one-wayslab formly distributed on the top of the wall, and lateral load V
(Naus et al. 1996) that is concentrated at the top of the wall. The shear strength
of concrete walls can be estimated from empirical models

1
4
(AC1 318; Barda et al. 1977).These models are not sufficient
to analyze the strength of deteriorating low-rise shear walls.
Although finite-element analysis provides detailed informa-
tion on the shear-resistance mechanisms, it requires lengthy
computational effort, especially when adapted to reliability
analysis. A recent theoretical approach for evaluating shear
strength of low-rise reinforced concrete walls determines the
HLinear degradation,g(40) = 0.9 ultimate shear strength as the sum of theforces sustained by
Nondegrading, g(40) = 1.0 a truss mechanismV, and an arch mechanismV, (Shiraishi et
HStrength increases,then degrades al.1989; Shohara etal. 1989; Watanoabe and Ichinose
I I I I I 1992). It is assumed that the wall fails if all the reinforcing
O 10 20 M 40 50 60 bars yield in tension and the concrete arch crushes in com-
Time, years pression. According to the lower bound theorem of plasticity
Fig. 6.2-Failure probability of one-way slab (Naus et al. (Chen and Han1988), this approach providesa conservative
1996) estimate of the shear strength. These models were modified
for the reliability analysis of a degrading concrete shear wall
(Mon and Ellingwood 1994b).
A wall subjected to chemical attack suffers a loss of con-
O crete section. If the wall is not heavily reinforced
in the trans-
verse direction, the contribution of the truss mechanism is
in which f R ( r ) is the probability density function of initial small. Therefore, only the strength of the arch mechanism
strength and g ( t ) is a function describing the degradation in decreases due to the loss of concrete sectionwhilethe
strength with time normalized with respect to initial strength strength attributed to the truss mechanism is independent of
(Fig. 6.1). The limit state probability or probability of failure the degradation. If the wall is reinforced in the longitudinal
during the interval (0,t)can be determined as F(t) = 1 - L(0,t). direction, the vertical reaction is sustained by the longitudi-
Figure 6.2 presents a comparison of limit-state probabili- nal reinforcement, and degradation of concrete outside the
ties for intervals (0,t)for t ranging upto 60 years. Three cases concrete strut in the arch mechanism can be neglected. As-
are presented(Fig. 6.1): suming that the stress in the concrete strut is uniform, the
No degradation in strength (that is, R(t) = a random degradation functionof the shear wall can be givenby
variable-this case is analogous to what has been done
in probability-based code workto date) (Ellingwood
and Galambos 1982);
R(t) initially increasing with concrete maturity and then
decreasing; and
R(t) decreasinglinearlyover time to 90% of itsinitial in which Vuo is the initial shear strength of the wall, V,(t) is
strength at40 years. the shear strength of the arch mechanism at time t , and G,(t)
The basis forthe statistics used in this example, as well as the is the degradation function of the shear strength of the arch
next, is provided elsewhere (EllingwoodandMori 1993). mechanism.

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C = time-invariant random variable described

by a lognormal distribution with mean val-
ue m, of 2.22 x 10-6/yr and coefficient of
variation V, of 0.5. This value results in an
average defect size that is large enough to
be found by visual inspection several years
after initiation.
The28-dayspecifiedcompressivestrength of concrete
equals 27.6 MPa. The correspondingexpected mean
compressive strength at 28 days is 28.7 MPa,andthe
specified yield strengthof the reinforcementis 414 MPa
with a mean of 465 MPa (MacGregoret al. 1983);and
Compressive strength of concrete isassumedtoincrease
during the first 10 years, but does not change thereafter.
According to Washa et al. (1989),and assuming the con-
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 Crete
and curing
conditions
similar
are
study,
this
to the
Time, years mean compressive
strength (in units oftime
MPa)
at r is
evaluated by
Fig. 6.3-Mean degradation function of wall in shear with-
out reDair
‘ (Naus
, et al. 1996).
15.51 + 3.951nt t c IO yr
(6-30)
The ultimate flexural capacity of a wall cross section M,, t 2 IO yr
loaded out of plane, is
in which t is in days. The concrete section area decreases
4
M,, = T,s( - d,) + Cc(f - kZc,,)+ C”(f - d,) (6-27) with time as damage accumulates. Other engineering
properties of the wall are assumed to be time-invariant.
The mean degradation in shear strength of the wall with a
in which chemical attack occurring in one section of the concrete wall
T,and C,T= total force transferred to reinforcement in the is illustrated in Fig. 6.3.Also illustrated in the figure is the
tension and compression zone, respectively; mean degradation in wall shear strength evaluated when the
b = wall thickness; cumulative effect of attack at multiple locations is addressed
dc = concrete cover; (Mori and Ellingwood 1992).For comparison purposes, re-
CU = distance fromthe compressive face to the sults for no degradation are presented. The gain in shear
neutral axis; and strength due to the continuous hydration of concrete more
k2cu locates the compressive resultant C,. than compensates for the strength degradation due to the loss
For illustration, assume that:
of section area up to approximately 40 years. Subsequently,
The wall is subjected to time-invariantdeadload DL
ignoring the cumulative effect of defects provides an overly
that is uniformly distributed and intermittent lateral
optimistic degradation function.
load V that is concentrated at the top of the wall and
can act either in-plane or out-of-plane; The failure probabilities and the hazardfunctions associat-
The wallisdesigned for in-plane shear basedonthe ed with the strength degradation illustrated in Fig. 6.3 are
current design requirementof AC1 349 presented in Fig. 6.4 and 6.5,respectively. The increase in
failure probability due to the strength degradation is small
because of the large variability in earthquake load intensity
(Mori and Ellingwood 1994b).The hazard function, howev-
er, increases rapidly after about 50 years when the cumula-
in which tive effect of defects is considered.
R,, = nominal shear strength:and
The mean degradation in flexure and compression strength
E,T,T= structuralaction due to safe shutdown earth-
of the wall is moresensitive to the loss of the outer partof the
quake. It is assumed that the safe shutdown
earthquake load = 3DL = 3.21 meganewtons. cross-section area than is the shear strength, as shown in Fig.
The defectintensity Y(?) ismodeled 6.6. Because loss of the outer part of the wall leads to a re-
duction in the internal momentarm, the flexural strength de-
grades more rapidly thanthe shear strength, which decreases
(6-29) linearly as a function of loss of cross section. Thus, if the
governing limit state of the wall is flexure, special attention
where shouldbe given to the potential for degradation when per-
T, = initiation time; and forming a condition assessment.

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365.1R-36 AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

0.008

0.007

0.006
h

2 0.005
i
c
0.004
al
n
9 0.003
n
P)
-.-f
al
0.002
L
0.001

O
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 .,. , I I I I I I
Time, years O 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, years

Fig. 6.4-Failure probability of wall in shear without repair Fig. 6.6-Mean degradation function of wall in flexure and
(Naus et al. 1996). compression (Naus et al. 1996).

been directly considered at the design phase. The present ap-

proach, with respect to the durability of concrete structures,
4 M u l t i p l e Defects
.........*....- .....
~
is based on satisfying specific requirements, such as maxi-
'' "B -Single Defect mum w/cm and minimum coverrequirements for certain en-

-
r 0.0002
vironmental conditions or applications. The assumption is
that if these requirements are met, the structure achieves the
i desired durability but for an unspecified time. It has been
.-O
E 0.00015 suggested that a new set of standards and codes be required
3
u. to cover the methodology of environmental interaction be-
E 0.0001 tween applied loads and predicting of service life (Frohns-
9
X
dorff andMasters 1990).
0.00005 "......._.... *." ................. "...".,....,. ...........................
4 C .". ..*." Needed developments to allow the service-life prediction
i of existing structures have been identified (Hookham 1992).
These developments include establishing data requirements
O I i I i i
I I I I to support service-life prediction, refinement of mathemati-
O 10 20 30 40 50 60
cal modelsdepicting aging and degradation, an improved un-
Time, years
derstanding of the effects of microclimates on long-term
Fig. 6.5-Hazard function of wall in shear without repair behavior, synthesis of the interactionof physical loadingand
(Naus et al. 1996). environmental degradation, and incorporation of the benefi-
cial contributions of prudent inspection and rehabilitation
CHAPTER 7-ONGOING WORK AND NEEDED into the service-lifeprediction process. The remainder of this
DEVELOPMENTS chapter focuses on the durability aspects of service-life pre-
7.1-Introduction diction and the design of newstructures.
The service life of new and existing concrete structures is
influenced by measures takenduring design and construction 7.2-Designing for durability
to resist degradation from imposed loads and environmental Quantitative design for durability requires an improved
conditions (for example, the degree of durability). Durability understanding of the degradation mechanisms, improved
brings thetime element into the design of reinforced concrete characterization of service environments, data on materials,
structures and should be given equal importance to that given the development of advanced models, and the development
to strength. Designandconstruction currently consists of of standards and guidelines for the use of design methodsand
seven components froma list (Sornmerville1986): 1) design acceptance for durability predictions (Hognestad 1986; Tas-
loads and actions; 2) performance criteria; 3) factors of safe- sios 1985). Extensive research andstudies have been carried
ty, or reliability;4) design and detailing; 5 ) material specifi- out to determine the durability of concrete under various ser-
cations; 6) workmanship and construction practices; and 7) vice conditions (Biczok 1972; Mehta 1989; Fagerlund 1983,
minimum levels of maintenance. Provisions for durability in Oland and Naus1990;Pihlajavaara 1974;Klieger 1958),and
the past have primarilybeen addressed under Items 5 and 6. progressive changes in the physical and chemical nature of
Withfew exceptions, performance criteria often have not concrete are well understood under such conditions. Using

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formance data (Philipose et al. 199l ; Parrott 1987). Work is

also under way on developing a database containing infor-
mation on the effects of aging and environmental factors on
concrete and metallic reinforcingmaterials (Oland and Naus
3n
3
1994). The role of in-service inspectionand maintenance in
enhancing the reliability and extending the usable lifeof re-
5 inforced concrete elements in flexure and shear has also been
W - addressed (Mori and Ellingwood 1993, 1994b). Additional
V

i
a
effort in each of these areas is required, including develop-
ment of a new set of standards and codes to cover environ-
I FErn- +
mentalinteractionbetweenappliedloads
service life (Frohnsdorff and Masters 1990).
and predicting

f d n tr TIME
Fig. 7.1”LOss of durability withtime (Sommerville 1986). CHAPTER &REFERENCES
8.1-Referenced standards and reports
this information to develop criteriafor service-life prediction The documents of various standards producing organiza-
is far from complete. A problem witha comparative approach tions referred to in this document are listed below with their
such as this, is that each concrete structureis unique because serial designation.
of variability in materials, geometry,and construction practic-
es. Also, over the years, the properties of the concrete materi- American Assocationof State Highway and Transportation
als have changed. Feedback from assessments of performance OfJicials (AASHTO)
in practice increase the validity of this approach. Standard Specijìcationfor Highway Bridges, 14th Edition.
An important aspect in the development of designs for du- “Proposed ASSHTOGuide for Design of Pavement Struc-
rable structures is that a database be available on measure- tures,” NCHRP Project No. 20-1124, Mar. 1985.
ments of performance of service and environmental “Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete to Chloride
influences. The database would contain applications indicat- Ion Penetration,” AASHTO T 259
ing the expected response as well as the variability in re-
sponse under a variety of conditions. Information in the American Concrete Institute( A U )
database couldbe usedin the development of advanced 201.1R
Guide for Malung a Condition Survey of
models and verification of existing models. The advanced Concrete in Service
models would be used in the development of performance 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
versus time relations under defined conditions. Standards 207.3R Practices for Evaluation of Concrete in
and guidelines of acceptance would be usedto establish min- Existing Massive Structures for Service
imum required levels of performance. Performance criteria Conditions
would be presented as bands of values thattake into account 209R
Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Tem-
uncertainties. Figure 7.1 presents an illustration of the rela- perature Effects in Concrete Structures
tionship between performance, minimum required perfor-
210R Erosion of Concrete Hydraulic Structures
mance, and time (Sommerville 1986). Relationships of these
215R Consideration for Design of Concrete
types would permit a systematic approach to be used to op-
Structures Subjected to Fatigue Loading
timize the designof concrete structures in terms of price and
216R Guide for Determining the Fire Resistance
performance under the influence of a given environment. It
of Concrete Elements
couldalso beused during the assessment ofan existing
222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete
structure and the decision on whether or not to repair or re-
habilitate thestructure and what procedureto use. The effect 224R
Control of Cracking in Concrete
Structures
of a repair or rehabilitation procedure on service life is also 224.1R Causes, Evaluation, andRepair of Cracks
illustrated in Fig. 7.1. A report has been prepared that ad- in Concrete Structures
dresses systematic durability design of concrete structures 228.1R In-Place Methods for Determination of
(RILEM 1996). Workisunder way to develop a perfor- Strength of Concrete
mance-based durability design methodology (BRITE/ 228.2R Nondestructive Test Methods for Evalua-
EURATOM 1998).The objective of this activityis to devel- tion of Concrete in Structures
op a design approach for durability that is based on the same 30 1 Specifications for Structural Concrete for
principles as structural design, such as safety, serviceability, Buildings
limit states, and reliability. In addition, life-cycle total costs Hot
305R Weather Concreting
are considered and a realistic performance test procedure is Cold
306R Weather Concreting
being developed to establish material behavior. Some work 308R Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
has been done on designing structures with enhanced dura- 1.4R
31 Guide for Concrete Inspection
bility for offshore structures (Der Norske Veritas 197l ) and Building
318Code
Requirements for Reinforced
pavements (AASHTO 1985), and in the assemblage of per- Concrete

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365.1R-38 AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

349 Code Requirements for NuclearSafety Re- ASTM C 469 Test Method for Static Modulus of Elastic-
lated Structures ityandPoisson’s Ratio of Concrete in
349.1R Reinforced Concrete Design for Thermal Compression
Effects on Nuclear Power Plant Concrete ASTM C 496 Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength
Structures of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
350R Environmental Engineering Concrete ASTM C 586 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali
Structures Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Con-
355.1R State-of-the-Art Report Anchorage to crete Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
Concrete ASTM C 595 Standard Specification forBlended Hy-
357R Guide for the Design and Construction of draulic Cements
Fixed Offshore Concrete Structures ASTM C 597 Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity
359 Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and through Concrete
Containments ASTM C 642 Test Method for Specific Gravity, Absorp-
362R State-of-the-Art Report on Parking tion, and Voids in Hardened Concrete
Structures ASTM C 666 Standard Test Method for Resistance of
437R Strength Evaluation in Existing Massive Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
Structures for Service Conditions ASTM C 671 Standard Test Method forCritical Dilation
503R Standard Specification for Bonding Hard- of Concrete Specimens Subjected to
ened Concrete, Steel, Wood, Brick, and Freezing
Other Materials to Hardened Concrete ASTM C 672 Standard Test Method for Scaling Resis-
with a Multi-Component Epoxy Adhesive tance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to De-
515.1R A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, icing Chemicals
Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative ASTM C 682 Standard Test Method for Evaluation of
Barrier Systems for Concrete Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in
SP-66 AC1 Detailing Manual Air-Entrained Concrete by Critical Dila-
tion Procedures
SP-80 Fire Safety of Concrete Structures
ASTM C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of
SP-103 Anchorage to Concrete
Hardened Concrete
SP- 130 Anchorage in Concrete-Design and
ASTM C 805 Test Method for Rebound Number in
Behavior
Concrete
ASTM C 823 Practice for Examination and Sampling of
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Hardened Concrete in Constructions
ASCE
11-90 Guidelines for Structural Condition
As- ASTM C 856 Standard Recommended Practice for Petro-
sessment of Existing Buildings graphic Examinationof Hardened Concrete
ASTM C 876 Standard Test Method for Half Cell Poten-
ASTM Standards tials of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
ASTM C 39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of ASTM C 1084 Test Method for Portland-Cement Content
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens of Hardened Hydraulic-CementConcrete
ASTM C 42 Standard Test Method for Obtaining and ASTM C 1152 Test Method for Acid-Soluble Chloride in
Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams Mortar and Concrete
of Concrete ASTM C 1202 Test Method for Electrical Indication of
ASTM C 85 Standard Test Method for Cement Content Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride
of Hardened PortlandCement Concrete Penetration
ASTM C 150 Specification for PortlandCement ASTM C 1218 Test Method for Water-Soluble Chloride
ASTM C 215 Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, in Mortar and Concrete
Longitudinal, and Torsional Frequencies ASTM D 4580 Practice for Measuring Delaminations in
of Concrete Specimens Concrete Bridge Decks by Sounding
ASTM C 294 Descriptive Nomenclature of Constituents ASTM D4748 Test Method for Determining the Thick-
of Natural Mineral Aggregates ness of Bound Pavement Layers Using
ASTM C 295 Guide for Petrographic Examination of Short-Pulse Radar
Aggregates for Concrete ASTM D 4788 Test Method €or Detecting Delaminations in
ASTM C 341 Test Method for Length Change of Drilled Bridge Decks Using Infrared Thermography
or Sawed Specimensof Hydraulic-Cement ASTM E 632 Standard Practice for Developing Acceler-
Mortar and Concrete ated Tests to Aid Prediction of the Service
ASTM C 457 Standard Recommended Practice for Mi- Life of Building Componentsand Materials
croscopical DeterminationofAir-Void ASTM E 833 Standard Terminology of BuildingEco-
System nomics

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 STD-AC1 3bS.hR-ENGL 2000 IObb2747 0547326 h40 H
SERVICE-LIFE PREDICTION- -STATE-OF-THE-ART
REPORT 365.1 R-39

ASTM E 9 I7 Standard Practice for MeasuringLife-Cy- SHRP-S-324“ConditionEvaluation of ConcreteBridg-

cle Costs of Buildings and Building Sys- es Relative to Reinforcement Corrosion,”
tems Volume 2: Method for Measuring the Cor-
ASTM E 964Standard Practice for Measuring Benefit- rosion Rate of Reinforcing Steel
to-Cost and Savings-to-InvestmentRatios SHRP-S-327“ConditionEvaluation of ConcreteBridg-
for Buildings and Building Systems es Relative to Reinforcement Corrosion,”
ASTM E 1057Standard Practice for Measuring Internal Volume 5: Method for Evaluating the Ef-
Rates of Return for Investments in Build- fectiveness of Penetrating Sealers
ings and Building Systems SHRP-S-328“ConditionEvaluation of Concrete Bridg-
ASTM E 1074 Standard Practice for Measuring Net Ben- es Relative to Reinforcement Corrosion,’’
efits for Investments in Buildingsand Volume 6: Method for Field Determina-
Building Systems tion of Total Chloride Content
ASTM E 1121Standard Practice for MeasuringPayback SHRP-S-329“ConditionEvaluation of ConcreteBridg-
for Investments in Buildings and Building es Relative to Reinforcement Corrosion,”
Systems Volume 7: Method for Field Measurement
ASTM E 1 185 Standard Practice for Selecting Economic of Concrete Permeability
Methods for EvaluatingInvestmentsin SHRP-S-330“ConditionEvaluation of Concrete Bridg-
Buildings and Building Systems es Relative to Reinforcement Corrosion,”
ASTM E 1369StandardGuide for Selecting Techniques Volume 8: Procedure Manual
for Treating Uncertainty and Risk in the
EconomicEvaluation of Buildingsand The above publications can be obtained from the follow-
Building Systems ing organizations:

ASTM Adjuncts American Association of State Highway and Transportation

“Discount Factor Tables,” Adjunct to Practice E 917, Or- Officials
der PCN 12-509 179- 1O 444 N. Capitol St., NW
“BuildingLife-CycleCost(BLCC)ComputerProgram Washington, D.C. 20001
and Users Guide,” Order PCN 12-506089-10
American ConcreteInstitute
P.O. Box 9094
BS Documents
Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094
BS1881: Part 6 Methods of TestingConcrete
BS 188 1: Part 207 Recommendations for the Assessment
American Society of Civil Engineers
of Concrete Strength by Near-to-Surface
1801 Alexander BellDr.
Tests
Reston, Va. 20191-4400
CEB Documents
ASTM
Second CEB/RILEM International Workshop on the Du- 100 Barr HarborDr.
rability of Concrete Structures, Bologna, Italy, 1986.
West Conshohocken, Pa. 19428-2959
“CEB-FIPModelCode for Concrete Structures,” May
1993. British Standards Institution (BS)
Durable Concrete Structures, Design Guide, 1992. 2 Park Street
k
- London W 1A 2BS
CEN Code England
Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures
Comité Euro Internationale du Béton (CEB)
Nord Test Ecole Polytechnique Federaledu Lausanne
NTBuild443Concrete,Hardened:AcceleratedChlo- Case Postale 88
ride Penetration 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

RILEM Document European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

Calculation Methodsfor Service Life Design of Concrete 36, rue de Stassart
Structures, 1996. B-1050 Brussels
Belgium
SHRP Documents
SHRP-C-315“Handbook for Identification of Alkali- Norwegian Building ResearchInstitute
Silica Reactivity In Highway Structures” P.O. Box 123

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 365.1R-40 AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

Bindern Baiant, Z . P., 1979a, “Physical Modelfor Steel Corrosion

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Strategic Highway Research Program(SHRP) BRITEEURAM, 1998, “Probabilistic Performance-
National Academyof Sciences Based Durability Design of Concrete Structures,” BRITE/
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Browne, R. D., 1980, “Mechanisms of Corrosion of Steel
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Amey, S. L.; Johnson, D. A.; Miltenberger, M. A.;and Offshore and Coastal Structures,” Performance of Concrete
Farzam, H., 1998, “Predicting the Service Life of Concrete in Marine Environment, SP-65, V. M. Malhotra, ed., Amer-
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REPORT 365.1 R 4 1

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lar Transport Processes and Test Methods,” Technical Re- liability of Concrete Structures I: Role of Inspection/Re-
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Analysis,” Problems in Service-Life Prediction of Building June 30, 1994,” ORNL/NRC/LTR-94/21, Martin
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and Construction Materials, L. W. Masters, ed., Martinus EnergySystems,OakRidgeNationalLaboratory, Oak
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Martin, J., 1989,“AcceleratedAgingTestDesign for Naus, D. J.; Oland, C. B.; and Ellingwood, B. R., 1996,
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