SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS TUTORIAL

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Signals and Systems tutorial is designed to cover analysis, types, convolution, sampling and
operations performed on signals. It also describes various types of systems.

AUDIENCE
This tutorial is designed for students and all enthusiastic learners, who are willing to learn signals
and systems in simple and easy steps. This tutorial will give you deep understanding on Signals
and Systems concepts. After completing this tutorial, you will be at intermediate level of expertise
from where you can take yourself to higher level of expertise.

PREREQUISITES
Before proceeding with this tutorial, you must have a basic understanding of differential and
integral calculus, limits and adequate knowledge of mathematics.
 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
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What is Signal?
Signal is a time varying physical phenomenon which is intended to convey information.

OR

Signal is a function of time.

OR

Signal is a function of one or more independent variables, which contain some information.

Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.

Note: Noise is also a signal, but the information conveyed by noise is unwanted hence it is
considered as undesirable.

What is System?
System is a device or combination of devices, which can operate on signals and produces
corresponding response. Input to a system is called as excitation and output from it is called as
response.

For one or more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.

Example: Communication System

 SIGNALS BASIC TYPES
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Here are a few basic signals:

Unit Step Function

1 t⩾0
Unit step function is denoted by ut . It is defined as ut = {
0 t<0

It is used as best test signal.

Area under unit step function is unity.

Unit Impulse Function

1 t=0
Impulse function is denoted by δ t . and it is defined as δ t = {
0 t≠0

∞
∫ δ(t)dt = u(t)
−∞

du(t)
δ(t) =
dt
Ramp Signal

t⩾0
{
t
Ramp signal is denoted by rt , and it is defined as rt =
0 t<0
 ∫ u(t) = ∫ 1 = t = r(t)

dr(t)
u(t) =
dt
Area under unit ramp is unity.

Parabolic Signal

t2 /2 t⩾0
Parabolic signal can be defined as xt = {
0 t<0

t2
∬ u(t)dt = ∫ r(t)dt = ∫ tdt = = parabolicsignal
2
d 2 x(t)
⇒ u(t) = 2
dt
dx(t)
⇒ r(t) =
dt
Signum Function

⎧
⎪ 1 t>0
Signum function is denoted as sgnt . It is defined as sgnt = ⎨ 0
⎩
t=0
⎪
−1 t<0
sgnt = 2ut – 1

Exponential Signal

Exponential signal is in the form of xt = eαt .

The shape of exponential can be defined by α .

Case i: if α = 0 → xt = e0 = 1

Case ii: if α < 0 i.e. -ve then xt = e−αt . The shape is called decaying exponential.

Case iii: if α > 0 i.e. +ve then xt = eαt . The shape is called raising exponential.

Rectangular Signal
Let it be denoted as xt and it is defined as
Triangular Signal
Let it be denoted as xt

Sinusoidal Signal

Sinusoidal signal is in the form of xt = A cos$w0 ± ϕ$ or A sin$w0 ± ϕ$

Where T 0 = 2π
w0

Sinc Function
It is denoted as sinct and it is defined as sinc

sinπt
(t) =
πt
= 0 for t = ±1, ±2, ±3. . .
Sampling Function
It is denoted as sa t and it is defined as

sint
sa(t) =
t
= 0 for t = ±π, ±2π, ±3π . . .
 SIGNALS CLASSIFICATION
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Signals are classified into the following categories:

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

Even and Odd Signals

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Energy and Power Signals

Real and Imaginary Signals

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time/

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant
of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as
deterministic signals.
A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some
instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random
signals. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation. They are modelled in
probabilistic terms.

Even and Odd Signals

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition xt = x−t

Example 1: t2, t4… cost etc.

Let xt = t2

x−t = −t 2 = t2 = xt
∴, t2 is even function
Example 2: As shown in the following diagram, rectangle function xt = x−t so it is also even
function.

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition xt = -x−t

Example: t, t3 ... And sin t

Let xt = sin t

x−t = sin−t = -sin t = -xt

∴, sin t is odd function.

Any function ƒt can be expressed as the sum of its even function ƒet and odd function ƒot .

ƒ(t ) = ƒe(t ) + ƒ0 (t )

where

ƒe(t ) = ½[ƒ(t ) +ƒ(-t )]

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition xt = xt + T or xn = xn + N.
Where

T = fundamental time period,

1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

The above signal will repeat for every time interval T 0 hence it is periodic with period T 0 .

Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite energy.
∞
Energy E = ∫ x2 (t)dt
−∞

A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.

1 T
Power P = lim ∫ x2 (t)dt
T →∞ 2T −T

NOTE:A signal cannot be both, energy and power simultaneously. Also, a signal may be neither
energy nor power signal.

Power of energy signal = 0

Energy of power signal = ∞

Real and Imaginary Signals

A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition xt = x*t

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition xt = -x*t

Example:

If xt = 3 then x*t =3*=3 here xt is a real signal.

If xt = 3j then x*t =3j* = -3j = -xt hence xt is a odd signal.

Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly for an imaginary signal, real part
should be zero.
 SIGNALS BASIC OPERATIONS
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There are two variable parameters in general:

1. Amplitude
2. Time

The following operation can be performed with amplitude:

Amplitude Scaling
C xt is a amplitude scaled version of xt whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best
explained by using the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of zt = x1t + x2t = 0 + 2 = 2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of zt = x1t + x2t = 1 + 2 = 3

3 < t < 10 amplitude of zt = x1t + x2t = 0 + 2 = 2

Subtraction
subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be
best explained by the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z t = x1t - x2t = 0 - 2 = -2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z t = x1t - x2t = 1 - 2 = -1

3 < t < 10 amplitude of z t = x1t + x2t = 0 - 2 = -2

Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their corresponding amplitudes. This
can be best explained by the following example:
As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z t = x1t ×x2t = 0 ×2 = 0

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z t = x1t ×x2t = 1 ×2 = 2

3 < t < 10 amplitude of z t = x1t × x2t = 0 × 2 = 0

The following operations can be performed with time:

Time Shifting
x(t $\pm$ t0 ) is time shifted version of the signal xt .

x (t + t0 ) → negative shift

x (t - t0 ) → positive shift

Time Scaling
xAt is time scaled version of the signal xt . where A is always positive.

|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal

|A| < 1 → Expansion of the signal

Note: uat = ut time scaling is not applicable for unit step function.

Time Reversal
x−t is the time reversal of the signal xt .
 SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION
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Systems are classified into the following categories:

Liner and Non-liner Systems

Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
Liner Time variant and Liner Time invariant systems
Static and Dynamic Systems
Causal and Non-causal Systems
Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
Stable and Unstable Systems

Liner and Non-liner Systems

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles. Consider
two systems with inputs as x1 t , x2 t , and outputs as y1 t , y2 t respectively. Then, according to the
superposition and homogenate principles,

T [a 1 x1 t + a 2 x2 t ] = a 1 T[x1 t ] + a 2 T[x2 t ]

∴, T [a1 x1t + a2 x2t ] = a1 y1t + a2 y2t

From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of
individual system.

Example:

t = x2t
Solution:

y1 t = T[x1t ] = x12t
y2 t = T[x2t ] = x22t

T [a 1 x1 t + a 2 x2 t ] = [ a 1 x1 t + a 2 x2 t ]2

Which is not equal to a 1 y1 t + a 2 y2 t . Hence the system is said to be non linear.

Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time. Otherwise,
the system is considered as time invariant.

The condition for time invariant system is:

y n, t = yn −t
The condition for time variant system is:

y n, t ≠ yn − t
Where y n, t = T[xn − t ] = input change
yn − t = output change
Example:
 yn = x−n

yn, t = T[xn − t ] = x−n − t

yn − t = x−(n − t ) = x−n + t
∴ yn, t ≠ yn − t . Hence, the system is time variant.

Liner Time variant LTV and Liner Time Invariant LTI Systems
If a system is both liner and time variant, then it is called liner time variant LT V system.

If a system is both liner and time Invariant then that system is called liner time invariant LT I
system.

Static and Dynamic Systems

Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.

Example 1: yt = 2 xt

For present value t=0, the system output is y0 = 2x0. Here, the output is only dependent upon
present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.

Example 2: yt = 2 xt + 3 xt − 3

For present value t=0, the system output is y0 = 2x0 + 3x−3 .

Here x−3 is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get this
output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.

Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and does not
depend upon future input.

For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.

Example 1: yn = 2 xt + 3 xt − 3

For present value t=1, the system output is y1 = 2x1 + 3x−2 .

Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is causal.

Example 2: yn = 2 xt + 3 xt − 3 + 6xt + 3

For present value t=1, the system output is y1 = 2x1 + 3x−2 + 6x4 Here, the system output
depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.

Invertible and Non-Invertible systems

A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.

Y S = X S H1S H2S
1
= X S H1S · Since H2S = 1/H1(S )
(H1(S))

∴, YS = XS
t t
 → yt = xt
Hence, the system is invertible.

If yt ≠ xt , then the system is said to be non-invertible.

Stable and Unstable Systems
The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a bounded
input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.

Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.

Example 1: y t = x2 t

Let the input is ut unitstepboundedinput then the output yt = u2t = ut = bounded output.

Hence, the system is stable.

Example 2: y t = ∫ x(t) dt
unitstepboundedinput then the output yt = ∫ u(t) dt = ramp signal
Let the input is u t
unboundedbecauseamplitudeoframpisnotfiniteitgoestoinfinitewhent$ → $infinite .

Hence, the system is unstable.

 SIGNALS ANALYSIS
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Analogy Between Vectors and Signals

There is a perfect analogy between vectors and signals.

Vector
A vector contains magnitude and direction. The name of the vector is denoted by bold face type
and their magnitude is denoted by light face type.

Example: V is a vector with magnitude V. Consider two vectors V 1 and V 2 as shown in the
following diagram. Let the component of V 1 along with V 2 is given by C12 V 2 . The component of a
vector V 1 along with the vector V 2 can obtained by taking a perpendicular from the end of V 1 to
the vector V 2 as shown in diagram:

The vector V 1 can be expressed in terms of vector V 2

V 1 = C12 V 2 + V e

Where Ve is the error vector.

But this is not the only way of expressing vector V 1 in terms of V 2 . The alternate possibilities are:

V 1 =C1 V 2 +V e1

V 2 =C2 V 2 +V e2
The error signal is minimum for large component value. If C12 =0, then two signals are said to be
orthogonal.

Dot Product of Two Vectors

V 1 . V 2 = V 1 .V 2 cosθ

θ = Angle between V1 and V2

V 1 . V 2 =V 2 .V 1

The components of V 1 alogn V 2 = V 1 Cos θ = V 1.V 2

V2

From the diagram, components of V 1 alogn V 2 = C 12 V 2

V1 . V2
V2 = C1 2 V2
V1 . V2
⇒ C12 =
V2
Signal
The concept of orthogonality can be applied to signals. Let us consider two signals f1 t and f2 t .
Similar to vectors, you can approximate f1 t in terms of f2 t as

f1 t = C12 f2 t + fet for (t1 < t < t2 )

⇒ fet = f1t – C12 f2t

One possible way of minimizing the error is integrating over the interval t1 to t2 .

1 t2
∫ [fe (t)]dt
t2 − t1 t1

1 t2
∫ [f1 (t) − C12 f2 (t)]dt
t2 − t1 t1
However, this step also does not reduce the error to appreciable extent. This can be corrected by
taking the square of error function.

1
ε= t2 −t1
∫tt12 [fe (t)]2 dt
1
⇒ t2 −t1
∫tt12 [fe (t) − C12 f2 ]2 dt
Where ε is the mean square value of error signal. The value of C12 which minimizes the error, you
need to calculate dε
dC12
=0

⇒ d
[ 1
dC12 t2 −t1
∫tt12 [f1 (t) − C12 f2 (t)]2 dt] = 0
1
⇒ t2 −t1
∫tt12 [ dCd f12 (t) − d
dC12
2f1 (t)C12 f2 (t) + d
dC12
f22 (t)C12
2 ]dt = 0
12

Derivative of the terms which do not have C12 term are zero.

⇒ ∫tt12 −2f1 (t)f2 (t)dt + 2C12 ∫tt12 [f22 (t)]dt = 0

t
() ()
 ∫tt2 f1 (t)f2 (t)dt
If C12 = 1
component is zero, then two signals are said to be orthogonal.
∫tt2 f22 (t)dt
1

Put C12 = 0 to get condition for orthogonality.

∫tt2 f1 (t)f2 (t)dt

1
0=
∫tt2 f22 (t)dt
1

t2
∫ f1 (t)f2 (t)dt = 0
t1

Orthogonal Vector Space

A complete set of orthogonal vectors is referred to as orthogonal vector space. Consider a three
dimensional vector space as shown below:

Consider a vector A at a point (X 1 , Y 1 , Z 1 ). Consider three unit vectors (V X, V Y, V Z) in the direction

of X, Y, Z axis respectively. Since these unit vectors are mutually orthogonal, it satisfies that

VX . VX = VY . VY = VZ . VZ = 1
VX . VY = VY . VZ = VZ . VX = 0
You can write above conditions as

1 a=b
Va . Vb = {
0 a≠b
The vector A can be represented in terms of its components and unit vectors as

A = X1 VX + Y1 VY + Z1 VZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Any vectors in this three dimensional space can be represented in terms of these three unit
vectors only.

If you consider n dimensional space, then any vector A in that space can be represented as

A = X1 VX + Y1 VY + Z1 VZ +. . . +N1 VN . . . . . (2)
As the magnitude of unit vectors is unity for any vector A

The component of A along x axis = A.V X

The component of A along Y axis = A.V Y

The component of A along Z axis = A.V Z

Similarly, for n dimensional space, the component of A along some G axis

= A. V G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
Substitute equation 2 in equation 3.

⇒ CG = (X1 VX + Y1 VY + Z1 VZ +. . . +G1 VG . . . +N1 VN )VG

= X1 VX VG + Y1 VY VG + Z1 VZ VG +. . . +G1 VG VG . . . +N1 VN VG
= G1 since VG VG = 1
If VG VG ≠ 1 i.e.VG VG = k
AVG = G1 VG VG = G1 K
(AVG )
G1 = K

Orthogonal Signal Space

Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal functions x1 t , x2 t ... xn t over the interval t1 to t2 . As
these functions are orthogonal to each other, any two signals xjt , xkt have to satisfy the
orthogonality condition. i.e.
t2
∫ xj (t)xk (t)dt = 0 where j ≠ k
t1
t2
Let ∫ x2k (t)dt = kk
t1

Let a function ft , it can be approximated with this orthogonal signal space by adding the
components along mutually orthogonal signals i.e.

f(t) = C1 x1 (t) + C2 x2 (t)+. . . +Cn xn (t) + fe (t)

= Σnr=1 Cr xr (t)
f(t) = f(t) − Σnr=1 Cr xr (t)
1
Mean sqaure error ε= t2 −t2
∫tt12 [fe (t)]2 dt
n
1 t2
= ∫ [f[t] − ∑ Cr xr (t)]2 dt
t2 − t2 t1 r=1

The component which minimizes the mean square error can be found by

dε dε dε
= =. . . = =0
dC1 dC2 dCk
Let us consider dε
dCk
=0

d 1 t2
[ ∫ [f(t) − Σnr=1 Cr xr (t)]2 dt] = 0
dCk t2 − t1 t1
All terms that do not contain Ck is zero. i.e. in summation, r=k term remains and all other terms
are zero.
 t2 t2
∫ −2f(t)xk (t)dt + 2Ck ∫ [x2k (t)]dt = 0
t1 t1

∫tt12 f(t)xk (t)dt

⇒ Ck =
inttt21 x2k (t)dt
t2
⇒∫ f(t)xk (t)dt = Ck Kk
t1

Mean Square Error

The average of square of error function fet is called as mean square error. It is denoted by ε
epsilon .
.

1
ε= t2 −t1
∫tt12 [fe (t)]2 dt
1
= t2 −t1
∫tt12 [fe (t) − Σnr=1 Cr xr (t)]2 dt
1
= t2 −t1
[∫tt12 [fe2 (t)]dt + Σnr=1 Cr2 ∫tt12 x2r (t)dt − 2Σnr=1 Cr ∫tt12 xr (t)f(t)dt
t
You know that Cr2 ∫t 2
1
x2r (t)dt = Cr ∫tt12 xr (t)f(d)dt = Cr2 Kr
1
ε= t2 −t1
[∫tt12 [f 2 (t)]dt + Σnr=1 Cr2 Kr − 2Σnr=1 Cr2 Kr ]
1
= t2 −t1
[∫tt12 [f 2 (t)]dt − Σnr=1 Cr2 Kr ]

∴ε= 1
t2 −t1
[∫tt12 [f 2 (t)]dt + (C12 K1 + C22 K2 +. . . +Cn2 Kn )]
The above equation is used to evaluate the mean square error.

Closed and Complete Set of Orthogonal Functions

Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal functions x1 t , x2 t ...xn t over the interval t1 to t2 . This
is called as closed and complete set when there exist no function ft satisfying the condition
∫tt12 f(t)xk (t)dt = 0
t
If this function is satisfying the equation ∫t 2 f(t)xk (t)dt = 0 for k = 1, 2, . . then ft is said to be
1
orthogonal to each and every function of orthogonal set. This set is incomplete without ft . It
becomes closed and complete set when ft is included.

ft can be approximated with this orthogonal set by adding the components along mutually
orthogonal signals i.e.

f(t) = C1 x1 (t) + C2 x2 (t)+. . . +Cn xn (t) + fe (t)

If the infinite series C1 x1 (t) + C2 x2 (t)+. . . +Cn xn (t) converges to ft then mean square error is
zero.

Orthogonality in Complex Functions

If f1 t and f2 t are two complex functions, then f1 t can be expressed in terms of f2 t as

f1 (t) = C12 f2 (t) ..with negligible error

 ∫tt2 f1 (t)f2∗ (t)dt
Where C12 = 1

∫tt2 | f2 (t)|2 dt
1

Where f2∗ (t) = complex conjugate of f2 t .

If f1 t and f2 t are orthogonal then C12 = 0

∫tt12 f1 (t)f2∗ (t)dt

=0
∫tt12 |f2 (t)|2 dt
t2
⇒∫ f1 (t)f2∗ (dt) = 0
t1

The above equation represents orthogonality condition in complex functions.

 FOURIER SERIES
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Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier,a French mathematician and a physicist; was born in Auxerre,
France. He initialized Fourier series, Fourier transforms and their applications to problems of heat
transfer and vibrations. The Fourier series, Fourier transforms and Fourier's Law are named in his
honour.

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier 21March1768– 16May1830

Fourier series
To represent any periodic signal xt , Fourier developed an expression called Fourier series. This is
in terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines or exponentials. Fourier series uses orthoganality
condition.

Fourier Series Representation of Continuous Time Periodic Signals

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x t = x t + T or x n = x n + N.
Where T = fundamental time period,

ω0 = fundamental frequency = 2π/T

There are two basic periodic signals:

x(t) = cos ω0 t sinusoidal &

x(t) = ejω0t complexexponential

These two signals are periodic with period T = 2π/ω0 .
A set of harmonically related complex exponentials can be represented as {ϕk (t) }

2π
ϕk (t) = {ejkω0 t } = {ejk( T )t }where k = 0 ± 1, ±2. . n . . . . . (1)
All these signals are periodic with period T

According to orthogonal signal space approximation of a function x t with n, mutually orthogonal

functions is given by

∞
x(t) = ∑ ak ejkω0 t . . . . . (2)
k=−∞
∞
 ∞
= ∑ ak kejkω0 t
k=−∞

Where ak = Fourier coefficient = coefficient of approximation.

This signal xt is also periodic with period T.

Equation 2 represents Fourier series representation of periodic signal xt .

The term k = 0 is constant.

The term k = ±1 having fundamental frequency ω0 , is called as 1st harmonics.

The term k = ±2 having fundamental frequency 2ω0 , is called as 2nd harmonics, and so on...

The term k = ±n having fundamental frequency nω0 , is called as nth harmonics.

Deriving Fourier Coefficient

We know that x(t) = Σ∞ a ejkω0t . . . . . . (1)

k=−∞ k

Multiply e−jnω0 t on both sides. Then

∞
x(t)e −jnω0 t
= ∑ ak ejkω0 t . e−jnω0 t
k=−∞

Consider integral on both sides.

T T ∞
∫ x(t)e jkω0 t
dt = ∫ ∑ ak ejkω0 t . e−jnω0 t dt
0 0 k=−∞
T ∞
=∫ ∑ ak ej(k−n)ω0 t . dt
0 k=−∞
T ∞ T
∫ x(t)e jkω0 t
dt = ∑ ak ∫ ej(k−n)ω0 t dt. . . . . . (2)
0 k=−∞ 0

by Euler's formula,

T T T
∫ e j(k−n)ω0 t
dt. = ∫ cos(k − n)ω0 dt + j ∫ sin(k − n)ω0 t dt
0 0 0
T
k=n
ej(k−n)ω0 t dt. = {
T
∫
0 0 k≠n
Hence in equation 2, the integral is zero for all values of k except at k = n. Put k = n in equation 2.

T
 T
⇒∫ x(t)e−jnω0 t dt = an T
0

1 T −jnω0 t
⇒ an = ∫ e dt
T 0
Replace n by k.

1 T −jkω0 t
⇒ ak = ∫ e dt
T 0
∞
∴ x(t) = ∑ ak ej(k−n)ω0 t
k=−∞

1 T −jkω0 t
whereak = ∫ e dt
T 0
 FOURIER SERIES PROPERTIES
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These are properties of Fourier series:

Linearity Property
fourier series coefficient fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn & y(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fyn

then linearity property states that

fourier series coefficient
a x(t) + b y(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ a fxn + b fyn

Time Shifting Property

fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

then time shifting property states that

fourier series coefficient
x(t − t0 ) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ e−jnω0t0 fxn

Frequency Shifting Property

fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

then frequency shifting property states that

fourier series coefficient
ejnω0t0 . x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fx(n−n0 )

Time Reversal Property

fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

then time reversal property states that

fourier series coefficient
If x(−t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ f−xn

Time Scaling Property

fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

then time scaling property states that

fourier series coefficient
If x(at) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

Time scaling property changes frequency components from ω0 to aω0 .

Differentiation and Integration Properties
fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn
then differentiation property states that

dx(t) fourier series coefficient

If
dt
←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ jnω0 . fxn

& integration property states that

fourier series coefficient fxn
If ∫ x(t)dt ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ jnω0

Multiplication and Convolution Properties

fourier series coefficient fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn & y(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fyn

then multiplication property states that

fourier series coefficient
x(t). y(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ T fxn ∗ fyn

& convolution property states that

fourier series coefficient
x(t) ∗ y(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ T fxn . fyn

Conjugate and Conjugate Symmetry Properties

fourier series coefficient
If x(t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ fxn

Then conjugate property states that

fourier series coefficient
x ∗ (t) ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ f ∗xn

Conjugate symmetry property for real valued time signal states that

f ∗xn = f−xn
& Conjugate symmetry property for imaginary valued time signal states that

f ∗xn = −f−xn
 FOURIER SERIES TYPES
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Trigonometric Fourier Series TF S

2π
sin nω0 t and sin mω0 t are orthogonal over the interval (t0 , t0 + ω0
) . So sin ω0 t, sin 2ω0 t forms
an orthogonal set. This set is not complete without {cos nω0 t } because this cosine set is also
orthogonal to sine set. So to complete this set we must include both cosine and sine terms. Now
the complete orthogonal set contains all cosine and sine terms i.e. {sin nω0 t, cos nω0 t } where
n=0, 1, 2...

∴ Any function xt in the interval (t0 , t0 + 2π

ω0
) can be represented as

x(t) = a0 cos 0ω0 t + a1 cos 1ω0 t + a2 cos 2ω0 t+. . . +an cos nω0 t+. . .
+b0 sin 0ω0 t + b1 sin 1ω0 t+. . . +bn sin nω0 t+. . .
= a0 + a1 cos 1ω0 t + a2 cos 2ω0 t+. . . +an cos nω0 t+. . .
+b1 sin 1ω0 t+. . . +bn sin nω0 t+. . .

∞
∴ x(t) = a0 + ∑(an cos nω0 t + bn sin nω0 t) (t0 < t < t0 + T )
n=1

The above equation represents trigonometric Fourier series representation of xt .

∫tt00 +T x(t) ⋅ 1dt 1 t0 +T

Where a0 = = ⋅∫ x(t)dt
∫tt00 +T 2
1 dt T t0

∫tt00 +T x(t) ⋅ cos nω0 t dt

an =
∫tt00 +T cos2 nω0 t dt

∫tt00 +T x(t) ⋅ sin nω0 t dt

bn =
∫tt00 +T sin2 nω0 t dt
t0 +T t0 +T
T
Here ∫ cos2 nω0 t dt = ∫ sin2 nω0 t dt =
t0 t0 2
t0 +T
2
∴ an = ⋅∫ x(t) ⋅ cos nω0 t dt
T t0

t0 +T
2
bn = ⋅∫ x(t) ⋅ sin nω0 t dt
T t0

Exponential Fourier Series EF S

Consider a set of complex exponential functions {ejnω0 t } (n = 0, ±1, ±2...) which is orthogonal
2π
over the interval (t0 , t0 + T ) . Where T = . This is a complete set so it is possible to represent
ω0
any function ft as shown below

f(t) = F0 + F1 ejω0 t + F2 ej2ω0 t +. . . +Fn ejnω0 t +. . .

F−1e−jω0 t + F−2e−j2ω0 t+. . . +F−n e−jnω0 t +. . .

∞
∴ f(t) = ∑ Fn ejnω0 t (t0 < t < t0 + T). . . . . . . (1)
n=−∞

Equation 1 represents exponential Fourier series representation of a signal ft over the interval (t0 ,
t0 +T). The Fourier coefficient is given as

t +T
∫t 0 f(t)(ejnω0 t )∗ dt
Fn = 0
t +T
∫t 0 ejnω0 t (ejnω0 t )∗ dt
0

t +T
∫t 0 f(t)e−jnω0 t dt
= 0
t +T
∫t 0 e−jnω0 t ejnω0 t dt
0

t +T
∫t 0 f(t)e−jnω0 t dt 1 t0 +T
= 0
t +T
= ∫ f(t)e−jnω0 t dt
∫t 0 1 dt T t0
0

t0 +T
1
∴ Fn = ∫ f(t)e−jnω0 t dt
T t0

Relation Between Trigonometric and Exponential Fourier Series

Consider a periodic signal xt , the TFS & EFS representations are given below respectively

x(t) = a0 + Σ∞
n=1 (an cos n ω0 t + bn sin n ω0 t). . . . . . (1)

x(t) = Σ∞
n=−∞Fn e
jnω0 t

= F0 + F1 ejω0 t + F2 ej2ω0 t +. . . +Fn ejnω0 t +. . .

F−1e−jω0 t + F−2e−j2ω0 t +. . . +F−n e−jnω0 t +. . .
= F0 + F1 (cos ω0 t + j sin ω0 t) + F2 (cos2ω0 t + j sin 2ω0 t)+. . . +Fn (cos nω0 t + j sin nω0 t)+. . . +F−1 (cos ω0 t − j sin ω0 t) + F−2 (cos 2ω0 t − j sin 2ω0 t)+. . . +F−n (cos nω0 t − j sin nω0 t)+. . .
= F0 + (F1 + F−1 ) cos ω0 t + (F2 + F−2 ) cos 2ω0 t+. . . +j(F1 − F−1 ) sin ω0 t + j(F2 − F−2 ) sin 2ω0 t+. . .
∴ x(t) = F0 + Σ∞
n=1 ((Fn + F−n ) cos nω0 t + j(Fn − F−n ) sin nω0 t). . . . . . (2)

Compare equation 1 and 2.

a0 = F0
an = Fn + F−n
bn = j(Fn − F−n )
Similarly,

= 1( −j )
Fn = 12 (an − jbn )

F−n = 12 (an + jbn )

 FOURIER TRANSFORMS
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The main drawback of Fourier series is, it is only applicable to periodic signals. There are some
naturally produced signals such as nonperiodic or aperiodic, which we cannot represent using
Fourier series. To overcome this shortcoming, Fourier developed a mathematical model to
transform signals between time orspatial domain to frequency domain & vice versa, which is
called 'Fourier transform'.

Fourier transform has many applications in physics and engineering such as analysis of LTI
systems, RADAR, astronomy, signal processing etc.

Deriving Fourier transform from Fourier series

Consider a periodic signal ft with period T. The complex Fourier series representation of ft is given
as

∞
f(t) = ∑ ak ejkω0 t
k=−∞
∞
= ∑ ak e
j 2π kt
T
0 . . . . . . (1)
k=−∞

Let 1 = Δf , then equation 1 becomes

T0

f(t) = ∑∞
k=−∞ ak e
j2πkΔft . . . . . . (2)

but you know that

1 t +T
ak = T0
∫t00 f(t)e−jkω0 t dt
Substitute in equation 2.

1 t +T
2⇒ f(t) = Σ∞
k=−∞ T0
∫t00 f(t)e−jkω0 t dt ej2πkΔft
Let t0 = T
2

T
= Σ∞
k=−∞ [∫ −T
2
f(t)e−j2πkΔft dt] ej2πkΔft . Δf
2

In the limit as T → ∞, Δf approaches differential df, kΔf becomes a continuous variable f,

and summation becomes integration

f(t) = limT→∞ {Σ∞

T

k=−∞ [∫
2
f(t)e−j2πkΔft dt] ej2πkΔft . Δf}
−T
2

∞ ∞
=∫ [∫ f(t)e−j2πft dt]ej2πft df
−∞ −∞
 ∞
f(t) = ∫ F [ω]ejωt dω
−∞
∞
Where F [ω] = [∫−∞ f(t)e−j2πft dt]

Fourier transform of a signal

∞
f(t) = F [ω] = [∫ f(t)e−jωt dt]
−∞

Inverse Fourier Transform is

∞
f(t) = ∫ F [ω]ejωt dω
−∞

Fourier Transform of Basic Functions

Let us go through Fourier Transform of basic functions:

FT of GATE Function

ωT
F[ω] = AT Sa( )
2

FT of Impulse Function
∞
FT [ω(t)] = [∫−∞ δ(t)e−jωt dt]

= e−jωt | t = 0
= e0 = 1
∴ δ(ω) = 1

FT of Unit Step Function:

U(ω) = πδ(ω) + 1/jω

FT of Exponentials
F.T
e−at u(t) ⟷ 1/(a + jω)
F.T
e−at u(t) ⟷ 1/(a + jω)
F.T 2a
e−a | t | ⟷ a2 +ω2

F.T
ejω0t ⟷ δ(ω − ω0 )

FT of Signum Function
F.T 2
sgn(t) ⟷ jω

Conditions for Existence of Fourier Transform

Any function ft can be represented by using Fourier transform only when the function satisfies
Dirichlet’s conditions. i.e.

The function ft has finite number of maxima and minima.

There must be finite number of discontinuities in the signal ft ,in the given interval of time.

It must be absolutely integrable in the given interval of time i.e.

∞
∫−∞ | f(t)| dt < ∞

Discrete Time Fourier Transforms DTF T

The discrete-time Fourier transform DT FT or the Fourier transform of a discrete–time sequence
x[n] is a representation of the sequence in terms of the complex exponential sequence ejωn .

The DTFT sequence x[n] is given by

−jωn
X(ω) = Σ∞
n=−∞ x(n)e . . . . . . (1)
Here, X ω is a complex function of real frequency variable ω and it can be written as

X(ω) = Xre (ω) + jXimg (ω)

Where X reω, X img ω are real and imaginary parts of X ω respectively.

Xre (ω) = | X(ω)| cos θ(ω)

Ximg (ω) = | X(ω)| sin θ(ω)

|X(ω)|2 = | Xre (ω)|2 + | Xim (ω)|2

And X ω can also be represented as X(ω) = | X(ω)|ejθ(ω)

Where θ(ω) = argX(ω)
| X(ω)|, θ(ω) are called magnitude and phase spectrums of X ω.

Inverse Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

1 π
∫
 1 π
x(n) = ∫ X(ω)ejωn dω . . . . . . (2)
2π −π
Convergence Condition:
The infinite series in equation 1 may be converges or may not. xn is absolutely summable.
∞
when ∑ | x(n)| < ∞
n=−∞

An absolutely summable sequence has always a finite energy but a finite-energy sequence is not
necessarily to be absolutely summable.
 FOURIER TRANSFORMS PROPERTIES
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Here are the properties of Fourier Transform:

Linearity Property
F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
F.T
& y(t) ⟷ Y (ω)
Then linearity property states that

F.T
ax(t) + by(t) ⟷ aX(ω) + bY (ω)

Time Shifting Property

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
Then Time shifting property states that

F.T
x(t − t0 ) ⟷ e−jωt0 X(ω)

Frequency Shifting Property

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
Then frequency shifting property states that

F.T
ejω0t . x(t) ⟷ X(ω − ω0 )

Time Reversal Property

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
Then Time reversal property states that

F.T
x(−t) ⟷ X(−ω)

Time Scaling Property

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
Then Time scaling property states that

x(at) | a1 | X ωa

Differentiation and Integration Properties

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
Then Differentiation property states that
dx(t) F.T
dt
⟷ jω. X(ω)

dn x(t) F.T
dtn
⟷ (jω)n . X(ω)
and integration property states that

F.T 1
∫ x(t) dt ⟷ jω
X(ω)
F.T 1
∭ . . . ∫ x(t) dt ⟷ (jω)n
X(ω)

Multiplication and Convolution Properties

F.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(ω)
F.T
& y(t) ⟷ Y (ω)
Then multiplication property states that

F.T
x(t). y(t) ⟷ X(ω) ∗ Y (ω)
and convolution property states that

F.T 1
x(t) ∗ y(t) ⟷ 2π
X(ω). Y (ω)
 DISTORTION LESS TRANSMISSION
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Transmission is said to be distortion-less if the input and output have identical wave shapes. i.e., in
distortion-less transmission, the input xt and output yt satisfy the condition:

y t = Kx(t - td )

Where td = delay time and

k = constant.

Take Fourier transform on both sides

FT[ y t ] = FT[Kx(t - td )]

= K FT[x(t - td )]

According to time shifting property,

= KX we−jωtd

∴ Y (w) = KX(w)e−jωtd
Thus, distortionless transmission of a signal xt through a system with impulse response ht is
achieved when

|H(ω)| = K and amplituderesponse

Φ(ω) = −ωtd = −2πf td phaseresponse

A physical transmission system may have amplitude and phase responses as shown below:
 HILBERT TRANSFORM
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Hilbert transform of a signal xt is defined as the transform in which phase angle of all components
of the signal is shifted by ±90o .

^(t) ,and it is given by

Hilbert transform of xt is represented with x

1 ∞ x(k)
^(t) =
x ∫ dk
π −∞ t − k
The inverse Hilbert transform is given by

1 ∞ x(k)
^(t) = ∫
x dk
π −∞ t − k
^ t is called a Hilbert transform pair.
xt , x

Properties of the Hilbert Transform

A signal xt and its Hilbert transform ^ t have
x
The same amplitude spectrum.

The same autocorrelation function.

^ t.
The energy spectral density is same for both xt and x

^ t are orthogonal.
xt and x

^ t is -xt
The Hilbert transform of x

If Fourier transform exist then Hilbert transform also exists for energy and power signals.
 CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION
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Convolution
Convolution is a mathematical operation used to express the relation between input and output of
an LTI system. It relates input, output and impulse response of an LTI system as

y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t)

Where y t = output of LTI

x t = input of LTI

h t = impulse response of LTI

There are two types of convolutions:

Continuous convolution

Discrete convolution

Continuous Convolution

y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t)

∞
= ∫−∞ x(τ)h(t − τ)dτ
or
∞
= ∫−∞ x(t − τ)h(τ)dτ

Discrete Convolution

y(n) = x(n) ∗ h(n)

= Σ∞
k=−∞
x(k)h(n − k)
or
= Σ∞
k=−∞
x(n − k)h(k)
By using convolution we can find zero state response of the system.

Deconvolution
Deconvolution is reverse process to convolution widely used in signal and image processing.

Properties of Convolution

Commutative Property
 x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) = x2 (t) ∗ x1 (t)

Distributive Property

x1 (t) ∗ [x2 (t) + x3 (t)] = [x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t)] + [x1 (t) ∗ x3 (t)]

Associative Property

x1 (t) ∗ [x2 (t) ∗ x3 (t)] = [x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t)] ∗ x3 (t)

Shifting Property

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) = y(t)

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t − t0 ) = y(t − t0 )
x1 (t − t0 ) ∗ x2 (t) = y(t − t0 )
x1 (t − t0 ) ∗ x2 (t − t1 ) = y(t − t0 − t1 )

Convolution with Impulse

x1 (t) ∗ δ(t) = x(t)

x1 (t) ∗ δ(t − t0 ) = x(t − t0 )

Convolution of Unit Steps

u(t) ∗ u(t) = r(t)

u(t − T1 ) ∗ u(t − T2 ) = r(t − T1 − T2 )
u(n) ∗ u(n) = [n + 1]u(n)

Scaling Property

If x(t) ∗ h(t) = y(t)

1
then x(at) ∗ h(at) = y(at)
|a|

Differentiation of Output

if y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t)

dy(t) dx(t)
then
dt
= dt
∗ h(t)
or

dy(t) dh(t)
dt
= x(t) ∗ dt

Note:

Convolution of two causal sequences is causal.

Convolution of two anti causal sequences is anti causal.

Convolution of two unequal length rectangles results a trapezium.

Convolution of two equal length rectangles results a triangle.

 A function convoluted itself is equal to integration of that function.

Example: You know that u(t) ∗ u(t) = r(t)

According to above note, u(t) ∗ u(t) = ∫ u(t)dt = ∫ 1dt = t = r(t)
Here, you get the result just by integrating u(t) .

Limits of Convoluted Signal

If two signals are convoluted then the resulting convoluted signal has following range:

Sum of lower limits < t < sum of upper limits

Ex: find the range of convolution of signals given below

Here, we have two rectangles of unequal length to convolute, which results a trapezium.

The range of convoluted signal is:

Sum of lower limits < t < sum of upper limits

−1 + −2 < t < 2 + 2
−3 < t < 4
Hence the result is trapezium with period 7.

Area of Convoluted Signal

The area under convoluted signal is given by Ay = Ax Ah
Where A x = area under input signal

A h = area under impulse response

A y = area under output signal

∞
Proof: y(t) = ∫−∞ x(τ)h(t − τ)dτ
Take integration on both sides
∞
∫ y(t)dt = ∫ ∫−∞ x(τ)h(t − τ)dτdt
∞
= ∫ x(τ)dτ ∫−∞ h(t − τ)dt
We know that area of any signal is the integration of that signal itself.

∴ Ay = Ax Ah
DC Component
DC component of any signal is given by
area of the signal
DC component = period of the signal

Ex: what is the dc component of the resultant convoluted signal given below?

Here area of x1 t = length × breadth = 1 × 3 = 3

area of x2 t = length × breadth = 1 × 4 = 4

area of convoluted signal = area of x1 t × area of x2 t

= 3 × 4 = 12

Duration of the convoluted signal = sum of lower limits < t < sum of upper limits

= -1 + -2 < t < 2+2

= -3 < t < 4

Period=7
area of the signal
∴ Dc component of the convoluted signal = period of the signal

Dc component = 12
7

Discrete Convolution
Let us see how to calculate discrete convolution:

i. To calculate discrete linear convolution:

Convolute two sequences x[n] = {a,b,c} & h[n] = [e,f,g]

Convoluted output = [ ea, eb+fa, ec+fb+ga, fc+gb, gc]

Note: if any two sequences have m, n number of samples respectively, then the resulting
convoluted sequence will have [m+n-1] samples.

Example: Convolute two sequences x[n] = {1,2,3} & h[n] = {-1,2,2}

Convoluted output y[n] = [ -1, -2+2, -3+4+2, 6+4, 6]

= [-1, 0, 3, 10, 6]

Here x[n] contains 3 samples and h[n] is also having 3 samples so the resulting sequence having
3+3-1 = 5 samples.

ii. To calculate periodic or circular convolution:

Periodic convolution is valid for discrete Fourier transform. To calculate periodic convolution all
the samples must be real. Periodic or circular convolution is also called as fast convolution.

If two sequences of length m, n respectively are convoluted using circular convolution then
resulting sequence having max [m,n] samples.

Ex: convolute two sequences x[n] = {1,2,3} & h[n] = {-1,2,2} using circular convolution

Normal Convoluted output y[n] = [ -1, -2+2, -3+4+2, 6+4, 6].

= [-1, 0, 3, 10, 6]

Here x[n] contains 3 samples and h[n] also has 3 samples. Hence the resulting sequence obtained
by circular convolution must have max[3,3]= 3 samples.

Now to get periodic convolution result, 1st 3 samples [as the period is 3] of normal convolution is
same next two samples are added to 1st samples as shown below:

∴ Circular convolution result y[n] = [9 6 3]

Correlation
Correlation is a measure of similarity between two signals. The general formula for correlation is
∞
∫
 ∞
∫ x1 (t)x2 (t − τ)dt
−∞

There are two types of correlation:

Auto correlation

Cros correlation

Auto Correlation Function

It is defined as correlation of a signal with itself. Auto correlation function is a measure of similarity
between a signal & its time delayed version. It is represented with R$τ$ .

Consider a signals xt . The auto correlation function of xt with its time delayed version is given by
∞
R11 (τ) = R(τ) = ∫ x(t)x(t − τ)dt [+ve shift]
−∞
∞
=∫ x(t)x(t + τ)dt [-ve shift]
−∞

Where τ = searching or scanning or delay parameter.

If the signal is complex then auto correlation function is given by

∞
R11 (τ) = R(τ) = ∫ x(t)x ∗ (t − τ)dt [+ve shift]
−∞
∞
=∫ x(t + τ)x ∗ (t)dt [-ve shift]
−∞

Properties of Auto-correlation Function of Energy Signal

Auto correlation exhibits conjugate symmetry i.e. R $τ$ = R*−$τ$
Auto correlation function of energy signal at origin i.e. at τ =0 is equal to total energy of that
signal, which is given as:
∞
R 0 = E = ∫−∞ | x(t) |2 dt

Auto correlation function ∞ 1τ ,

Auto correlation function is maximum at τ =0 i.e |R $τ$ | ≤ R 0 ∀ τ

Auto correlation function and energy spectral densities are Fourier transform pairs. i.e.

F. T [R(τ)] = Ψ(ω)
∞
Ψ(ω) = ∫−∞ R(τ)e−jωτ dτ
R(τ) = x(τ) ∗ x(−τ)

Auto Correlation Function of Power Signals

The auto correlation function of periodic power signal with period T is given by
T
1
∫
2
R(τ) = lim x(t)x ∗ (t − τ)dt
T →∞ T −T
2
Properties

Auto correlation of power signal exhibits conjugate symmetry i.e. R(τ) = R ∗ (−τ)
Auto correlation function of power signal at τ = 0 atorigin is equal to total power of that
signal. i.e.

R(0) = ρ
Auto correlation function of power signal ∞ 1τ ,

Auto correlation function of power signal is maximum at τ = 0 i.e.,

|R(τ)| ≤ R(0) ∀ τ
Auto correlation function and power spectral densities are Fourier transform pairs. i.e.,

F. T [R(τ)] = s(ω)
∞
s(ω) = ∫−∞ R(τ)e−jωτ dτ
R(τ) = x(τ) ∗ x(−τ)
Density Spectrum
Let us see density spectrums:

Energy Density Spectrum

Energy density spectrum can be calculated using the formula:
∞
E=∫ | x(f) |2 df
−∞

Power Density Spectrum

Power density spectrum can be calculated by using the formula:
2
P = Σ∞
n=−∞ | Cn |

Cross Correlation Function

Cross correlation is the measure of similarity between two different signals.

Consider two signals x1 t and x2 t . The cross correlation of these two signals R 12 (τ) is given by
∞
R12 (τ) = ∫ x1 (t)x2 (t − τ) dt [+ve shift]
−∞
∞
=∫ x1 (t + τ)x2 (t) dt [-ve shift]
−∞

If signals are complex then

∞
R12 (τ) = ∫ x1 (t)x∗2 (t − τ) dt [+ve shift]
−∞
∞
=∫ x1 (t + τ)x∗2 (t) dt [-ve shift]
−∞
 ∞
R21 (τ) = ∫ x2 (t)x∗1 (t − τ) dt [+ve shift]
−∞
∞
=∫ x2 (t + τ)x∗1 (t) dt [-ve shift]
−∞

Properties of Cross Correlation Function of Energy and Power Signals

Auto correlation exhibits conjugate symmetry i.e. R 12 (τ) = R∗21 (−τ) .

Cross correlation is not commutative like convolution i.e.

R12 (τ) ≠ R21 (−τ)

∞
If R12 0 = 0 means, if ∫−∞ x1 (t)x∗2 (t)dt = 0 , then the two signals are said to be orthogonal.

T
For power signal if limT →∞ 1 ∫ 2
−T x(t)x∗ (t) dt then two signals are said to be orthogonal.
T
2

Cross correlation function corresponds to the multiplication of spectrums of one signal to the
complex conjugate of spectrum of another signal. i.e.

R12 (τ) ←→ X1 (ω)X2∗ (ω)

This also called as correlation theorem.

Parsvel's Theorem
Parsvel's theorem for energy signals states that the total energy in a signal can be obtained by the
spectrum of the signal as
∞
E= 1
2π
∫−∞ |X(ω)|2 dω
Note: If a signal has energy E then time scaled version of that signal xat has energy E/a.
 SIGNALS SAMPLING THEOREM
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Statement: A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered
back when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency
component of message signal. i. e.

f s ≤ 2f m .
Proof: Consider a continuous time signal xt . The spectrum of xt is a band limited to fm Hz i.e. the
spectrum of xt is zero for |ω|>ωm.

Sampling of input signal xt can be obtained by multiplying xt with an impulse train δ t of period T s.
The output of multiplier is a discrete signal called sampled signal which is represented with yt in
the following diagrams:

Here, you can observe that the sampled signal takes the period of impulse. The process of
sampling can be explained by the following mathematical expression:

Sampled signal y(t) = x(t). δ(t) . . . . . . (1)

The trigonometric Fourier series representation of δt is given by

δ(t) = a0 + Σ∞
n=1 (an cos nωs t + bn sin nωs t) . . . . . . (2)
T
1 1 1
Where a0 = Ts
∫ −T2 δ(t)dt = Ts
δ(0) = Ts
2

T
2 2 2
an = Ts
∫ −T2 δ(t) cos nωs dt = T2
δ(0) cos nωs 0 = T
2

T
 T
2 2
bn = Ts
∫ 2
−T δ(t) sin nωs t dt = Ts
δ(0) sin nωs 0 = 0
2

Substitute above values in equation 2.

∴ δ(t) = 1
Ts
+ Σ∞ 2
n=1 ( T cos nωs t + 0)
s

Substitute δ t in equation 1.

→ y(t) = x(t). δ(t)

= x(t)[ T1 + Σ∞ 2
n=1 ( T cos nωs t)]
s s

1
= Ts
[x(t) + 2Σ∞
n=1 (cos nωs t)x(t)]

1
y(t) = Ts
[x(t) + 2 cos ωs t. x(t) + 2 cos 2ωs t. x(t) + 2 cos 3ωs t. x(t) . . . . . . ]

Take Fourier transform on both sides.

1
Y (ω) = Ts
[X(ω) + X(ω − ωs ) + X(ω + ωs ) + X(ω − 2ωs ) + X(ω + 2ωs )+ . . . ]

∴ Y (ω) = 1
Ts
Σ∞
n=−∞ X(ω − nωs ) where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

To reconstruct xt , you must recover input signal spectrum X ω from sampled signal spectrum Y ω,
which is possible when there is no overlapping between the cycles of Y ω.

Possibility of sampled frequency spectrum with different conditions is given by the following
diagrams:

Aliasing Effect
The overlapped region in case of under sampling represents aliasing effect, which can be
removed by

considering fs >2fm

By using anti aliasing filters.

 SIGNALS SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
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There are three types of sampling techniques:

Impulse sampling.

Natural sampling.

Flat Top sampling.

Impulse Sampling
Impulse sampling can be performed by multiplying input signal xt with impulse train
Σ∞n=−∞ δ(t − nT ) of period 'T'. Here, the amplitude of impulse changes with respect to amplitude
of input signal xt . The output of sampler is given by

y(t) = x(t) × impulse train

= x(t) × Σ∞
n=−∞ δ(t − nT )

y(t) = yδ (t) = Σ∞
n=−∞ x(nt)δ(t − nT ) . . . . . . 1

To get the spectrum of sampled signal, consider Fourier transform of equation 1 on both sides
1
Y (ω) = T
Σ∞
n=−∞ X(ω − nωs )

This is called ideal sampling or impulse sampling. You cannot use this practically because pulse
width cannot be zero and the generation of impulse train is not possible practically.

Natural Sampling
Natural sampling is similar to impulse sampling, except the impulse train is replaced by pulse train
of period T. i.e. you multiply input signal xt to pulse train Σ∞
n=−∞ P (t − nT ) as shown below

The output of sampler is

y(t) = x(t) × pulse train

= x(t) × p(t)
= x(t) × Σ∞
n=−∞ P (t − nT ) . . . . . . (1)
The exponential Fourier series representation of pt can be given as

p(t) = Σ∞
n=−∞Fn e
jnωs t . . . . . . (2)

= Σ∞
n=−∞Fn e
j2πnfs t

T
1
Where Fn = T
∫ 2
−T p(t)e−jnωs tdt
2

1
= TP
(nωs )
Substitute Fn value in equation 2

∴ p(t) = Σ∞ 1
n=−∞ T P(n ωs )e
jnωs t

= T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs )e
jnωs t

Substitute pt in equation 1

y(t) = x(t) × p(t)

= x(t) × T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs ) e
jnωs t

y(t) = T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs ) x(t) e
jnωs t

To get the spectrum of sampled signal, consider the Fourier transform on both sides.

F . T [y(t)] = F . T[ T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs ) x(t) e
jnωs t ]

= T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs ) F . T [x(t) e
jnωs t ]

According to frequency shifting property

F . T [x(t) ejnωs t ] = X[ω − nωs ]

∴ Y [ω] = T1 Σ∞
n=−∞P(n ωs ) X[ω − n ωs ]

Flat Top Sampling

During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which can be easily
removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e. they have
constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as flat top sampling or practical sampling. Flat top sampling
makes use of sample and hold circuit.

Theoretically, the sampled signal can be obtained by convolution of rectangular pulse pt with
ideally sampled signal say yδt as shown in the diagram:

y(t) = p(t) × (t) . . . . . . (1)

i.e. y(t) = p(t) × yδ (t) . . . . . . (1)

To get the sampled spectrum, consider Fourier transform on both sides for equation 1

Y [ω] = F. T [P (t) × yδ (t)]

By the knowledge of convolution property,

Y [ω] = P (ω) Yδ (ω)

Here P (ω) = T Sa( ωT
2
) = 2 sin ωT /ω

Nyquist Rate
It is the minimum sampling rate at which signal can be converted into samples and can be
recovered back without distortion.

Nyquist rate fN = 2fm hz

Nyquist interval = 1 = 1
seconds.
fN 2fm

Samplings of Band Pass Signals

In case of band pass signals, the spectrum of band pass signal X[ω] = 0 for the frequencies outside
the range f1 ≤ f ≤ f2 . The frequency f1 is always greater than zero. Plus, there is no aliasing effect
when fs > 2f2 . But it has two disadvantages:

The sampling rate is large in proportion with f2 . This has practical limitations.

The sampled signal spectrum has spectral gaps.

To overcome this, the band pass theorem states that the input signal xt can be converted into its
samples and can be recovered back without distortion when sampling frequency fs < 2f2 .

Also,

1 2f
fs = = 2
T m
f2
Where m is the largest integer <
B

and B is the bandwidth of the signal. If f2 =KB, then

1 2KB
fs = =
T m
For band pass signals of bandwidth 2fm and the minimum sampling rate fs= 2 B = 4fm,

1
the spectrum of sampled signal is given by Y [ω] = T
Σ∞
n=−∞ X[ω − 2nB]
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS LT
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Complex Fourier transform is also called as Bilateral Laplace Transform. This is used to solve
differential equations. Consider an LTI system exited by a complex exponential signal of the form x
t = Gest.
Where s = any complex number = σ + jω ,
σ = real of s, and

ω = imaginary of s

The response of LTI can be obtained by the convolution of input with its impulse response i.e.
∞
y(t) = x(t) × h(t) = ∫−∞ h(τ) x(t − τ)dτ
∞
= ∫−∞ h(τ) Ges(t−τ) dτ
∞
= Gest . ∫−∞ h(τ) e(−sτ) dτ

y(t) = Gest . H(S) = x(t). H(S)

∞
Where H S = Laplace transform of h(τ) = ∫−∞ h(τ)e−sτ dτ
∞
Similarly, Laplace transform of x(t) = X(S) = ∫−∞ x(t)e−st dt . . . . . . (1)

Relation between Laplace and Fourier transforms

∞
Laplace transform of x(t) = X(S) = ∫−∞ x(t)e−st dt
Substitute s= σ + jω in above equation.
∞
→ X(σ + jω) = ∫−∞ x(t)e−(σ+jω)t dt
∞
= ∫−∞ [x(t)e−σt ]e−jωt dt

∴ X(S) = F. T [x(t)e−σt ] . . . . . . (2)

X(S) = X(ω) for s = jω
Inverse Laplace Transform
You know that X(S) = F. T [x(t)e−σt ]
→ x(t)e−σt = F. T −1 [X(S)] = F. T −1 [X(σ + jω)]
∞
= 12 π ∫−∞ X(σ + jω)ejωt dω
1 ∞
x(t) = eσt 2π ∫−∞ X(σ + jω)ejωt dω
1 ∞
= 2π
∫−∞ X(σ + jω)e(σ+jω)t dω . . . . . . (3)
Here, σ + jω =s
jdω = ds → dω = ds/j

∴ ()= 1
( ) st . . . . . . (4)
 ∞
∴ x(t) = 1
2πj
∫−∞ X(s)est ds . . . . . . (4)

Equations 1 and 4 represent Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transform of a signal xt .

Conditions for Existence of Laplace Transform

Dirichlet's conditions are used to define the existence of Laplace transform. i.e.

The function ft has finite number of maxima and minima.

There must be finite number of discontinuities in the signal ft ,in the given interval of time.

It must be absolutely integrable in the given interval of time. i.e.

∞
∫−∞ | f(t)| dt < ∞

Initial and Final Value Theorems

If the Laplace transform of an unknown function xt is known, then it is possible to determine the
initial and the final values of that unknown signal i.e. xt at t=0+ and t=∞.

Initial Value Theorem

Statement: if xt and its 1st derivative is Laplace transformable, then the initial value of xt is given
by

x(0+ ) = lim SX(S)

s→∞

Final Value Theorem

Statement: if xt and its 1st derivative is Laplace transformable, then the final value of xt is given
by

x(∞) = lim SX(S)

s→∞
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS PROPERTIES
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The properties of Laplace transform are:

Linearity Property
L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
L.T
& y(t) ⟷ Y (s)
Then linearity property states that

L.T
ax(t) + by(t) ⟷ aX(s) + bY (s)

Time Shifting Property

L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
Then time shifting property states that

L.T
x(t − t0 ) ⟷ e−st0 X(s)

Frequency Shifting Property

L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
Then frequency shifting property states that

L.T
es0t . x(t) ⟷ X(s − s0 )

Time Reversal Property

L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
Then time reversal property states that

L.T
x(−t) ⟷ X(−s)

Time Scaling Property

L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
Then time scaling property states that

L.T 1
x(at) ⟷ |a|
X( sa )

Differentiation and Integration Properties

L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
Then differentiation property states that
dx(t) L.T
dt
⟷ s. X(s)
dn x(t) L.T
dtn
⟷ (s)n . X(s)
The integration property states that

L.T
∫ x(t)dt ⟷ 1s X(s)
L.T 1
∭ . . . ∫ x(t)dt ⟷ sn
X(s)
Multiplication and Convolution Properties
L.T
If x(t) ⟷ X(s)
L.T
and y(t) ⟷ Y (s)
Then multiplication property states that

L.T 1
x(t). y(t) ⟷ 2πj
X(s) ∗ Y (s)

The convolution property states that

L.T
x(t) ∗ y(t) ⟷ X(s). Y (s)
 REGION OF CONVERGENCE ROC
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The range variation of σ for which the Laplace transform converges is called region of
convergence.

Properties of ROC of Laplace Transform

ROC contains strip lines parallel to jω axis in s-plane.

If xt is absolutely integral and it is of finite duration, then ROC is entire s-plane.

If xt is a right sided sequence then ROC : Re{s} > σo.

If xt is a left sided sequence then ROC : Re{s} < σo.

If xt is a two sided sequence then ROC is the combination of two regions.

ROC can be explained by making use of examples given below:

Example 1: Find the Laplace transform and ROC of x(t) = e −at u(t)
1
L. T [x(t)] = L. T [e −at u(t)] = S+a

Re > −a
ROC : Res >> −a

Example 2: Find the Laplace transform and ROC of x(t) = eat u(−t)
1
L. T [x(t)] = L. T [eat u(t)] = S−a

Res < a
ROC : Res < a
Example 3: Find the Laplace transform and ROC of x(t) = e−at u(t) + eat u(−t)
1 1
L. T [x(t)] = L. T [e−at u(t) + eat u(−t)] = S+a
+ S−a
1
For
S+a
Re{s} > −a
1
For
S−a
Re{s} < a

Referring to the above diagram, combination region lies from –a to a. Hence,

ROC : −a < Res < a

Causality and Stability
For a system to be causal, all poles of its transfer function must be right half of s-plane.

A system is said to be stable when all poles of its transfer function lay on the left half of s-
plane.
 A system is said to be unstable when at least one pole of its transfer function is shifted to the
right half of s-plane.

A system is said to be marginally stable when at least one pole of its transfer function lies on
the jω axis of s-plane.

ROC of Basic Functions

ft Fs ROC

1
u(t) ROC: Re{s} > 0
s

1
t u(t) ROC:Re{s} > 0
s2

n!
tn u(t) ROC:Re{s} > 0
sn+1

1
eat u(t) ROC:Re{s} > a
s−a
 1
e−at u(t) ROC:Re{s} > -a
s+a

1
eat u(t) − ROC:Re{s} < a
s−a

e−at 1
− ROC:Re{s} < -a
u(−t) s+a

1
t eat u(t) ROC:Re{s} > a
(s − a)2

n!
tn eat
(s ROC:Re{s} > a
u(t)
− a)n+1

t e−at 1
ROC:Re{s} > -a
u(t) (s + a)2

n!
tn e−at
(s ROC:Re{s} > -a
u(t)
+ a)n+1

t eat 1
− ROC:Re{s} < a
u(−t) (s − a)2

n!
tn eat −
(s ROC:Re{s} < a
u(−t)
− a)n+1

t e−at 1
− ROC:Re{s} < -a
u(−t) (s + a)2

n!
tn e−at −
(s ROC:Re{s} < -a
u(−t)
+ a)n+1
 s+a
e−at cos (s + a)2
bt
+ b2

b
e−at sin
(s + a)2
bt
+ b2