CHE 314 - Heat Transfer, Final Exam (Fall 2018)

Formula Sheet (13 Pages)

Energy Balance
• Fourier’s law for the one-dimensional plane wall:
00 dT
qx = −k
dx
• Newton’s law of cooling:
00
q = h (Ts − T∞ )
00 00
q [W/m2 ] is the heat flux, q = As · q
• Energy Conservation Principle
Ėst = Ėin − Ėout + Ėg
dT
where Ėst = ρ · V ol · c · dt

• Surface Energy Balance

Ėin − Ėout = 0
• The heat rates balance for a surface:
00 00 00
qcond − qconv − qrad = 0

Steady State Conductive Heat Transfer

1D Steady State Conduction-Plane Walls
• Heat Rate
T∞,1 − T∞,2
qx =
Rtot
where
 
1 L 1
Rtot = + + = Rt,conv,1 + Rt,cond + Rt,conv,2
A h1 Ak A h2
A is the surface.

1
T8 ,1

Ts,1
qx
q conv q conv
q cond
T s,2
T ,2

8
Cold Fluid
Hot Fluid x=L
h1 x h2

Figure 1: Heat Transfer through a plane wall.

• Thermal Resistances: The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall

is
L
Rt,cond =
Ak
• The thermal resistance for convection is
1
Rt,conv =
Ah
• The thermal resistance for radiation is
1 1
Rt,rad = =
A hr 2 ) (T + T
A σ ε (Ts2 + Tsur s sur )

• Circuit representations of heat the conduction problem shown in Fig. (1)

Figure 2: The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection
surface conditions.

• Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area is called as the area-specific

contact resistance:
00 ∆T
Rtot = 00 = A Rtot (K m2 /W )
qx

2
 • Overall heat transfer coefficient, U , which is defined by an expression anal-
ogous to Newton’s law of cooling:
1
qx = U · A · ∆T ; =⇒ U =
Rtot · A

1D Steady State Conduction-Radial Sysytems

• The heat rate and heat flux at which energy is conducted across any cylin-
drical surface in the solid may be expressed using Fourier’s law
dT 2π L k(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr = −k (2π r L) =
| {z } dr ln(r2 /r1 )
A

00 qr k(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr = =
A rln(r1 /r2 )
• Conduction Resistance:
ln(r2 /r1 )
Rr,cond =
2π L k
• Considering the composite system (see Fig. (3)) the heat transfer rate may
be expressed as
T∞,1 − T∞,4
qr =
1 ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(r3 /r2 ) ln(r4 /r3 ) 1
+ + + +
|2π r{z
1 L h1} |2π {z
L kA} |2π {z L kB} |2π {z
L kC} |2π r{z
4 L h4}
Rt,conv1 Rt,condA Rt,condB Rt,condC Rt,conv4

Here the interfacial contact resistances was neglected.

Convective Heat Transfer: External Flow

Boundary Layer & Dimensional Analysis
• The total heat transfer rate:
q = h · As · (Ts − T∞ )
hL
• Nusselt number: N u = kf
cp µ
• Prandtl number: P r = k
ρ V∞ L
• Reynolds number: Re = µ

3
 T ,1
8
T s,1 A B C
symmetry line

Ts,2
Ts,3

r1 Ts,4
T ,4

8
r2
r3
r4
h4
h1 Cold
Hot fluid
fluid
Figure 3: Cylindrical composite system

Cylinder
•
ρ V∞ D V∞ D
ReD = =
µ ν
where D is the diameter.
• Overall average Nusselt number according to Whitaker:
 
1/2 2/3
N uD ≈ 0.4Re + 0.06Re P r0.4

Sphere
• Average Nusselt number according to the Ranz and Marshall correlation:
N uD = 2 + 0.6 · Re1/2 · P r1/3

Convective Heat Transfer: Internal Flow

• Neglecting net heat transfer by conduction in the axial direction the heat
transfer for a tube of finite length may be written in the form:
q = ṁcp (Tm,o − Tm,i )
where Tm,i and Tm,o are the inlet and outlet mean temperature, respectively.

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• The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube or in a channel is defined
as
ρ · um · D um · D 4ṁ
Re = = =
µ ν π·D·µ
• This mean velocity um is defined as follows:

ṁ = ρ · um · Ac

where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the tube, ṁ is the rate of mass flow
through the tube.

• In a fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number corresponding to

the onset of turbulence is Rec ≈ 2300. Fully turbulent flow is achieved
by Re > 105 .

• The entry length in laminar flow (Re ≤ 2300) and in turbulent flow can be
estimated using following expressions:
x  x 
f d,h f d,h
≈ 0.05 · Re; 10 ≤ ≤ 60
D laminar D turb

• For laminar flow the thermal entry length may be expressed as

x 
f d,h
≈ 0.05 · Re · P r
D laminar

• Axial temperature variations for heat transfer in a tube with constant

surface heat flux:
00
q P 00
Tm (x) = Tm,i + s · x ; f or qs = const.
ṁ cp

Tm,i is the inlet mean temperature.

• Axial temperature variations for heat transfer in a tube with constant

surface temperature:
 
Ts − Tm (x) Px
= exp − h f or Ts = const.
Ts − Tm,i ṁ cp

P is a perimeter, h is the average value of h for the entire tube.

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 • The total heat transfer rate qconv can be calculated as follows:

qconv = As · h · ∆Tlm f or Ts = const.

where
∆To − ∆Ti ∆To Ts − Tm,o
∆Tlm = ; =
ln ∆To
∆Ti
∆Ti Ts − Tm,i

Overall Heat Transfer

• In many engineering applications, it is the temperature of an external fluid,
rather than the tube surface temperature, that is fixed. In such cases, Ts
is replaced by T∞ (the free stream temperature of the external fluid) and
h is replaced by U (the average overall heat transfer coefficient).
 
∆To T∞ − Tm,o U As
= = exp −
∆Ti T∞ − Tm,i ṁ cp

qconv = As · U · ∆Tlm
1
U · As = P
Rr
P
Rr = Rtot is the total thermal resistance.

• OR, the same equations can be written in the form:

 
∆To T∞ − Tm,o 1
= = exp −
∆Ti T∞ − Tm,i ṁ cp Rtot
and
∆Tlm
qconv =
Rtot
Rtot is the total thermal resistance.

• NOTE: for a thin-walled tube the average overall heat transfer coefficient
can be calculated as follows:
 −1
1 1
U= +
hi ho
where subscripts i and o refer to inner and outer tube surfaces.

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Nu-Correlations
• In a circular tube characterized by uniform surface heat flux and laminar,
fully developed conditions, the Nusselt number is a constant, indepen-
dent of Re, P r, and axial location:
00
N u = 4.36; qs = const.

• In a circular tube characterized by uniform surface temperature and lam-

inar, fully developed conditions, the Nusselt number is a constant,
independent of Re, P r, and axial location:
N u = 3.66; Ts = const.

• For fully developed (hydrodynamically and thermally) turbulent flow

(Re > 2 · 103 ) in a smooth circular tube, the Nusselt number may be
obtained from the Dittus& Boelter equation:
N u = 0.023Re4/5 P rn
for 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 160; Re ≥ 2 · 103 where
• n = 0.4 for heating
• n = 0.3 for cooling

Natural Convection
• The Grashof Number:
g · β · (Ts − T∞ ) · L3c
Gr ≡
ν2
• The Rayleigh number:
g · β · (Ts − T∞ ) · L3c
RaL = GrL · P r =
α·ν
where Lc is the characteristic length of the geometry.
• For Rayleigh numbers in the range RaL ≤ 1708, no fluid motion due to
buoyancy forces exists, thus N u = 1.
1
• NOTE: for gases β can be calculated as follows: β = Tf 1/K, where Tf =
Ts +T∞
2

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Plates
Vertical Plate
• Laminar Flow (RaL ≤ 109 )
1/4
0.670 RaL
N uL = 0.68 + h
i4/9
0.492 9/16
1 + Pr

• All Conditions:
 2
1/6
0.387RaL
N uL = 0.825 + h
 
i8/27 
9/16
1 + 0.492


Pr

NOTE: for the vertical plates the characteristic length Lc is the hight of
the plate.

Horizontal Plates
• Upper Surface of Hot Plate or Lower Surface of Cold Plate:
1/4
N uL = 0.54RaL f or 104 ≤ RaL ≤ 107 ; P r ≥ 0.7
1/3
N uL = 0.15RaL f or 107 ≤ RaL ≤ 1011 ; all P r

• Lower Surface of Hot Plate or Upper Surface of Cold Plate:

1/5
N uL = 0.52RaL f or 104 ≤ RaL ≤ 109 ; P r ≥ 0.7
NOTE: for horizontal plates of various shapes (for example, squares,
rectangles, or circles), the characteristic length for use in the Nusselt and
Rayleigh numbers is Lc = APs , where where As and P are the plate surface
area (one side) and perimeter, respectively.

Horizontal Cylinder and Sphere

• The average Nusselt number over the entire circumference of an isother-
mal cylinder:
 2
1/6
0.387RaD
N uD = 0.6 + h ; f or RaD ≤ 1012
 
i8/27 
0.559 9/16


1 + Pr

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 • The average Nusselt number for spheres in fluids with P r ≥ 0.7 :

1/4
0.589RaD
N uD = 2 + h
i4/9 ; f or RaD ≤ 1011
0.469 9/16
1 + Pr

NOTE: the characteristic length is the diameter.

Enclosures
Horizontal Cavity

• Convection coefficients for the horizontal cavity heated from below may
be obtained from the Globe and Dropkin correlation:

hL 1/3
N uL = = 0.069RaL P r0.074 ; 3 · 105 ≤ RaL ≤ 7 · 109
k
NOTE: the characteristic length is the distance between cold and hot sur-
faces.
cold surface

hot surface

H
g

Figure 4: Free convection in a vertical rectangular cavity.

Vertical Cavity

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 • For aspect ratios in the range 1 ≤ (H/L) ≤ 10, the following correlations
have been suggested:
 
2 ≤ HL ≤ 10
 0.28  −1/4  
Pr H  5

N uL = 0.22 RaL ; f or  P r ≤ 10 
0.2 + P r L 



103 ≤ RaL ≤ 1010

1 ≤ HL ≤ 2
 
 0.29  
Pr  −3 5

N uL = 0.18 RaL ; f or  10 ≤ P r ≤ 10 
0.2 + P r 



3 RaL ·P r
10 ≤ 0.2+P r

• For larger aspect ratios, the following correlations have been proposed:
 H

10 ≤ L ≤ 40
 −0.3  
1/4 H
N uL = 0.42RaL P r0.012
 4 

; f or  1 ≤ P r ≤ 2 · 10
L 



4 7
10 ≤ RaL ≤ 10

 H

1≤ L ≤ 40
 
1/3  
N uL = 0.046RaL ; f or 
 1 ≤ P r ≤ 20 

 
106 ≤ RaL ≤ 109
NOTE: the characteristic length, Lc , corresponds to the distance between
cold and hot surfaces, L, see Fig. 4.

Combined Convections
• A condition for which forced and free convection effects are comparable
(Mixed Convection case): 0.1 ≤ Gr L
Re2
≤ 10
L

GrL
• Forced convection is negligible if: Re2L
> 10
GrL
• Free convection is negligible if: Re2L
< 0.1

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 • Heat Transfer Correlations for Mixed Convection only:

N un = N unF ± N unN ; n ≈ 3

where + is for assisting and transverse flows, and − is for opposing flows.

• Value of n = 4 is suited for transverse flows involving cylinders and n = 3.5

for plates for transverse flows.

• assisting flow - buoyancy-induced and forced motions have the same di-
rection

• opposing flow - buoyancy-induced and forced motions have opposite direc-

tion

• transverse flow - buoyancy-induced and forced motions have perpendicular

directions

Heat Exchangers
• For the unfinned, tubular heat exchangers the overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient ia:
 
1 1 1 1
00
Rf,i ln D Di
o 00
Rf,o 1
= = = + + + +
U · A Ui · Ai Uo · Ao hi · Ai Ai 2π · k · L Ao ho · Ao
where subscripts i and o refer to inner and outer tube surfaces, see Fig. 5.
00 00
Rf,i and Rf,o are fouling factors.

Ai = π Di L; Ao = π Do L

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hot fluid
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000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111
cold fluid
000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111 Di D0
000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000
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111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000
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Figure 5: Example of unfinned, counter-flow tubular heat exchanger.

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 • The heat transfer rate equations for the cold and hot flows:

q = ṁh · cp,h (Th,i − Th,o ) ; q = ṁc · cp,c (Tc,o − Tc,i )

| {z } | {z }
Ch Cc

LMTD-Method

• The heat transfer rate equation for LMTD-Method

(∆T1 − ∆T2 )
q = U · A · ∆Tlm ; ∆Tlm =  
ln ∆T1
∆T2

Parallel-flow HX Counter-flow HX

∆T1 = Th,i − Tc,i ∆T1 = Th,i − Tc,o

∆T2 = Th,o − Tc,o ∆T2 = Th,o − Tc,i

NTU-Method

• effectiveness, ε, is the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate for a heat
exchanger to the maximum possible heat transfer rate:
q Ch (Th,i − Th,o ) Cc (Tc,o − Tc,i )
ε= = =
qmax Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i ) Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i )

where

Cmin = MIN (Cc , Ch )

• The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter that is

widely used for heat exchanger analysis and is defined as:
U ·A
NTU =
Cmin

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Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer
• Various types of heat fluxes are pertinent to the analysis of radiation heat
transfer.

Flux (W/m2 ) Description Comment

Emissive power, E Rate at which radiation is emitted E = ε σ Ts4

from a surface per unit area

Irradiation, G Rate at which radiation is incident Irradiation can be reflected,

upon a surface per unit area absorbed, or transmitted

Radiosity, J Rate at which radiation leaves a For an opaque surface

surface per unit area J = E + ρG

Net radiative flux, Net rate of radiation leaving a For an opaque surface
00 00
qrad = J − G surface per unit area qrad = ε σ Ts4 − α · G

• transmissivity, τ , is the fraction of the irradiation that is transmitted.

• absorptivity, α, as the fraction of the irradiation that is absorbed.
• reflectivity, ρ, is the fraction of the irradiation that is reflected.
• Because all of the irradiation must be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted,
it follows that:
ρ+α+τ =1
• A medium that experiences no transmission (τ = 0) is opaque:
ρ+α=1

• The total, hemispherical absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity rep-

resent an integrated average over both direction and wavelength:
Gabs Gref Gtr
α= ; ρ= ; τ=
G G G
• the Stefan-Boltzmann law for the black-body:
Eb = σT 4 ; σ = 5.670 · 10−8 W/m2 K 4

• For any surface the emissive power is:

E = εσT 4

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