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Unit II - Physical Layer 5. Multiplexing and Switching
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Transmission Media

1. What are transmission media? What are the different

categories of transmission media?

Ans: Transmission media refer to the media through which data can
be carried from a source to a destination. Data is transmitted from one
device to another through electromagnetic signals. Transmission media
are located under and controlled by the physical layer as shown in Figure
4.1.

Figure 4.1 Transmission Media and Physical Layer

The different categories of transmission media include guided (or wired)

and unguided (or wireless) media as shown in Figure 4.2. Guided
transmission media use a cabling system that guides the data signals
along a specific path. It consists of a cable composed of metals such as
copper, tin or silver. The data signal in guided medium is bound by the
cabling system; hence, the guided medium is also known as bound
medium. There are three basic types of guided transmission media:
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre-optic cable.

Figure 4.2 Categories of Transmission Media ⬆

Unguided transmission media facilitate data transmission without

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through earth's atmosphere (air, water or vacuum) at a much faster rate
options.waves are not guided or bound
covering a wide area. The electromagnetic
 to a fixed channel to follow. There are basically four types of unguided
transmission media including radio waves, microwaves, satellite
transmission and infrared waves.

2. Differentiate guided and unguided transmission media.

Ans. In order to transmit a message or data from a source to a

destination, we need a transmission medium. Transmission medium can
be broadly classified into two categories, which are guided and unguided
media. The differences between these two transmission media are listed
in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Differences Between Guided and Unguided Media

Guided media Unguided media

No physical path is
Signal is transmitted
established between
by establishing a
the source and
physical path
destination; signals
between the source
are propagated
and destination.
through air.

Signals propagate in
Signals propagate in
the form of
the form of current
electromagnetic
or voltage.
waves.

Guided media are Unguided media are

well suited for point- well suited for
to-point broadcast
communication. communication.

Examples of guided Examples of

media are twisted- unguided media are
pair cables, coaxial microwave satellites,
cables and fibre- infrared waves and
optic cables. radio waves.

3. Write in short the design factors for a data transmission

system.

Ans: The major concerns during the design of a data transmission system
are achieving a higher data rate and covering maximum transmission
distance. The key design factors that affect the data rate and transmission
distance are as follows:

Bandwidth: The greater the bandwidth of the signal

is, the higher will be the data rate.

Transmission Impairments: Impairments such as

attenuation, limit the transmission distance and ⬆
hence, they are undesirable.

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overlapping
frequency bands result in interference which can
options.
distort or cancel out a signal. Interference is a major
 issue with unguided media but it also affects the
guided media.

Number of Receivers: In a guided medium, as the

number of receivers on a shared link increases, more
attenuation and distortion are introduced which limit
the distance and/or data rate.

4. Explain in detail the various types of guided transmission

media.

Ans: There are three basic types of guided media—twisted-pair cable,

coaxial cable and fibre-optic cable.

Twisted-pair Cable

It is one of the most common and least expensive transmission media. A

twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper conductors that are
twisted together forming a spiral pattern. A number of such pairs are
bundled together into a cable by wrapping them in a protective shield.
One of the wires in each twisted pair is used for receiving data signal and
another for transmitting data signal. Twisted pairs are used in short-
distance communication (less than 100 metres). The biggest network in
the world, the telephone network, originally used only twisted-pair
cabling and still does for most local connections. A twisted-pair cable has
the capability of passing a wide range of frequencies. However, with the
increase in frequency, attenuation also increases sharply. As a result, the
performance of a twisted-pair cable decreases with the increase in
frequency. A twisted-pair cable comes in two forms: unshielded and
shielded with a metal sheath or braid around it. Accordingly, they are
known as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP)
cables.

UTP Cable: This cable has four pairs of wires inside

the jacket (Figure 4.3). Each pair is twisted with a
different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical
devices. The tighter the twisting is, the higher will be
the supported transmission rate and greater will be the
cost per foot. Each twisted pair consists of two metal
conductors (usually copper) that are insulated
separately with their own coloured plastic insulation.
UTP cables are well suited for both data and voice
transmissions; hence, they are commonly used in
telephone systems. They are also widely used in DSL
lines, 10Base-T and 100Base-T local area networks.

⬆
Figure 4.3 UTP Cable

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STP Cable: Thisoptions.
cable has a metal foil or braided-
mesh covering that covers each pair of insulated
 conductors (Figure 4.4). The metal foil is used to
prevent infiltration of electromagnetic noise. This
shield also helps to eliminate crosstalk. An advantage
of STP cables over UTP cables is that they are suitable
for the environments with electrical interference. In
addition, they provide better performance at higher
data rates. However, the extra shielding makes the
STP cables quite bulky and more expensive than UTP
cables.

Figure 4.4 STP Cable

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables (or coax) have a single central conductor, which is made
up of solid wire (usually, copper) (Figure 4.5). This conductor is
surrounded by an insulator over which a sleeve of metal mesh is woven to
block any outside interference. This metal mesh is again shielded by an
outer covering of a thick material (usually PVC) known as jacket.

Figure 4.5 Coaxial Cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to

signal interference. It can support greater cable lengths between network
devices and can offer greater bandwidth than twisted-pair cable.
However, attenuation in coaxial cables is much higher as compared to
twisted-pair cables due to which the signal weakens rapidly. As a result,
repeaters are to be used frequently to boost up the signals. Coaxial cables
are capable of transmitting data at a fast rate of 10Mbps. Some of the
applications that use coaxial cables include analog and digital telephone
networks, cable TV networks, Ethernet LANs, and short range
connections.

Fibre-optic Cable

Fibre-optic cable or optical fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can
carry information in the form of visible light. The typical optical fibre
consists of a very narrow strand of glass or plastic called the core.
Around the core is a concentric layer of less dense glass or plastic called
the cladding. The core diameter is in the range of 8–50 microns (1
−6
micron = 10 metres) while cladding generally has a diameter of 125
microns. The cladding is covered by a protective coating of plastic, known
as jacket (see Figure 4.6).

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 Figure 4.6 Optical Fibre

Optical fibres transmit a beam of light by means of total internal

reflection. When a light beam from a source enters the core, the core
refracts the light and guides the light along its path. The cladding reflects
the light back into the core and prevents it from escaping through the
medium (see Figure 4.7). These light pulses, which can be carried over
long distances via optical fibre cable at a very high speed, carry all the
information.

Figure 4.7 Signals Carried over an Optical Fibre

Optical fibre has the capability to carry information at greater speeds,

higher bandwidth and data rate. A single optical fibre can pack hundreds
of fibres, where each fibre has the capacity equivalent to that of thousands
of twisted-pair wires. This capacity broadens communication possibilities
to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. In
addition, fibre optic cables offer lower attenuation and superior
performance and require fewer repeaters as compared to coaxial and
twisted-pair cables. The major applications of the fibre-optic cables are
cable TV, military applications, long-haul trunks, subscriber loops, local
area networks, metropolitan trunks and rural trunks.

5. Why twisting of wires is necessary in twisted-pair cables?

Ans: Twisting is done in twisted-pair cables because it tends to minimize

the interference (noise) between the adjacent pair of wires in cable
thereby reducing the crosstalk. In case the two wires are parallel, they
may not get affected equally by the electromagnetic interferences (noise
and crosstalk) from nearby sources due to their different locations relative
to the source. As a result, the receiver would receive some unwanted
signals. On the other hand, if the wires are twisted, both wires are
probable to be get affected equally by the external interferences thereby
maintaining a balance at the receiver. To understand, suppose in one
twist, one of the twisted wires is closer to noise source and the other is
farther, then in the next twist, the opposite will be true. As a result, the
unwanted signals of both the wires cancel out each other and the receiver
does not receive any unwanted signal. Thus, crosstalk is reduced.

6. What are the different categories and connectors of UTP

cables?

Ans: As per the standards developed by the Electronic Industries

Association (EIA), UTP cables have been classified into seven categories,
from 1 to 7. Each category is based on the quality of the cable and the
higher number denotes higher quality. Table 4.2 lists the categories of
UTP cables along with their specification and data rate.

To connect UTP cables to network devices, UTP connectors are required.

The most common connector for the UTP cables is RJ45 (RJ stands for
registered jack) as shown in Figure 4.8. Being a keyed connector, the
RJ45 can be inserted in only one way.

Table 4.2 Categories of UTP Cables

⬆
Category Specification Data
(CAT) rate
(in
Mbps)
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1 options.
UTP cables used in telephones <0.1
 2 UTP cables used in T-lines 2

3 Improved CAT2 used in LANs 10

4 Improved CAT3 used in token 20

ring network

5 Cable wire is normally 24AWG 100

with a jacket and outside
sheath; used in LANs

5E Extension to category 5 that 125

reduces crosstalk and
interference; used in LANs.

6 A new category with matched 200

components coming from the
same manufacturer. This cable
must be tested at a data rate of
200 Mbps. This is used in
LANs.

7 This is the shielded screen 600

twisted-pair cable (SSTP).
Shielding increases data rate
and reduces crosstalk effect.
This cable is used in LANs.

7. What are the different categories and connectors of coaxial

cables?

Ans: According to the ratings provided by radio government (RG), the

coaxial cables have been divided into three categories. Each category has a
specific RG number that indicates a unique set of physical specifications.
These specifications include the wire gauge of inner conductor, shield,
type and size of outer casing and type and thickness of inner insulator.
Different categories of the coaxial cables are listed in Table 4.3.

Figure 4.8 RJ45 UTP Connector

To connect coaxial cables to other devices, coaxial connectors are

required. The three most popular coaxial connectors include the BNC ⬆
connector, BNC terminator and BNC T connector as shown in Figure 4.9.
The Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector is the most

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connector that connects the coaxial cable to a device such
as an amplifier or television set. The BNC terminator is used at the end
options.
of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal and the BNC T
 connector is often used in Ethernet networks for branching out
connections to other devices.

Table 4.3 Categories of Coaxial Cables

Category Use Impedance

RG-59 Cable TV 75 Ω

RG-58 Thin Ethernet 50 Ω

RG-11 Thick 50 Ω
Ethernet

Figure 4.9 Coaxial Cable Connectors

8. Explain the different fibre-optic propagation modes.

Ans: Fibre-optic cables support two modes for propagating light, which
are multimode and single mode. Each mode requires fibre with different
physical characteristics.

Multimode Propagation

In this mode, many beams from a light source traverse the fibre along
multiple paths and at multiple angles as shown in Figure 4.10(a).
Depending upon the structure of core inside the cable, multimode can be
implemented in two forms: step-index and graded-index. In multimode
step-index fibre, the core's density is constant from the centre to the
edges. A light beam moves through the core in a straight path until it
meets the interface of the core and cladding. As the interface has a lower
density than the core, there comes a sudden change in the angle of the
beam's motion further adding to distortion of the signal as it moves on.
The multimode graded-index fibre reduces such distortion of signal
through the cable. As the density is high at the centre of the core, the
refractive index at the centre is high which causes the light beams at the
centre to move slower than the rays that are near the cladding. The light
beams curve in a helical manner [see Figure 4.10(b)], thus, reducing the
distance travelled as compared to zigzag movement. The reduction in path
and higher speed allows light to arrive at the destination in almost the
same time as straight lines.

Single-mode Propagation

This mode employs step-index fibre of relatively small diameter and less
density than that of multimode fibre and a much focused light source.
Because of the focused light source, the beams spread out to a small range
of angles and propagate almost horizontally. Since all beams propagate
through the fibre along a single path, distortion does not occur. Moreover,
all beams reaching at the destination together can be recombined to form
the signal. The single-mode propagation is well suited for long-distance ⬆
applications such as cable television and telephones.

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 Figure 4.10 Propagation Modes for fibre-optic Cable

9. What are the different fibre sizes and connectors available?

Ans: The type of optical fibre is specified by the ratio of the diameter of
its core to the diameter of its cladding. The commonly available fibre sizes
are listed below in Table 4.4.

Fibre-optic cables use three types of connectors, which are SC connector,

ST connector and MT-RJ connector as shown in Figure 4.11. SC
(subscriber channel) connector uses a push–pull locking mechanism
and is primarily used to connect fibre-optic cables for cable television. The
ST (straight tip) connector is used to connect fibre-optic cables to
network devices. This connector is more reliable than SC connector. MT-
RJ (mechanical transfer-registered jack) connector is a small size
connector which looks similar to RJ-45 connector. It is widely used for
networking applications.

Table 4.4 Fibre Types

Type (core/cladding) Mode

50/125 Multimode, graded index

62.5/125 Multimode, graded index

100/125 Multimode, graded index

7/125 Single mode

⬆
Figure 4.11 Fibre-optic Cable Connectors

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cables?
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 Ans: Fibre-optic cables are widely used in many domains such as
telephone network and cable television network. Some advantages of
fibre-optic cables are as follows:

Since transmission is light-based rather than

electricity, it is immune to noise interference.

Transmission distance is greater than other guided

media because of less signal attenuation (degradation
in quality over distance).

It is extremely hard to tap into, making it desirable

from the security viewpoint.

They are smaller and lighter than copper wire and are
free from corrosion as well.

Fibre optic offers, by far, the greatest bandwidth of any

transmission system.

Transmission through fibre optic cable requires lesser

number of repeaters for covering larger transmission
distances.

The disadvantages of fibre-optic cables are as follows:

The installation and maintenance of fibre-optic cables

are quite expensive.

The propagation of light is unidirectional and often

requires precise alignment.

Extending the fibre-optic cables by joining them

together is a tough task.

It is more fragile when compared to copper wires.

11. What are the two kinds of light sources used in fibre-optic
cables?

Ans: In fibre-optic cables, the light sources generate a pulse of light that
is carried through the fibre medium. The two kinds of light sources used
with the fibre-optic cables include light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and
semiconductor laser diodes. These light sources are used to perform
signalling and can be tuned in wavelengths by inserting Mach–Zehnder or
Fabry–Pérot interferometers between the source and the fibre media.
Table 4.5 lists the comparison between these two light sources.

Table 4.5 Comparison Between LEDs and Semiconductor Diodes

Characteristics LED Semiconductor ⬆

laser diode

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Data rate Low
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High

options.
 Cost Low cost Expensive

Fibre type Multimode Multimode/single

mode

Lifetime Long life Short life

Temperature Minor Substantial

sensitivity

Distance Short Long

12. Explain the use of electromagnetic spectrum for

communication.

Ans: Electromagnetic signals include power, voice, radio waves, infrared

light, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays. Each of these
forms a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (see Figure 4.12). The
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be used for
transmitting information include radio wave, microwave, infrared light
and visible light. Information can be transmitted using these portions by
modulating the frequency, amplitude or phase of the electromagnetic
waves. Though using UV, X-rays and gamma rays for transmitting
information is a better choice due to their high frequency (HF), they are
not generally used. This is because it is difficult to produce and modulate
these rays as well as they cannot penetrate obstacles such as buildings.
Moreover, they are dangerous for the living beings.

Figure 4.12 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Its Uses for Communication

The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be used for

transmitting information is parted into eight different ranges. These
ranges are regulated by the government authorities and are known as
bands. Some of the properties of bands are listed in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Properties of Bands

⬆
13. Explain the different propagation methods for unguided
signals.
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Ans: Unguided signals can propagate in three ways, which are ground
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wave, ionosphere and line-of-sight.
 Ground Wave Propagation: In this propagation
method, the radio waves pass through the lowest
portion of the atmosphere, that is, the curvature of the
earth (Figure 4.13). These low frequency radio waves
when transmitted by an antenna disperse in all
directions following the curvature of earth. The
distance travelled is directly proportional to the power
of the signal. That is, greater the amount of power in
the signal is, the more will be the distance covered.

Figure 4.13 Ground Wave Propagation

Ionospheric Propagation: In this propagation

method, the higher frequency radio waves transmitted
by antenna travel upwards into ionosphere layer in the
upper portion of atmosphere and bounced off by the
layer towards earth; a low power signal can travel a
greater distance (Figure 4.14). It operates in the
frequency range of 2–30 MHz. As this type of
propagation depends on the earth's ionosphere, it
changes with the day timings and weather. This
method of propagation is also known as sky wave
propagation.

Figure 4.14 Ionosphere Propagation

Line of Sight Propagation: In this propagation

method, very high frequency signals are transmitted
which travel exactly in straight line (Figure 4.15). This
method demands both transmitting and receiving
antennas to be in line of sight of each other, that is, the
receiving antenna must be in view of the transmitting
antenna. It is sometimes called space waves or
tropospheric propagation. It is limited by the
curvature of the earth for ground-based stations (50
km).

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 Figure 4.15 Line-of-Sight Propagation

14. Explain in detail the different types of unguided media.

Ans: Unguided media are used in those cases when transmission of data
through guided media is difficult. The three main types of unguided
media are discussed in the following sections:

Radio Waves

The electromagnetic waves with frequency in the range of 3 kHz to 1 GHz

are generally known as radio waves. These waves are omnidirectional,
that is they are propagated in all directions when transmitted by an
antenna. Thus, the antennas that send and receive the signals need not be
aligned. However, the radio waves transmitted by two antennas using the
same band or frequency may interfere with each other.

Radio waves present different characteristics at different frequencies. At

low (VLF, LF) and medium (MF) frequencies, they follow the curvature of
earth and can penetrate walls easily. Thus, a device such as a portable
radio inside a building can receive the signal. At high frequencies (HF and
VHF bands), as the earth absorbs the radio waves, they are propagated in
sky mode. The higher frequency radio waves can be transmitted up to
greater distances and thus are best suited for long-distance broadcasting.
However, at all frequencies, radio waves are susceptible to interference
from electrical equipments.

An omnidirectional antenna is used to transmit radio waves in all

directions (see Figure 4.16). Due to their omnidirectional characteristics,
radio waves are useful for multicast (one sender, many receivers)
communication. Examples of multicasting are cordless phones, AM and
FM radios, paging and maritime radio.

Figure 4.16 Omnidirectional Antenna

Microwaves

The electromagnetic waves with frequency in the range of 1–300 GHz are
known as microwaves. Unlike radio waves, microwaves are
unidirectional. The advantage of the unidirectional property is that
multiple transmitters can transmit waves to multiple receivers without ⬆
any interference. Since microwaves are transmitted using line-of-sight
propagation method, the towers with mounted antennas used for sending

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towers should be quite tall so options.
that the signals do not get block off due to
 curvature of earth as well as other obstacles. Moreover, repeaters should
be often used to amplify the signal strength. Microwaves at lower
frequencies cannot penetrate buildings and also, during propagation,
refraction or delays can occur due to divergence of beams in space. These
delayed waves can come out of phase with the direct wave leading to
cancellation of the signal. This phenomenon is known as the multipath
fading effect.

Figure 4.17 Microwave Transmission

Microwaves require unidirectional antennas that transmit signal only in

one direction. Two such antennas are dish antenna and horn antenna
(see Figure 4.18). A dish antenna works based on the geometry of a
parabola. All the lines parallel to the line of sight when hit the parabola,
they are reflected by the parabola curve at angles such that they converge
at a common point called the focus. The dish parabola catches many
waves and directs them on the focus. As a result, the receiver receives
more of the signal. In a horn antenna, outgoing transmission is sent
through a stem and as it hits the curved head, the transmission is
deflected outward as a series of parallel beams. The received
transmissions are collected by a horn similar to the parabolic dish, which
deflects them back into the stem.

Since microwaves are unidirectional, they are best suited for unicast
communication such as in cellular networks, wireless local area networks
and satellite networks.

Figure 4.18 Unidirectional Antennas

Infrared Waves

The electromagnetic waves with frequency in the range of 300 GHz to 400
THz are known as infrared waves. These waves are widely used for
indoor wireless LANs and for short-range communication; for example,
for connecting a PC with a wireless peripheral device, in remote controls
used with stereos, VCRs, TVs, etc. (Figure 4.19). Infrared waves at high
frequencies are propagated using line-of-sight method and cannot
penetrate solid objects. Therefore, a short range infrared system in a room
will not be interfered by such a system present in an adjacent room.
Furthermore, infrared waves cannot be used outside a building because
the infrared rays coming from the sun may interfere with it and distort the
signal.
⬆
The use of infrared waves has been sponsored by an association, known as
Infrared Data Association (IrDA). This association has also
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between devices such as keyboards, printers, PCs and mouses. For
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example, some wireless keyboards are attached with an infrared port that
 enables the keyboard to communicate with the PC. Since infrared signals
transmit through line-of-sight mode, the infrared port must be pointed
towards the PC for communication.

Figure 4.19 Infrared Waves

Communication Satellites

A communication satellite can be referred to as a microwave relay

station. A satellite links two or more ground-based (earth) stations that
transmit/receive microwaves. Once a satellite receives any signal on a
frequency (uplink), it repeats or amplifies that signal and sends it back
to earth on a separate frequency (downlink). The area shadowed by the
satellite (see Figure 4.20) in which the information or data can be
transmitted and received is called the footprint.

Satellites are generally set in geostationary orbits directly over the

equator, which rotates in synchronization with the earth and hence looks
stationary from any point on the earth. These geostationary orbits are
placed approximately 36,000 km above the earth's surface and satellites
placed in this orbit are known as geostationary satellites.

Satellite transmission is also a kind of line-of-sight transmission and the

best frequency for it is in the range of 1–10 GHz. The major applications
for satellites are long-distance telephone transmission, weather
forecasting, global positioning, television, and many more.

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 Figure 4.20 Satellite Transmission

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A transmission medium is located under and controlled by the

(a) transport layer

(b) application layer

(c) physical layer

(d) session layer

2. Guided transmission media include

(a) coaxial cable

(b) fibre-optic cable

(c) twisted-pair cable

(d) All of these

3. Which of the following is not a type of twisted-pair cable?

(a) UTP

(b) FTP

(c) STP

(d) None of these

4. BNC connectors are used with

(a) satellites

(b) fibre-optic cables

(c) coaxial cables

(d) twisted-pair cables

⬆
5. The transmission medium with maximum error rate is

(a) coaxial cable

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(b) twisted-pair cable
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(c) satellite link
 (d) optical fibre

6. Optical fibres transmit a beam of light by means of

(a) total internal reflection

(b) total internal refraction

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

7. In multimode step-index fibre, the density of the

core_________from the centre to the edges.

(a) increases

(b) decreases

(c) remains constant

(d) None of these

8. Which of the following is not a band?

(a) VHF

(b) UHF

(c) VLF

(d) SLF

9. Unguided signals can propagate in__________ways.

(a) two

(b) eight

(c) three

(d) four

10. The frequency at which a signal is received by a satellite is known as

its________frequency.

(a) downlink

(b) microwave

(c) terrestrial

(d) uplink

Answers

1. (c)

⬆
2. (d)

3. (b)

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5. (b)
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 6. (a)

7. (c)

8. (d)

9. (c)

10. (d)

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