Experiment 4

Rectifiers and Filters

Objectives
1. To study the half-wave rectifier.
2. To analyze the full-wave rectifier
3. To analyze the Graetz (Bridge) rectifier
4. To observe the voltages filtered with C, LC and CLC circuits on the oscilloscope
5. To measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage
6. To measure the average rectified voltage
7. To calculate the ripple voltage

Instruments
multimeter
function generator
oscilloscope
MCM3

The half-wave rectifier described in the last lesson has too low an average(or rms) value of output
voltage, as it uses only half the input cycle. This is inconvenient, especially if the load requires a lot of power.
There are two alternatives to the simple rectifier, which rectify the whole of the input cycle, and so
increase the average and rms value of the rectified voltage.
One circuit – the full-wave rectifier, uses two diodes, as seen in figure 1.

fig. 1

This dual diode rectifier requires two equal voltages, but 180° apart, on the anodes,. The average value
Vm of the rectified voltage is :
Vm = 2VM /  = 0.636 VM
The rms voltage is :
Vrms = VM/2 = 0.707 VM

The other circuit solution to rectify both half-waves of an ac source is the Graetz, or bridge rectifier.
This circuit is shown in figures 2 and 3.
The Graetz bridge requires 4 diodes, instead of 2 as in the last case. During the positive half-wave the
diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and during the negative half diodes D2 and D4 conduct. However it can be seen that
the current in the load R has always the same direction, for both half cycles.
fig. 2

fig. 3
 . To obtain a continuous signal from a rectified signal, the dc voltage pulses must be smoothed out - a
filter is able to do this.
The fluctuation of a rectified signal is defined as the "Ripple", ( r ), given by:

RMS ripple voltage value

r = -------------------------------- %
Average voltage on the load

For the raw, un-filtered signal, the ripple factor for a half-wave rectifier is: (/2)²-1 (i.e. 121 %); for a
full-wave rectifier it is : (/(22))²-1 (i.e. 48%). To reduce the ripple it is necessary to smooth the voltage
using filters.

Capacitive filters
This can be achieved by connecting a capacitor across the load, as in figure 4. The behavior of the
smoothed voltage, and the current, with the capacitor are shown in figure 5

fig. B05.1

fig. B05.2 The capacitor charges up while the diode is conducting, until it reaches the maximum value of the
rectified voltage.
When the supply voltage to the anode is less than the voltage on the cathode ,( i.e. the max. voltage of
the capacitor), the diode is cut off.
The capacitor will then supply current to the load. This discharge current is shown as area 2 of figure 5.
The capacitor discharges during the time interval (t2-t1). If the capacitor is small, and/or the resistance of the
load is low, the capacitor will discharge very quickly, and the smoothing will not be very good.
 When the input voltage to the anode, is higher than the voltage left across the capacitor, the capacitor
charges up again ( during interval t3-t2). The diode provides a current pulse to replace the charge lost by the
capacitor. During the time t3-t2 the capacitor must restore the quantity of charge lost during t2-t1.

Maximum current flowing in diodes:

IM = VM  (f R C)

where VM is the maximum voltage across the load

and f is the frequency of the ac signal

Average current in diodes

Im = I0/2 with I0 = average load current

Average output voltage

Vm = VM - IM/(4.f.C)

Output resistor:
the output resistor will determine the drop in load voltage

R0 = 1/(4.f.C)

the ripple
r = 1/(4 f RC)

Low ripple requires a high resistance, a low current and a high capacitance. Capacitive filters are
generally used in low power applications.

With this circuit, an inductance is connected in series with the load.

The inductance opposes the current variations and pulses from the diode, and produces a current I, which lags
behind the voltage. The behavior of the current and voltages in this circuit are as in figure 6.
The insertion of an inductor after a full-wave rectifier greatly reduces the current ripple. The effect of the
inductor in this case is represented in figure 6.
LC Filter
This type of filtering circuit, (also called an "L" section), is a common method of smoothing a rectified
voltage (figure 7).

fig. 7
The inductance provides a first filtering of the current bumps, and then the capacitor provides a second
filtering stage. The smoothing will be better, the higher the reactance of the coil is (compared to the parallel RC
circuit), and the lower the reactance of C is, (compared to the load R).

CLC and CRC Filter

This circuit is a further improvement, obtained by connecting an extra capacitor across the input (fig.8),
which provides an extra stage of smoothing at the input. The average voltage output is then very close to the
max. voltage of the power supply.
The advantages of this filter, (also called a "" section filter), are: increased dc output voltage; and lower
ripple. The main disadvantage, due to the capacitive filter is higher current peaks in the diodes.
If only small load currents are needed, an inductive filter is not necessary in the "" filter. The inductor
is normally expensive, and can be replaced with a resistor, making a CRC  section filter.

fig. 8
Full-wave rectification: useful formulae
filter Condition for good DC voltage output impedance ripple factor
smoothing
C R >> 1/ C VM - Im/4fC 1/4fC 1/(4√3. fRC)
L L >> R 2/.VM - Ri . I Ricoil RL/(3√2. L)
LC L >> 1/ C 2/.VM - Ri . I Ricoil √2/(122 LC)
R > 1/ C
Experiment Procedures
1. Disconnect all jumpers on MCM3
2. Set all switches S "OFF"

Analysis of the half-wave rectifier

3. Connect jumpers J14, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the circuit of figure 10
4. adjust RV2 to obtain the minimum current in the circuit
5. connect the oscilloscope to display both the input voltage and the voltage across the load (R 4 with RV2
in series)
6. compare the 2 wave-forms and determine at which times the diode conducts

fig. 10
what are the differences in the 2 displayed signals ?
a. the input voltage has twice the amplitude of the one across the load
b. the input voltage has a frequency double that of the load voltage
c. the input voltage is shifted by 60° compared to the load voltage
d. the 2 signals are in phase, but the load signal lacks the negative half-wave, and the input
one has slightly higher amplitude
e. none of the above

Note that although a real diode is a good conductor when forward biased , it does have a certain
conduction threshold (about 0.7V).

7. Turn switch S23 "ON"

What can you conclude from the changed readings on the instruments?
a. the load resistance has increased
b. a further diode has been introduced in series
c. the circuit has become open-circuit
d. the supply voltage has been doubled
e. the load resistance r has been reduced
f. a capacitor has been connected in series with the load

8. Turn switch S23 "OFF"

Analysis of the full-wave rectifier
9. Disconnect all jumpers
10. Set all switches S "OFF"
N.B. Voltage and current measurements will be required on some circuits. If only a single multimeter is
available this will need to be used sometimes as a voltmeter, and at other times as an ammeter. When used for
voltage measurements, remember to short-circuit the points of the circuit where the ammeter can be inserted.
11. Connect jumpers J14, J18, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the circuit of figure 11

fig. 11
12. connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the common point of the two ac input voltages (e.g. on
the anode of the diode D5). Connect the probes to display the voltage across the load (of R 4 and RV2 in
series) and alternatively on the anodes of the diodes D3 and D7
13. adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum load current through the circuit
 What can be concluded from these measurements?
1 the voltage on the cathode of D3 is always zero, the one on D7 has no
positive halfwave, the one on the load has no negative half-wave
2 the voltage on the cathode of D3 has no positive half-wave, the one on D7
has no negative halfwave, so the voltage on the load is zero
3 the voltage on the anode of D3 has no negative half-wave, the voltage of
D7 is zero, the one of the load has no positive half-wave
4 D3 and D7 rectify the half-wave with sign opposed to the input voltage.
The voltage on the load consists only of positive pulses
5 none of the above is true
14. Set the ammeter to dc, disconnect jumper J18 and measure the current
15. connect jumper J18 and measure the current again
Comparing the current values obtained, we note that:
1 the results are identical in the two cases
2 the current in the first case is three times higher
3 the current in the second case is double
4 the current in the first case is double
5 the current is half in the second case

Graetz bridge rectifier

16. Connect jumpers J14, J16, J24, J31, J17, J15 and the ammeter to produce the circuit of figure 12

fig.12
17. adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum current in the circuit
18. connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the anode of D4 (point COM in the figure) and probe 1
to the cathode of D4 and probe 2 across the load (of R4 and RV2 in series)
19. measure the maximum value of the voltage across the diode D4. This is the reverse voltage
applied to the diode
20. check the behavior of the voltage on the load when the following modifications are carried out
on the circuit:
21. simultaneously disconnect jumpers J14, J15, J16
22. simultaneously disconnect jumpers J16, J14
23. disconnect jumpers J15, J16
24. disconnect jumpers J14, J17

From the tests carried out, the operation of the Graetz bridge can be observed. Which of
the following statements is true?
1 during operation diodes D3 and D6 conduct alternately, while diodes D2
and D4 protect the load from over voltages
2 at any moment, one pair of diodes in the bridge are conducting
 3 the signal on the load has a pulse behavior, consisting of the single
negative half-waves of the input signal, as the diodes D3, D5, D6 start
conducting
4 the 4 diodes of the bridge simultaneously conduct and the output voltage
is perfectly continuous
5 none of the above is true
In the Graetz bridge the voltage across the load is pulsing. The voltage half-waves are equal to the
supply voltage, but reduced by the threshold values of the 2 diodes. As the supply voltage is usually much
greater than the voltage drop across the diodes, it is not easy to notice the small difference on the oscilloscope.

Filters
25. Disconnect all jumpers
26. Set all switches S “OFF”

C, LC, and CLC filters with a half-wave rectifier

27. Connect jumpers J14, J24, J29, J27, J20 and the ammeter, for dc current measurements, to
produce the circuit of figure B05.9.

fig. 13
28. Connect the oscilloscope to display the ac input voltage on channel 1, and the voltage across the
load (resistor R2) on channel 2
29. observe the voltage across the load on the oscilloscope, and measure the current through the
circuit
30. connect jumper J23 to produce a capacitive filter with C3
31. measure the current through the load; observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the
ripple on the load
32. disconnect jumper J29 and connect jumper J30, so increasing the load resistance

What effect can be observed when the load resistance increases?

1 the ripple in the output voltage drops
2 the ripple is unaltered, but the amplitude of the output signal increases
3 the ripple and amplitude of the output signal are constant
4 the ripple of the output signal increases, but its amplitude remains constant
5 none of the above is true
This observation can be explained by noting that the ripple is reversely proportional to the value of the
load resistor.
33. Take the circuit back to the last configuration, i.e. disconnect J30 and connect J29. Disconnect
J23 and connect J25 to increase the capacitance of the filter
34. measure the current through the circuit, observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the
ripple on the load
This is the same type of filter as in the previous circuit, however the output voltage has
changed. What is the change?
 1 the ripple has reduced
2 the maximum output voltage is reduced
3 the signal ripple is increased
4 no significant variation can be seen
5 the minimum voltage value is increased

35. Turn switch S24 "ON"

What modification has been made to the circuit?
1 the load resistance has dropped
2 the input signal to the filter is lower
3 no variation has been introduced
4 the capacitance of the filter is very much less
5 the load resistance has been reduced
6 none of the above

36. Turn switch S24 "OFF"

37. remove jumper J23 to produce the L C filter (figure 14)
38. measure the dc current between test points 7-8, the average current in the circuit and observe and
measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load connect jumper J23, to produce the CLC
filter
39. measure the average current through the circuit, observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the
ripple on the load
The addition of capacitor C3 provides the L C filter with a quite stable input voltage, with an average value
near to the max. power supply voltage. Comparing the measured voltages in the different configurations, it can
be seen thatn the dc output voltage increases with the dc voltage from the output of the filter, and also with the
reduction of the ripple factor.

fig. 14

C, LC,and CLC filter circuits with full-wave rectifiers

40. Connect jumpers J14, J16, J24, J29, J27, J17, J15, and the ammeter to produce the circuit of
figure 15 (a Graetz or bridge rectifier)
 fig. 15

41. for the following listed changes to the circuit, measure the dc current, the ripple voltage and dc
voltage across the load:
42. connect jumper J21 to produce a capacitive filter, using C1
43. connect J23 to increase the capacitance of the filter (C1//C3)
44. remove J21 and J23 and connect J25 giving the capacitance of C5
45. disconnect J24 to create an L C filter as in figure 16
46. connect J23 to produce a C L C filter

fig. 16
Which of the circuits examined supplies the maximum current, with the least ripple?
1 the one with C1
2 the one with C1//C3
3 the one with C5
4 the one with L C5
5 the one with C3 L C5

Discussion of results
Conclusion and Recommendation