Radar Tutorial Problems

1. Calculate the duty cycle of a radar which transmits a 1.5 s pulse at a PRF
of 8 kHz. If the peak power of this radar is 500 kilowatts, what is the
average power? What is the resting time?

Eqn (2-1). The duty cycle is the result of dividing the pulse width
(1.5 s) by the pulse repetition time (1/8000 Hz) or multiplying the
pulse width by the pulse repetition frequency. (1.5 x 10 -6 seconds) x
(8 x 103 second-1) = 0.012

The duty cycle is the ratio of average power to peak power.

Therefore, if the duty cycle is 0.012, and the peak power is 500
kilowatts, the average power can be obtained by multiplying the duty
cycle by the peak power. (0.012)(500 x 103 watts) = 6 kilowatts.
From Figure 2-1, the resting time is the difference be- tween the pulse
repetition time (the reciprocal of the pulse repetition frequency) and
the pulse width. Rest Time = 1/8000 Hz - 1.5 x 10-6 s = 1.24 x 10-4 s =
124 s

2. A pulsed radar has a duty cycle of .016. If the resting time is 380 s, what is
the pulse width? What is the PRF? What is the minimum range, in meters,
of this radar?

Eqn (2-1) For pulse repetition time (PRT) substitute rest time plus
pulse width (RT + PW). Solve for PW. PW = 6.18 s

3. If a CRT is designed so that the spot traverses the indicator face in 900 s,
what range could be indicated by a spot deflection half way across the
indicator?

Eqn (2-3) Solve equation (2-3) for R to find the range indicated by
the full width of the screen. R = 1/2(3.0 x 108 m/s)(900 x 10-6 s ) =
135 Km A deflection halfway across the indicator represents half of
135 km, or 67.5 km.

4. List the seven basic pulse radar components and briefly describe the
function of each.

Synchronizer
The timing unit of the system. As such it determines the PRF and
coordinates the sweep on the sweep on the indicator with the firing of the
transmitter.
 Transmitter
Generates RF energy of the desired frequency and delivers it to the antenna
system.
Antenna System
Broadcasts transmitter energy in desired pattern into space and receives
return energy.
Duplexer
Consists of TR (Transmit-Receive) and a ATR (Anti-Transmit-Receive)
device. Allows the use of a single antenna for Xmit and Receive.
Receiver
Amplifies weak return signal and transforms it into a form useful for dispaly
on the indicator.
Display
Provides a method for presenting desired target information in a useful form
for the operator.
Power Supply
Supplies power!

5. A target is closing on a radial of a radar site with a relative velocity of 200

knots. The radar transmits continuous wave energy at a wavelength of 5 cm.
What will the Doppler shift of the target be? What will the Doppler shift be
if the target alters its course by 45o (closure speed reduced)?

From appendix B: 1 knot = .508 m/s, so 200 kts = 10160 cm/s Use
Eqn (2-4) Frequency shift = (2)(10160 cm/s)/(5cm) = 4.06 kHz for a
course change of 45o, the velocity component in the closure direction
becomes 10160cos(45o)=7184cm/s Frequency shift = 2(7184 cm/s)/(5
cm) = 2.87 kHz

6. Will the Doppler shift for an opening target indicate an increase or decrease
in frequency? Why?

Decrease, from (Eqn 2-4), if S is "negative", that is, going away, then
the frequency shift is a negative value.

7. Why can't a CW radar measure range? What is the main advantage of a CW

radar?

Range is measured by noting the round trip time for a pulse of radar
energy. Since a CW radar transmits continuously, there is no means
of measuring the round trip time and therefore no direct means of
measuring range. The principle advantage of a CW radar is its
inherent ability to recognize moving targets. It is safe to say that any
target which represents some threat will also be in motion.
8. Why can a better angle measurement be achieved with a narrow beam than a
wide beam? Which would be more suitable for searching for targets? Why?

Since signal strength changes are more pronounced as the target

moves toward the edge of the beam, the closer to the edge of the
target is while being tracked the easier it is to detect a change in
angle. Those large changes of signal strength occur closer to the axis
in a narrow beam than in a wide beam resulting in better tracking
accuracy. Wide beam. Because a narrow beam would cover too small
an area in space to be useful in initially locating potential threats. A
narrow beam is much better suited for target tracking and fire control
solutions where accuracy is the main consideration. Search radars do
not require any particular degree of resolution since their main
function is to determine target presence only. Once this is
accomplished, a narrow beam would be used for tracking.

9. What is the difference between a broadside and end-fire array? Explain how
the broadside array of Figure (2-17) could be modified to become an end-
fire array.

In a broadside array, all elements are transmitting in phase. If each

element were stimulated out of phase with its immediate neighbor, by
an amount equal to the portion of a wavelength that separates
adjacent elements, an end-fire array would result.

10.Explain the function of a parasitic reflector.

The parasitic reflector is employed in some radar antenna systems as

a means of concentrating the radiated energy in a desired direction.
Without a device to serve this purpose, an array type radar antenna
would broadcast two equal main beams in opposite directions. When
a conducting element is placed in an electric field, a voltage will be
induced in the element. When this field varies, as around a radiating
dipole, the variation in the induced voltage in the conductor (driven
element) will cause it to radiate as well, but with a phase shift. Proper
positioning of the driven element in the vicinity of the array will
therefore set up interference which will tend to cancel the field in one
direction and rein- force it in another, thereby allowing for a single,
stronger main beam.

11.Discuss the advantages of a double lobe system over a single lobe system in
terms of azimuth determination.

Single lobe systems are suitable for determining target bearing as

long as no requirement exists for a high degree of accuracy. Once a
 strong signal is received, indicating a roughly centered beam, the
single lobe system is at the limit of its value. This is because the
teardrop shape of a radar beam makes it extremely difficult to fine
tune; the antenna azimuth to the point of exact maximum return. A
double lobe system does not require the determination of maximum
return, but rather the azimuth at which the return signal is equal for
each lobe. From an operator standpoint, it is considerably less
difficult to match two signals where there is a constant reference than
to determine the maximum of one signal where there is a variable
reference. The double lobe system has an additional advantage in
that, when the azimuth setting is close to correct, the return from each
lobe is coming from nearer the side of the lobes where variations in
signal strength are more pronounced. This makes it considerably less
difficult to fine tune the antenna azimuth.

12.List and briefly discuss three methods of determining target elevation.

1. Threshold-pickup A low-accuracy single lobe method which makes

use of signals reflected from the earth's surface. The path length
difference between the direct radar energy and the reflected radar
energy causes cancellation at some points in space and
reinforcement at others. The net result is a "layer of lobes" in space.
This antenna would be fixed in elevation and an operator would have
a fade chart to use which would give an elevation based upon range
at which the first discernible signal appears.
2. Signal-comparison Similar to threshold-pickup except that two lobes
are utilized and the ratio of signal strengths as well as target range
are used to determine altitude. This method is considerably more
accurate than the threshold-pickup method.
3. Tilted-antenna This method is similar to the single lobe method for
determining azimuth. The antenna Πis elevated such that no portion
of the lobe is reflected from the surface. The elevation angle of the
antenna at target acquisition and the range can be trigonometric-
ally combined to determine target altitude.
13.What is the primary source of radar noise? Discuss the relationship between
signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth.

The greatest percentage of noise is generated with the electronic

circuitry of the radar, particularly in the input to the receiver. A
common source of this noise results from the random motion of
electrons within electrical elements. Since there will be motion at any
temperature above absolute zero, it is difficult to eliminate such noise
(Johnson noise). The wider the bandwidth, the greater the degree of
noise that will be input to the receiver. Since noise exists at all
frequencies, the broader the frequency range to which the receiver is
 tuned, then the higher the intensity level if the noise and the lower the
signal-to-noise ratio.

14.What is the maximum unambiguous range for a radar with a PRF of 600
Hz? What PRF is required for maximum unambiguous range of 350 km?

Use Eqn (2-3) For t, substitute the reciprocal of PRF, and solve for R.
R = 1/2(3.0 x 108m/sec)(600 s-1)-1 = 250 km To determine the
required PRF to achieved a maximum unambiguous range of 350
Km, substitute 350 km for R in Eqn (2-3) and solve for PRT. The
required PRF is the reciprocal that results. PRF = [(2)
(350x103cm)/(3.0x108m/sec)]-1 = 428.6 Hz

15.What is the minimum range for radar with a PW of 5 s? What is the radar's
range resolution?

Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PW for t. R = 1/2 (3.0 x 108m/s)(5.0 x 10-6 s)

= 750 meters Assume a pulse compression ratio of 1.0. R RES =
Rmin = 750 meters

16.Why is it advantageous to have a low duty cycle?

Duty cycle is the ratio of average power to peak power. A low duty
cycle would indicate low average power and high peak power. The
low average power is desirable from the standpoint of equipment size
and the high peak power is important for maximum return signal
strength.

17.Why is there a requirement to have at least 10 return pulses (or echoes) to

rate the target as valid?

The probability of noise being generated in the same time space (i.e.
Range) 10 or more times in a row is extremely low, therefore assuring
returns are a target.

18.If the receiver has a receiver sensitivity of -83 dBm, what is the value of the
minimum discernible signal (Smin)?

Use Eqn (2-5) Substitute -83 dBm for receiver sensitivity and solve
for Smin. Smin = log-110[1/10(-83)]=5.012 x 10-9 mW = 5.012x10-12 W

19.Given an antenna beam width of 3", a scan rate of 48 o/sec and a PRF of 200
Hz; how many pulses will be returned from a point target as the antenna
scans through its beam width?
 Use Eqn (2-6) Substitute 3o for B, 48o/sec for S and 200 Hz for PRF.
Solve for NB. NB = (3o)(200 sec-1)/(48o/sec) = 12.5 pulses

20.What is the directive gain for an antenna with a horizontal half power beam
width of 2o and a vertical half power beam width of 4 o?

Use Eqn (2-8) Convert the beam widths to radius by dividing each
value by 57.3o. Substitute the beam widths into Eqn (2-8) and solve
for GD. GD = [(4)()]/[(2/57.3)(4/57.3)] = 5157.4

21.Explain why the echo from an A-4 might be much stronger than the echo
from a larger aircraft at the same range.

The radar cross-section of any target will vary with aspect and
reflecting qualities. A plan form view of an A-4 will appear much
larger than a nose-on view of an A-3, for example.

22.Increasing the transmitter power of a radar by a factor of 5 will increase the

maximum range by what percent?

Use Eqn (2-17) Use Eqn (2-17) to find a ratio of values for R max under
the two conditions. Under the new conditions, P t(new) = 5Pt(old). All
other factors remain the same and cancel.
Ro(new)/Ro(old)=[5Pt(old)/Pt(old)]1/4 = 1.495 Therefore increasing
Pt by a factor of 5 results in a 49.5 % increase in range.

23.For a given target a radar has a maximum range of 100 km. If the sensitivity
of the radar receiver deteriorates by 3 dB, what is the degraded maximum
range for that target?

Use Eqn (2-17) A 3dB loss in sensitivity equates to a revised

sensitivity that's 1/2 the original sensitivity, or the revised S min being
twice the original Smin. As in problem 2-22, find a ratio of Rmax under
the two conditions of Smin. Under the new conditions Smin(new) = 2
Smin(old). All other factors cancel.
Rnew/Rold=[1/(2Smin(old)/1/Smin]1/4=(1/2)1/4=0.841. Therefore, the
revised range is 84.1 Km

24.A given radar with a Smin = 10-9W can detect a target having a radar cross-
section of 3 meter2 at a range of 40 miles. At what range can this same radar
detect a 1 meter2 target if its Sensitivity is improved by 6 dB? Use Eqn (2-
17)

A 6dB improvement in sensitivity is a 4-fold improvement.

Therefore, Smin(new) = 1/4 Smin(old)
 Rnew/Rold=[(lm2/1/4Smin(old)/(3m2/Smin(old)]1/4=1.074 f Rold=40
miles, Rnew=(1.074)(40 miles)=42.98 miles

25.A frequency modulated radar sweeps from 400 MHz to 800 MHz in 10 s.
What is the maximum unambiguous range which can be measured by this
radar?

Use Eqn (2-3) The maximum unambiguous range is 1/2 the distance
that can be travelled by the radar energy during the time of one sweep
from 400 to 800 MHz. Substitute 10 s for t in Eqn (2-3) and solve
for R. R = 1/2(3.0x108 m/sec)(10x10-6 sec) = 1.5KM.

26.What is the main feature which differentiates pulsed Doppler or MTI radars
from pulse-echo radars?

The pulse-echo radar is capable only of measuring the elapsed travel

time of individual pulses, however, where the Pulse-Doppler/MTI
radars are capable of measuring a shift in the frequency of the RF
energy in the return pulse and are therefore sensitive to target
velocity.

27.Discuss the difference between pulse-Doppler and MTI radars.

Pulse-Doppler radars use filters to selectively pass Doppler

frequencies. MTI radars use delay line and canceller to eliminate
low/no Doppler frequency shifts.

28.A pulse-Doppler radar has a carrier frequency of 9 GHz and a PRF of 4000
Hz.

1. What are its "blind" Doppler frequencies?

f D = n PRF = n (4000 HZ) = 4000 HZ, 8000 HZ, 12000 HZ,

etc.

2. What radial target velocities would be undetected by the radar?

Use Eqn (2-18) Find  using Eqn (1-1).  =

(3.0x108 m/sec)/(9x109 sec-1)=3.33 cm Solve Eqn (2-18) for
Vt = n (4000 Hz) (3.33x10-2 m)/2 = n 66.67 m/sec. Any integer
multiple of 66.67 m/sec is undetectable by this system.

3. What modification can be made to the radar that would eliminate

blind speeds below 2000 knots (use PRF)?
 2000 KTS = 1016 m/s Let n = 1 Use Eqn (2-18) Substitute
1016 m/sec for Vt and 1 for n. Solve equations (2-18) for PRF.
PRF=[(2)(1016 msec)]/[(1)(3.33x10-2 m)]=61.02 kHz

4. What would the maximum unambiguous range of the modified radar

be?

Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute the reciprocal of the PRF for t and
solve for R. R=1/2(3.0x108 m/sec)(6.102 x 104sec-1)-1=2.46 km

5. What additional modification(s) would allow for an increase in

maximum unambiguous range?

Reduce frequency so that higher PRT's are possible.

29.A fighter aircraft in level flight on a heading of 090 oT and at an airspeed of

600 m/sec is operating a pulse-Doppler radar at a frequency of 800 MHz. A
target is detected at the same altitude, bearing 000 oR, heading 030oT at a
speed of 300 m/sec.

1. What is the relative radial velocity between the fighter and the target?

Determine the angle between the fighter's course and its line of
sight (LOS) to the target. (0o). Determine the angle between the
target's course and the LOS from fighter to target (120 o). The
relative radial is determined by summing the velocity
components along the LOS. S = Sret+Stgt = (600 m/s) cos(0o) + (
300 m/s) cos(120o) = 450 m/s

2. What will the resulting Doppler shift be?

Use Eqn (2-4) Substitute the relative radial velocity just

obtained into Eqn (2-4) and solve for the change in frequency.
(Use Eqn (1-1) to determine lambda). Frequency shift = (2)
(450 m/sec)/0.375 m) = 2.4 kHz

30.A pulse radar propagates the pulse train shown below. Each pulse has its
frequency increased over the duration of the pulse width resulting in a pulse
compression ratio of 100:1. What is the range resolution of this radar?

Using Eqn (2-3, substitute PW for t, and solve for R min. Rmin =
1/2(3x108 m/sec)(3x10-6 sec) = 450m RRes = Rmax/PCR = 300 km/100
= 4.5 m
31.Why is it possible to achieve a more narrow beamwidth with a millimeter
system than a microwave radar? (Microwave radar frequencies cover 800-
1000 MHz.)

Millimeter systems approach "light" wavelengths and there fore can

use "lens" to create beams. Microwave radars require larger antennas
and therefore are harder to focus or create beams.

32.The following table lists the characteristics of the components of a pulse-

echo type surface search radar. Using the concepts presented in this chapter,
complete this table.

frequency, f 5600 MHz

wave length,  _____
pulse width, PW 1.3 sec
pulse repetition frequency, PRF _____
pulse repetition time, PRT _____
peak power _____
average power _____
duty cycle 8.3 x 10-4
Antenna rotation rate,  16 RPM
Horizontal beamwidth, B _____
vertical beam width, B 4o
effective aperture, Ae 0.9 m2
power gain, G 3940
directive gain, GD _____
number of returns per sweep, NB 9.9
minimum discernible signal, MDS -83dBm
receiver sensitivity , Smin _____
maximum unambiguous range, Runamb _____
maximum theoretical range, Rmax 50 km
minimum range, Rmin _____
range resolution, Rres _____
radar cross-section,  5 m2

33. Wavelength
34.Use Eqn (1-1)
= (3.0 x 108 m/sec)/(5600 x 106 Hz) = 5.36 cm
35. PRT
36.Use Eqn (2-1)
PRT = PW/DC = 1.3 sec/8.3x10-4 = 1.57x103 sec
37. PRF
38.PRF = 1/PRT = (1.57x10-3sec)-1 = 638.5 Hz
39. Peak Power
 40.Hint, skip this and continue on to the end then solve.)
Use Eqn (2-17)
Rearrange Eqn (2-17) and solve for PT. (Eqn (2-17) requires Smin;
that's why you had to skip this)

PT = (Smin)(4 R2)2/GAe = (5.012x10-12)[(4 )(50x103m)2]2/(3940)

(0.9)(5.0)

PT = 279KW
41. Average Power
42.Solve Eqn (2-1) for the average power ( Pave ). Pave = Pt
DC = (279KW)(8.3 x 10-4) = 231.6W
43. Directive Gain
44.Use Eqn (2-6) and (2-8)
Rearrange Eqn (2-6) to solve for B, the horizontal beam width.
Change the scan rate (16 RPM) to o/sec as follows:
scan rate =(16 revolutions/min)(360o/revolution) (60 sec/min)-1 =
96o/sec.
Solve Eqn (2-6) for  B:
 B=(NB)(scan rate)/PRF=(9.9)(96o/sec)/ (638.5 sec-1) = 1.49o
Solve Eqn (2-8) for GD, changing the beam widths to radians.
GD= (4 )/(4.0/57.3)(1.49/57.3) = 6929
45. Minimum Discernible Signal
46.Use Eqn (2-5) Substitute -83 dB for receiver sensitivity and solve for
Smin = 10[1/10(-83)] = 5.012 x 10-12 W
47. Runamb
48.Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PRT for t, solve for R. R =
1/2(3.0x108m/sec)(1.57x10-3sec) = 235.5 km
49. Rmin
50.Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PW for t, solve for R. R =
1/2(3.0x108m/sec)(1.3x10-6sec) = 195 m
51. Rres
52.Assume no pulse compression. Rres = Rmin = 195m

PPI DISPLAY
The most common display is the PPI (plan position indicator). The A-scan information is converted
into brightness and then displayed in the same relative direction as the antenna orientation. The
result is a top-down view of the situation where range is the distance from the origin. The PPI is
perhaps the most natural display for the operator and therefore the most widely used. In both cases,
the synchronizer resets the trace for each pulse so that the range information will begin at the
origin.

Figure 5

In this example, the use of increased STC to suppress the sea clutter would be helpful.

Radar performance

All of the parameters of the basic pulsed radar system will affect the

performance in some way. Here we find specific examples and quantify this dependence

where possible.