AE 242

Aerospace Measurements
Laboratory
 Small change in transducer resistance
e i e i R  1 
e 0  e 0    
2 2 2R 0  1  R / 2R 0 

R/2R0 << 1 the output can R

be approximated as
e 0  e 0  e 0  ei
4R 0
For small variation in resistance it will be linear and it is advantageous.
Small variation in resistance results into small output, it is at
disadvantage. For a 120  strain gage change in resistance is 240
and it will change the output in micro volts
e 0 (R / 4R 0 )e i R
   10 6
e0 ei / 2 2R 0

Measurement is e0 +  e0 and this will need a very precise instrument.

2
 Small change in transducer resistance
Difficulty is to resolve voltage
change which is a small fraction of
output voltage.

3
 Small change in transducer resistance
Difficulty is to resolve voltage
change which is a small fraction of
output voltage.

The difficulty can be removed by

measuring only the difference and
amplifying it.

R
e out  e a  e b  e 0  ei
4R 0

4
 Wheatstone bridge
Consist of four arms of resistors, a
detector and power supply source.
Two arms are voltage divider and
the detector (meter) finds the
potential difference. Bridge is
balanced when potential difference
is zero and no current flow through
detector . When bridge is balanced:

R1 R 3 R1 R 2
 or 
R2 R4 R3 R4
For the Wheatstone resistance bridge to be balance, the ratio of
resistances of any two adjacent arms must equal the ratio of resistances of
the remaining two arms, taken in the same sense.

5
 Arrangements to balance bridge
Bridge balancing is required
prior to measurement. In case
of null balance it is used for
measurement. Series balance
is used for large variation in
resistance and shunt balance
is used for small variation.
Series or shunt balance
depends on the bridge
sensitivity. For deflection
bridge initially it is balanced
and the transducer output is
measured by a meter.

6
 Voltage sensitive bridge
The output is connected to a high
impedance measuring instrument.
Output is potential difference between
point B & D
eo  e B  e D
Using voltage divider relationship

 R2 R4 
e 0  e i   
 R1  R 2 R 3  R 4 
Resistance R2 changes by a small amount R, output changes by e0

 (R 2  R 2 )R 3  R 4 R1 
e 0  e 0  e i  
 (R1  R 2  R 2 )(R 3  R 4 ) 

7
 Voltage sensitive bridge
 (R 2  R 2 )R 3  R 4 R1 
e 0  e 0  e i  
 (R1  R 2  R 2 )(R 3  R 4 ) 
Assuming all resistances equal and this
will also result in e0 = 0, then

e 0 R 2 / R 2

ei 4  2(R 2 / R 2 )
The bridge is inherently non-linear
and it can be assumed linear for
small variation. In most strain
gages R2/2R << 1 and the
linearised output is
e 0 R 2

ei 4R
1% change in resistance will result into error of -0.5% 8
 Voltage sensitive bridge
Special case when bridge is linear
Using voltage divider relationship
 R2 R4 
e0  ei   
 R1  R2 R3  R4 
 R2  R2 R4  R4 
e0  ei   
 R1  R1  R2  R2 R3  R3  R4  R4 

9
 Voltage sensitive bridge
Special case when bridge is linear
Using voltage divider relationship
 R2 R4 
e0  ei   
 R1  R2 R3  R4 
 R2  R2 R4  R4 
e0  ei   
 R1  R1  R2  R2 R3  R3  R4  R4 

R1  R2  R3  R4  R
R1  R2  R3  R4  R
 R2  R R4  R 
e0  ei   
 R1  R  R2  R R3  R  R4  R 
 R 
e0  ei   Strict linear relationship
 R  10
 Constant current bridge
When resistance changes current ii
changes in case of constant voltage
bridge (excitation voltage). In case of
constant current bridge, current ii is
maintained by the power supply i.e.
excitation voltage changes as the
resistance changes.

ei ei ( R1  R2 )( R3  R4 )
ii   or ei  ii
R1  R2 R3  R4 R1  R2  R3  R4

 R2 R4 
Potential difference between point B and D e0  ei   
 R1  R2 R3  R4 
( R1  R2 )( R3  R4 )  R2 R4 
e0  ii   
R1  R2  R3  R4  R1  R2 R3  R4 

R2 R3  R1R4
For constant current, output is e0  ii
R1  R2  R3  R4 11
 Constant current bridge
Resistance R2 is the measuring arm and
the resistance changes by R. Output
can be written as

(R 2  R )R 3  R1R 4
e 0  e 0  i i
R1  (R 2  R )  R 3  R 4

For the case when all the resistance = R.

 R 
e 0  i i 
 4  R / R 

Constant current has better linearity compared to constant voltage

e 0 R 2 / R 2
In case of constant voltage 
ei 4  2(R 2 / R 2 )
12
 Compensation for leads
Frequently sensor and bridge are separated by appreciable distance,
connecting leads will be also of same length. These wires add resistance
and temperature variation along these leads can add errors. This can be
compensated by a compensating lead which is subjected to same
temperature variations as the connecting wire.
Due to temperature
R variation

R1 R2  2R
R1 R2 
R3 R4

R3 R4

13
 Compensation for leads
Frequently sensor and bridge are separated by appreciable distance,
connecting leads will be also of same length. These wires add resistance
and temperature variation along these leads can add errors. This can be
compensated by a compensating lead which is subjected to same
temperature variations as the connecting wire.
Due to temperature
R variation

R1 R2  2R
R1 R2 
R3 R4

R3 R4

R1 R1 R2  R
R2 
R3 R4  R

R3
R4
14
 Strain measurement
Strain is deformation per unit length. It is very small
number and generally multiplied by 10-6 and called
as micro strain or parts per million (ppm). Axial
stress will cause axial strain and also lateral strain
and generally it is related by Poisson’s ratio. For
tensile axial strain it will be compressive and vice
versa. Strain can be measured directly or indirectly.
One of the direct method is fixing strain gages over
the location of interest.

15
 Electrical resistance strain gage
When a length of wire is mechanically stretched, cross-section changes
and the resistance of the wire changes. For a conductor of length L. cross-
sectional area CD2, D is characteristic dimension and C is constant
depending on the cross-section. Resistance of the conductor for the given
resistivity 
L L L
R A  CD 2 R
A

CD 2
A
When the conductor is strained each of the quantity can change

dLLd LdA dR 
( Ld   dL) 2CLDdD

dR    2
A A A2 CD (CD 2 ) 2

dR dL dD d  dR / R dD / D d / 
 2   1 2 
R L D  dL / L dL / L dL / L

dD / D d / 
Poisson’ ratio    Piezoresistance
dL / L dL / L
16
 Electrical resistance strain gage
dR / R dR / R d / 
Gage factor F   1  2 
dL / L a dL / L
Gage factor is function of Poisson’s ratio and for 0.3 it will be 1.6.
Commonly available strain gages have gage factor of ~ 2. Gage factor
relates the change in resistance with strain.

1 R
a  R  F a R
F R
Gage factor and resistance value is generally supplied by the manufacturer.
Gage factor determination is a destructive test. It is statistically determined
and given to the user.

17
 Type of strain gage
Wire type : Thin wire is wound in a
grid form and it is glued between two
thin paper sheets. Does not have
good accuracy. It is obsolete.

Foil type : Thin metal is etched on a

thin backing material. Available in
various sizes, resistance, shapes
and angular configuration.

18
 Type of strain gage
Wire type : Thin wire is wound in a
grid form and it is glued between two
thin paper sheets. Does not have
good accuracy. It is obsolete.

Foil type : Thin metal is etched on a

thin backing material. Available in
various sizes, resistance, shapes
and angular configuration.

19
 Rectangular block

Total strain = axial strain + bending strain

20
 Wheatstone bridge output
For a constant voltage, bridge output

 R 1R 4  R 2 R 3 
e 0  e i  
 (R1  R 2 )(R 3  R 4 ) 
Assuming resistance of each arm is
varying

e 0 e 0 e 0 e 0
de 0  dR 1  dR 2  dR 3  dR 4
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4

21
 Wheatstone bridge output
For a constant voltage, bridge output

 R 1R 4  R 2 R 3 
e 0  e i  
 (R1  R 2 )(R 3  R 4 ) 
Assuming resistance of each arm is
varying

e 0 e 0 e 0 e 0
de 0  dR 1  dR 2  dR 3  dR 4
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
Evaluating partial derivatives and by substitution

de 0 R 2dR 1 R1dR 2 R 4dR 3 R 3dR 4

   
ei (R1  R 2 ) (R1  R 2 ) (R 3  R 4 ) (R 3  R 4 ) 2
2 2 2

dR1, dR2, dR3 and dR4 are various resistance changes in each of bridge arm
22
 Wheatstone bridge output
de 0 R 2dR 1 R1dR 2
 
ei (R1  R 2 ) (R1  R 2 ) 2
2

R 4dR 3 R 3dR 4
 
(R 3  R 4 ) (R 3  R 4 ) 2
2

If R1, R2, R3 and R4 are all equal to R

de 0 dR 1  dR 2  dR 3  dR 4

ei 4R

23
 Wheatstone bridge output
de 0 R 2dR 1 R1dR 2
 
ei (R1  R 2 ) (R1  R 2 ) 2
2

R 4dR 3 R 3dR 4
 
(R 3  R 4 ) (R 3  R 4 ) 2
2

If R1, R2, R3 and R4 are all equal to R

de 0 dR 1  dR 2  dR 3  dR 4

ei 4R
dR n
Change in resistance is related to strain :  F n
Rn
de 0 F
Output voltage in terms of strain :  [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4
de 0 F
If one arm is active:  
ei 4 24
 Wheatstone bridge

Full bridge - When all the arms are

active.

Half bridge - When two arms are active.

Quarter bridge - When only one arm is

active.

25
 Strain gage orientation
Using the equation shown, effect of strain de 0 F
gage orientation can be explained:
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

26
 Strain gage orientation
de 0 F
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

27
Strain gage orientation
de 0 F
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

28
Strain gage orientation
de 0 F
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

29
Strain gage orientation
de 0 F
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

30
Strain gage orientation
de 0 F
 [ 1   2   3   4 ]
ei 4

31