CHAPTER 3

DC POWER SUPPLY
3.1. DC Power System
DC supply is required for closing and tripping of circuit breaker, control board
indication, control and instrumentation communication and annunciation system etc.
Some of the important substation parts such as emergency lighting, relay system, and
automated control circuitry are operated through batteries. Batteries are also used to
provide illumination in certain and sensitivity area for otherwise work withstand still.
The size of the battery bank is depending on the voltage required for operation of the
DC circuit respectively.
A substation dc system consists of a battery of suitable voltage (number of
cells) and suitable size (Ampere-hour capacity) connected in parallel with a control
bus together with properly selected voltage regulated charging equipment.
At a single location where two distinct dc voltages are required, i.e., possibly
48 volts for microwave and 120 volts for substation operation, two separate batteries
and chargers is one option. Tapping a larger unit to obtain the smaller voltage is not
recommended. Another option to obtain different dc voltages is a dc to dc converter.
This is usually used for small loads and is available from the manufacturer.
The charging equipment consists of a full wave rectifier with regulated output
voltage. Normally, the charger operates continuously to furnish direct current to the
control bus for steady loads such as indicating lamps, holding coils, and relays, plus a
small current to maintain the battery at full charge.
Intermittent loads of short duration such as tripping or closing of circuit
breakers or automatic operations of other equipment are handled by the charger within
the limits of its capacity. Any excess load is supplied by the battery, which is
automatically recharged when the intermittent load ceases.
The control bus may be a dc bus in a switchgear assembly or, in the case of a
large substation, a dc or group of dc panels. DC voltage requirements for solid-state
relaying, event recorders, data acquisition, and other such devices are generally below
the voltage levels for circuit breaker trip coils. Actual requirements vary with
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different vendors. Some types of equipment are provided with individual rectifiers,
rack mounted, changing 120 volts, 60 hertz ac, to 12, 24, or 48 volts dc. If the supply
fails, static switching changes the source to the main dc batteries and required dc
converter. An alarm indication is provided to indicate this status. Other equipment is
designed to be fed directly from the main batteries with ac/dc converters to supply the
static device voltage. 230 V DC and 110 V DC are used for protection and control
and 48 V DC is used for communication equipment.
Two of the most important components of a substation dc system are the main
battery and charger. These components should be sized correctly. Under sizing could
possibly mean a circuit breaker reclose failure and undue service interruption.
Oversizing, while not damaging, is expensive. However, the cost of the supply is a
fraction of total substation cost and the economics should be balanced with reliability.
At a minimum, the main battery should be sized to allow normal substation operation
for 8 hours.

3.2. Hazards Associated with DC Systems

There are a number of hazards that may be present when working with DC
systems in electrical substations. These include:
• Electrical shock – DC voltages and large currents may be high enough to
cause severe burns or electrocution.
• Acids and alkalis – Can burn skin and eyes.
• Large mass – batteries and cells are very heavy and can cause injury if not
lifted and transferred using appropriate techniques.
• Confined spaces – gases from battery cells can build up and require ventilation
before battery rooms can be entered.

3.3. Elements of DC Auxiliary System

The main components of the system are battery, charger and distribution
switchboard including the DC system monitoring relay.
In a typical installation, especially with batteries of considerable size, the
batteries are installed in a separate battery room. The ventilation of the battery room
shall be adequate, considering the type and size of the battery. Temperature level in
the battery room should not exceed 25 °C, since temperatures above this significantly
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affect the lifetime of the battery. The charger and distribution switchboard are
normally located in the same room, separate to the battery.
The main fuses of the battery are housed in separate plastic boxes, one for plus
connection and one for minus connection. These main fuse boxes should be placed
close to the battery itself.

3.4. Battery Technology

In industrial or substation applications mainly three types of batteries are used
namely:
• Vented / Flooded Lead Acid batteries
• Sealed maintenance free batteries/Valve Regulated Lead Acid
• Nickel Cadmium (Ni-cd) batteries
For UPS applications batteries are the most popular and hence are widely
used. Hence, in this detailing, mainly emphasize has been put on these type of
batteries.
The choice between these three types depends on several factors, including at
least the following:
• Lifetime expectancy
• Maintenance requirements
• Lifetime costs, from purchase to replacement
• Reliability
• Charging and discharging characteristics
• Operating temperature requirements
• Existing spare cell stock
• Seismic conditions
The complete battery consists of a certain number of individual cells.
Depending on the battery type and design in question, the cells can be partly series-
connected already at the factory. Then, a number of cells, for example six pieces,
form a one-cell package. These cell packages are then connected in series to reach the
required number of individual cells.
The number of battery cells to be connected in series depends on the required
float charge voltage level of the battery. This float charge level also determines the
actual operating voltage level of the DC system, under normal conditions. Nominal
float charge cell voltage depends on the type of the cell. With Lead-Acid battery cells,
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the nominal float charge voltage of a cell is around 2.23 V and with Nickel-Cadmium
cells it is around 1.41 V.

3.5. Vented / Flooded Lead Acid Batteries

There are two types for vented or flooded lead acid batteries namely tubular
and Plante. The difference between the two is the construction. For tubular battery
normal life is 8-10 years. The Plante battery is both mechanically and electrically
more durable. The normal life for Plante batteries is 15-20 years. Because this type of
battery generates corrosive fumes when charging and because the sulfuric acid
electrolyte does evaporate to some extent, these batteries must be used in a special
room, which is well ventilated to the outside and kept away from delicate electronic
equipments.
It needs separate room and racks with acid proof tiles for installation. Because
of evaporation, it needs regular maintenance to check specific gravity, to add water
and acid. These batteries can withstand high temperature, voltage, and deep discharge
with minimum damage to itself. A notice should be exhibited in the battery room
prohibiting smoking and use of naked flames. These batteries cannot be transported in
charged condition and therefore need charging at site.
Typical initial charging of the battery will take about 55 to 90 hours. Nominal cell
voltage is 2 V/cell. The charger for this battery should be able to provide the first
charge at 2.6 to 2.7 V/cell.

3.6. Sealed Maintenance Free batteries (SMF)

These are also known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries. These
batteries are the most popular for usage with UPS systems for computer or
commercial application. Being sealed, these batteries do not emit any fumes and
hence can be very well installed next to electronic equipment. These batteries also can
be housed in a close enclosure if necessary. These batteries are also maintenance free
and avoid any hassles of checking specific gravity, adding water or acid, etc.
These batteries have a relatively lesser life of approx. 3-5 years. The life
expectancy typically depends on the number of charge/discharge cycle experienced by
the batteries and the ambient temperature in which the batteries are used. These
batteries are primarily the most popular for commercial applications due to “Install
and forget” approach.
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Figure . Sealed Maintenance Free batteries

These types of batteries are typically used for UPS Systems of very high rated
capacity, typically engaged for plant application, wherein maintenance and space is
not really an issue.

3.7. Nickel Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)

Ni-cd batteries do emit hydrogen and oxygen gas, products of electrolysis, but
there are no corrosive gases as lead acid batteries, so these can be installed near
electronic equipment. Water consumption is relatively low and so therefore
maintenance is low. Normal service life is 20-25 years. These are most expensive of
the various types of batteries previously discussed. Initial cost may be approximately
three times that of lead acid battery depending upon their AH capacity.
These batteries do not experience the severe shortening of life when operated
at elevated temperatures and perform better at low temperatures than do the lead acid
batteries. Nominal cell voltage is 1.2 V/cell. The battery chargers and inverters have
to be designed to operate with low end cell cutoff voltages and higher recharging
voltages needed for such batteries.
These batteries occasionally demand boost charging and typically find their
applications where in UPS support critical equipment in hazardous environment such
as chemical, fertilizer, cement industry.
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3.8. Battery Sizing

The designer of a backup power system has to determine the battery size. The
battery can carry more load or perform longer as it is made larger, but a larger battery
is also more expensive, requires more floor space, and increases the life cycle cost.
For these reasons, provide a technical basis for the battery size.
The classic method of sizing a battery is based on determining the specific
load requirements and selecting a battery size capable of supplying that load for the
specified time. ANSI/IEEE 485 is the best industry reference for this type of cell
sizing and should be reviewed as part of a battery sizing evaluation. ANSI/IEEE
1115, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for
Stationary Applications, provides equivalent sizing information for nickel cadmium
batteries.
The battery duty cycle is the load that the battery is expected to supply for a
specified period of time. Generally, the duty cycle is described in terms of the worst-
case load that the battery is expected to supply. The battery would have to carry all or
part of the connected load under any of the following conditions:
• System load exceeds the battery charger capability.
• Battery charger output is lost (could be by charger failure or loss of ac input).
• All ac power is lost in the facility.
The worst case load usually occurs when all ac power is lost because other
emergency loads might be energized in addition to the normally-energized loads.
For example, loss of all ac power might require the additional energisation of
emergency lighting, circuit breaker components such as trip coils or spring charging
motors, and emergency diesel engine cranking power. The duty cycle must consider
all of these loads.
The following design inputs are needed to determine a battery size:
• Discharge capability of selected battery type.
• Load requirements, including duration.
• Minimum and maximum system voltage limits.
• Temperature, aging, and design margin allowances.
Evaluate the duty cycle, section by section, to determine which section of the
duty cycle is limiting in terms of battery size. The cell size is selected based on the
most limiting portion of the duty cycle.
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The battery sizing analysis of a duty cycle determines the required cell size for
each section. Depending on the load profile, it is not guaranteed that the last section
containing all periods will be limiting. For example, the cell size might be established
by the first minute of the duty cycle if many loads are energized at once. ANSI/IEEE
485 provides worksheets to assist with the calculation process. Battery manufacturers
provide similar worksheets.
The battery sizing methodology determines the cell size for the defined duty
cycle when the battery capacity is 100 percent and at the reference temperature of 25
°C (77 °F). For most batteries, end-of-life occurs when capacity falls to 80 percent of
the rated capacity. Also, depending on the installation, the actual battery temperature
might be well below 25 °C (77 °F), and battery capacity decreases as temperature
decreases. Apply correction factors to the calculated cell size to account for these
effects. The net result is that the selected cell size must be larger so that it can meet its
design requirements at end-of-life at the design low temperature.
Under ideal conditions, a battery can have 90 percent to over 100 percent
capacity when new. As the battery ages, its capacity will eventually fall to 80 percent,
which is the commonly accepted point at which the battery should be replaced. Below
this capacity, the rate of degradation can increase rapidly. As part of the battery sizing
process, size the battery so that it can fulfill the duty cycle requirements at its end of
life. Apply the following correction factor to the calculated cell size; the calculated
cell size is made 25 percent larger to ensure that it can supply the required load at end
of life:
The manufacturer specifies battery performance at the reference temperature
of 25 °C (77 °F). As the battery temperature falls below 25 °C (77 °F), battery
capacity decreases. As the battery temperature rises above 25 °C (77 °F), battery
capacity increases. If the expected operating temperature will be less than 25 °C (77
°F), adjust the cell size to account for the reduced capacity at the owner temperature.
For a different specific gravity, consult the manufacturer to confirm the
applicability of these correction factors. VRLA cells can have a completely different
temperature response; consult the manufacturer for the appropriate temperature
correction factors. Nickel-cadmium cells also require a manufacturer-provided
temperature correction factor for low temperature operation, but the correction factor
is not as large as for lead-acid batteries.
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The aging and temperature correction factors account for inevitable aging and
temperature effects. The battery is sized for a particular duty cycle and depending on
the facility, load growth can occur over time. A design margin correction factor can
be applied to provide additional assurance that the battery will meet its future design
requirements. The design margin correction factor also adds a capacity margin to
allow for less-than-optimum battery operating conditions due to improper
maintenance, recent battery discharge, lower than expected operating temperatures, or
other effects. Simply stated, the design margin correction factor is an additional
margin to help ensure the battery has adequate capacity to perform its job. A design
margin of 10 percent to 15 percent is typical.
In summary, size the battery for the limiting portion of the duty cycle,
including corrections for performance at end of battery life and for the minimum
expected operating temperature. If needed, include an additional design margin.

3.8.1. Nature of Nominal Voltage of Battery Cell

The power generated by batteries is stored and recycled, unlike the power
generated by generators. The electricity generated by the generator is generated by
something that rotates it. The power generated by the generator is Generated Energy
and the power from the battery is Stored Energy, so you can control the voltage output
of the generator as you wish. Storage batteries use a high voltage when fully charged,
and the voltage drops after using many hours. The closest thing to a 12V battery in a
home inverter is that it can go up to 14.50 volts at full charge and last up to 9.50 volts.
A 12 volt battery does not always produce 12 volts. A 1.2-volt battery from a
reputable manufacturer indicates the final voltage that can be used up to 1.0 volts as
the final voltage.
Manufacturers of devices that use DC power from a battery are well aware of
this concept. They are designed to work with this type of supply power and are
designed to accept + / - % of the required nominal voltage of the system to be used.
So it can be obtained how much the maximum voltage and the minimum voltage that
can be accepted. This difference between Maximum and Minimum Voltage is called
the Voltage Window. Therefore, the design engineer must specify this voltage
window when calculating the Battery Sizing Calculation. It is important to note here
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that the voltage window is due to the nature of the battery when it is full and the
voltage drops.

3.8.2. Selection the number of cells

Understanding of voltage window is important. Otherwise, when selecting the
number of battery cells, the nominal voltage of the DC system to be used is divided
by the cell voltage 1.2, which may be called the number of cells. For example, when
calculating the number of cells for a nominal voltage 110 V DC system, the nearest 92
of 91.67, which is 110 divided by 1.2, is called the number of cells.
This is because the voltage window is unknown.
When a battery cell is fully charged, it can reach 1.45 ~ 1.50 ~ 1.55 Volt
depending on the charging voltage you are charging. This 92 cell is 92 x 1.50 = 138
volts when fully charged. Nominal voltage will be 25% higher than 110 V DC. Some
people misunderstand that the more battery cells you use, the better, and use up to 98
cells for a 110 V DC system. In the case of 98 Cell, it is possible to calculate the
voltage at full charge 98 x 1.50 = 147 Volts, which is 33.64% higher than 110 V DC.
This is more than the nominal voltage, so consider whether the DC circuits which are
going to use in the plant is acceptable in the long run. Some organizations operating in
foreign power transmission and distribution companies are defined about how much
their DC circuits are acceptable.
For example, the Bangkok Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA) has set
the following for its substations DC circuits: HV circuit breaker tripping circuit +
10% / -15%, HV Isolator or Earthing Switch Closing & Opening Circuit + 10% /
-15%, Other DC circuits + 10% / -15%. In conclusion, it is + 10% / -15% for all DC
circuits. This value is the Voltage Window. Therefore, for 110 V DC system, using 92
Cells, 98 Cells, etc. will cause DC circuits Over Voltage. (MEA uses only 93 cells for
their 125 V DC system.) Increasing the number of cells costs more money, but is less
profitable and increases the system's maximum voltage beyond what is needed. It is
important to keep in mind that over-voltage and over-current can damage equipment
in the long run. Set the Voltage Window to Maximum + 15%, Minimum -10% but
sometimes calculated as Maximum + 10%, Minimum -15%. If you use a lot of
battery cells, you may mistakenly think that the voltage can be used for a long time.
The longevity of a battery depends on its capacity (Ampere-Hour). It does not depend
on the number of cells.
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3.8.3. Ampere-Hour Selection

Ampere-Hour is the relative unit of Current (Ampere) and Time (Hour). For example,
a battery with a capacity of 110 Ah can provide 11 hours of power for 11 A load. It
can be charged for 5 hours for 22 A load. The standard for the Ampere-Hour Rating
Capacity Test, in accordance with IEC 60623, is that the Ampere-Hour which can be
discharged for up to 5 hours at ambient temperature +20 deg C until the final voltage
reaches 1.0 V. If a 110 Ah battery is discharged according to this standard, its output
current is 22 A. In other words, a 110 Ah battery will reach Final Voltage 1.0 V after
5 hours of discharge for 22 A load.

The specification of IEC 60623 Ampere-Hour which can be discharged after 5

hours is called 5 Hour Capacity C5. The current that can be generated as C5 is called
C5A for short term. Therefore, the C 5A of the 110 Ah Battery is 110 A. Prior to this
test, the battery must be fully charged with 20% C5A for 7.5 hours.

3.9. Battery Commissioning

The Battery Commissioning Procedure is a Charge-Discharge-Charge Cycle.
A new battery bank must first be fully charged at 200% of that capacity. Charge for
10 hours with 20% (22 A) of C5A. Then discharges the battery to final voltage 1.0 V
for 5 hours with 20% (22 A) of C5A.
If the battery final voltage reaches 1.0 V less than 5 Hours or if the battery
final voltage falls below 1.0 V after 5 hours, the battery capacity is not inadequate
quality. After Charge-Discharge process, as a final charging the battery is recharged
20% (22 A) of C5A for 5 hours which is the Battery Commissioning Procedure for
begin to use for a new battery.
Only with this systematic commissioning the battery can be fully charged.
(Fully) Charged- (Fully) Discharged- (Fully) Charged Cycle is a test of a new battery
set that is detected to its final duties and responsibility. It was trained to start working.
At the same time, it can also detect low capacity batteries.

3.10. Battery Room

Battery rooms are provided for backup and uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS) for process control functions. Battery systems now located in control buildings
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or power plants need not be placed in a separate room. They are usually provided at or
near the facility control room or electrical switchgear facilities. However, when not
located in a separate room, barriers or some type of mechanical protection must be
provided to prevent inadvertent personnel or equipment contact and resultant damage.
Battery rooms should be provided with ventilation to limit the concentration of
hydrogen to 1% by volume. Periodic air flow measurements and explosion meter
(total combustible gas) readings are recommended in the general battery areas to
ensure adequate air movement to diffuse generation of hydrogen gas. “No Smoking,”
“No Sparks,” or “No Open Flame” signs should be posted on the outside of the door.
For further information refer to ANSI/IEEE 484, Recommended Practice for
Installation Design and Installation of Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating
Stations and Substations.
Typical industry practice is to provide an explosion-proof rated fan in the
exhaust system for the battery room and classify the exhaust duct and a radius of
1.5 m (5 ft) from the exhaust vent as a classified area. Seismic protection should be
provided in areas with high seismic activity. Metal battery racks shall be grounded.
Concrete floors shall be painted with acid-resistive paint (alkaline resistive) for ni-cad
batteries. Electrical receptacles and light switches should be located outside of battery
areas.
Where drainage provisions are provided to the battery room, the fluid should
be first collected into a neutralizing tank before entering the oily water sewer system
(OWS) to prevent battery acids from affecting the sewer piping and for environmental
protection. Where sealed and unserviceable batteries are used, these requirements do
not apply, since no free hydrogen is released.
Fire detection capability is considered optional as the batteries themselves
have little combustibility and only a limited amount of cabling or charging equipment
is normally provided. A fire incident has a low probably of occurring, while historical
evidence indicates the buildup of hydrogen vapors (possibly by fan failure or battery
overcharging) and a minor room explosion as the likely incident to occur and damage
the contents of the room.