Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

CHAPTER FIVE
TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING
PHASE PLANS:
The most critical aspect of any design of signal timing is the selection of an
appropriate phase plan. The phase plan comprises the number of phases to be
used and the sequence in which they are implemented. As a general guideline,
simple two-phase control should be used unless conditions dictate the need
for additional phases. Because the change interval between phases contributes
to lost time in the cycle, as the number of phases increases, the percentage of
the cycle made up of lost time generally also increases. Figure (1) shows a
number of common phase plans that may be used with either pre-timed or
actuated controllers.

Cycle: A complete sequence of signal indications. Each phase has been

serviced and the cycle is beginning again.

Cycle Length-- The time required for one full cycle of signal indications,
given in seconds.

Phase - The part of the signal cycle allocated to any combination of traffic
movements receiving the right-of-way simultaneously during one or more
intervals.
Permitted turn: Left or right turn at a signalized intersection that is made
against an opposing or conflicting vehicular or pedestrian flow.
Protected turn: The left or right turns at a signalized intersection that are
made with no opposing or conflicting vehicular or pedestrian flow allowed.

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Figure (1) PHASE PLANS FOR PRETIMED AND TRAFFIC ACTUATED

CONTROL
Two-Phase Control
Two-phase control is the simplest of the available phase plans. Each of two
intersecting streets is given a green phase during which all movements on the
street are allowed to proceed. All left and right turns are made on a permitted
basis against an opposing vehicle flow, pedestrian flow, or both. The two-
phase plan is shown in Figure (1-a).

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Multiphase Control
Multiphase control is adopted at any intersection where one or more left or
right turns require protected phasing. It is generally the left-turn movement
that requires a partially or fully protected phase. Local policy and practice are
critical determinants of this need. Most agencies have guidelines for when left
turns require protected phasing. Protected left-turn phasing is also considered
when the speed of opposing traffic is greater than 40 mi/h (64Km/hr)
Multiphase control can be provided in a variety of ways, depending on the
number of turns requiring protected phasing and the sequence and overlaps
used. Figure (1) presents three common plans for multiphase control. Figure
(1) (b) shows a three phase plan in which an exclusive left-turn phase is
provided for both left-turn movements on the major street. It is followed by a
through phase for both directions of the major street, during which left turns
in both directions may be permitted on an optional basis.
The use of a permitted left-turn phase following protected left-turn phases is
very much a matter of local practice. The phasing illustrated in Figure (1) (b)
can be used either for protected or protected-permitted operation in either
mode. Note that a few agencies use permitted-plus-protected phasing.
Exclusive left-turn phases provide for simultaneous movement of opposing
left turns and are most efficient when the opposing left-turn volumes are
nearly equal. When volumes are unequal, or in cases in which only one left
turn require protected phasing, other phase plans are more efficient.
The three-phase plan may be expanded to a four-phase sequence if both
streets require left-turn phases. Such a sequence is shown in Exhibit Figure
(1) (d). Left turns may be continued on a permitted basis concurrent with the
through phases. It is common practice to provide exclusive lanes for left or
right turns with protected phases.

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Figure (1) (c) shows what is commonly referred to as leading and lagging
green phasing. The initial phase is a through plus left-turn phase for one
direction of the major street, followed by a through phase for both directions
of the major street, during which left turns in both directions may be
permitted on an optional basis. Note that many operating agencies do not, as a
matter of policy, use the optional permitted left turn with this type of phasing
because of safety considerations. The direction of flow started in the first
phase is then stopped, providing the opposing direction with a through-plus-
left-turn phase. The final phase accommodates all movements on the minor
street.
A leading left turn is a left turn that precedes or is accompanied by the first
through movement in a direction.

A lagging left turn is a left turn that follows the last through movement or is
on at the end of the green time for a through movement.

At locations where a left turn lane is needed but cannot be provided, some
relief is achieved by the use of a leading or lagging green period for the
direction of traffic with the heavy left turn. When auxiliary left turn lanes are
provided, it may be advantageous to lead and lag the left turn movements
when volumes are unequal. A time-space study is used to verify feasibility if
the signal is interconnected.

When only one left turn requires a protected phase, a leading green can be
provided without a lagging green phase. When left-turn volumes are unequal,
the lengths of the leading and lagging green can be adjusted to avoid
excessive green time for one or both left-turn movements. Leading or lagging
green phase, or both, can even be used where no left turn exists as long as
turns are permitted to continue during the through phase. The phasing Figure
1(c) may also be expanded to incorporate leading or lagging green phases on
both streets.

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All of the phase plans discussed to this point can be implemented with pre-
timed or actuated controllers. The only difference in operation would be the
manner in which green time is allocated to the various phases. For pre-timed
controllers, green times are preset, whereas for actuated controllers, green
times vary on the basis of detector actuations.
Phasing plan objective
The primary objective of phasing plan
1-Provide a high level of safety to motorized traffic.
2-Minimizes delay.
Signal phasing influence intersection delay in a number of ways:
1-Longer cycle lengths are required with an increasing number of phases.
With each added phase, a change interval is usually required, resulting in an
increase in the total lost time within the cycle.
2-As the cycle length increases, the proportion of green time or g/C ratio, will
change for each lane group.
As a result, total intersection delay typically increases with increasing cycle
length.
An example of phasing effect is illustrated : a two phase with signal operate
with a 60 second cycle .40 second are allocated to the major street and the 20
second to the minor street. Each approach has one lane group, and a change
interval of 4 seconds. The proportion of green time for lane group on the
major street is 0.6, and for Minor Street is 0.27. If a 15- second protected left-
turn phase is added to the major street, increasing the cycle length to 75
seconds, the proportion of green time on the major street will be reduced to
0.48 and on the minor street to 0.21. This reduction corresponds to a
proportional reduction in lane group capacity and an increase in delay for
these lane groups.

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LANE GROUPING
The methodology for signalized intersections is disaggregated; that is, it is
designed to consider individual intersection approaches and individual lane
groups within approaches. Segmenting the intersection into lane groups is a
relatively simple process that considers both the geometry of the intersection
and the distribution of traffic movements. In general, the smallest number of
lane groups is used that adequately describes the operation of the intersection.
Figure2 shows some common lane groups used for analysis.

Figure2 common lane groups

Basic Timing Elements

Signalized intersections permit conflicting traffic movements to proceed
efficiently and safely through space that is common to those movements. This
is accomplished by separating the individual movements in time rather than in
space.

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The various movements are collected and allowed to move in turn, or in

phases. Each phase of a signal cycle is devoted to only one collection of
movements. These movements are those that can proceed concurrently
without any major conflict. For example, the straight-through and right-turn
movements of a street can be permitted to use an intersection simultaneously
without any danger to the motorists involved. This might be one phase of a
multi-phase cycle.
Some movements are allowed to proceed during a phase even though they
cause conflicts. Pedestrians are commonly allowed to proceed across
intersections even though right-turn movements are occurring. These
movements are called permitted, while protected movements are those
without any conflicts.
In any case, the movements at an intersection can be grouped, and then these
groups can be served during separate phases.
The basic timing elements within each phase include the green interval, the
effective green time, the yellow or amber interval, the all-red interval, the
intergreen interval, the pedestrian WALK interval, and the pedestrian
crossing interval. Each of these elements is described below
The green interval is the period of the phase during which the green signal is
illuminated.
The yellow or amber interval is the portion of the phase during which the
yellow light is illuminated.
The effective green time is contained within the green interval and the amber
interval. The effective green time, for a phase, is the time during which
vehicles are actually discharging through the intersection.
The all-red interval is the period following the yellow interval in which all
of the intersection's signals are red.

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The intergreen interval is simply the interval between the end of green for
one phase and the beginning of green for another phase. It is the sum of the
yellow and all-red intervals.
The pedestrian WALK interval is the portion of time during which the
pedestrian signal says WALK. This period usually lasts around 4-7 seconds
and is completely encompassed within the green interval for vehicular traffic.
Some pedestrian movements in large cities are separate phases unto
themselves.
The pedestrian crossing time is the time required for a pedestrian to cross
the intersection. This is used to calculate the intergreen interval and the
minimum green time for each phase.
Basic Operational Principles:

The basic operation of vehicular movement through a signalized intersection

is presented in Figure3 below. The signal display is presented on the
horizontal axis, the instantaneous flow of vehicles on the vertical axis. During
the time while the movement is receiving a red indication, vehicles arrive and
form a queue, and there is no flow. Upon receiving a green indication, it takes
a few seconds for the driver of the first vehicle to recognize that the signal has
turned green and to get the vehicle in motion. The next few vehicles also take
some time to accelerate. This is defined as the start-up lost time or start-up
delay (The additional time, in seconds, consumed by the first few vehicles in
a queue at a signalized intersection above and beyond the saturation headway
due to the need to react to the initiation of the green phase and to accelerate to
a steady flow condition) and is commonly assumed to be approximately 2
seconds. After approximately the fourth vehicle in the queue, the flow rate
tends to stabilize at the maximum flow rate that the conditions will allow,
known as the saturation flow rate. This is generally sustained until the last
vehicle in the queue departs the intersection. Upon termination of the green

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indication, some vehicles continue to pass through the intersection during the
yellow change interval; this is known as yellow extension. The usable amount
of green time, that is, the duration of time between the end of the start-up
delay and the end of the yellow extension, is referred to as the effective green
time for the movement. The unused portion of the yellow change interval and
red clearance interval is called clearance lost time.

Figure 3Typical flow rates at a signalized movement

The resulting effective green time can therefore be defined as follows in

Equation

g=G+Y-(l1+l2)

where g is the effective green time ,G is the actual green interval, Y is the
actual yellow change interval , l1 is the start –up lost time , and l2 is the
clearance lost time( all values in second) .

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Intergreen Time:

The intergreen period of a phase consists of both the yellow (amber)

indication and the all-red indication (if applicable. This phase is governed by
three separate concepts: stopping distance, intersection clearance time, and
pedestrian crossing time, if there are no pedestrian signals.

The yellow signal indication serves as a warning to drivers that another phase
will soon be receiving the right-of-way. The intergreen interval, therefore,
should be long enough to allow cars that are greater than the stopping
distance away from the stop-bar to break easily to a stop. The intergreen
interval should also allow vehicles that are already beyond the point-of-no-
return to continue through the intersection safely.

This issue is called the "dilemma zone" concept. If the intergreen time is too
short, only those vehicles that are close to the intersection will be able to
continue through the intersection safely. In addition, only vehicles that are
reasonably distant will have adequate time to react to the signal and
stop. Those who are in between will be caught in the "dilemma zone," and
won’t have enough time to stop or safely cross the intersection. Figure 1
shows this situation graphically.

Figure 4: Dilemma Zone

The only responsible thing to do, it seems, is to eliminate the dilemma

zone. This would allow any vehicle, regardless of its location, to be able to
safely stop or, alternatively, safely proceed during the intergreen period. This
is done by making sure that any vehicle closer to the intersection than its

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minimum braking distance can safely proceed through the intersection

without accelerating or speeding.

First, we calculate the minimum safe stopping distance. The equation for this
distance is given below Minimum Safe Stopping Distance:

VO 2
SD = 0.278  VO  t r 
254( f  g )

Where:
SD = Min. safe stopping distance (m)

Vo = Initial velocity (Km/hr)

tr = Perception/Reaction time (sec)
f = Coefficient of friction
G = Grade, as a percentage

Next, we calculate the time required for a vehicle to travel the minimum safe
stopping distance and to clear the intersection. This is simple kinematics as
well Intersection Clearance Time:

SD  L  W
T=
0.278  VO

Where:
T = Intersection clearance time (sec)
Vo = Initial velocity (Km/hr)
L = Length of the vehicle (m)
SD = Min. safe stopping distance . (m)
W = Width of the intersection (m)

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Now that you’ve determined the first two elements of the intergreen period
length—stopping distance and intersection clearance time—you need to
consider the pedestrians. The intergreen time for intersections that have
signalized pedestrian movements is the same as the intersection clearance
time.

If you have an intersection where the pedestrian movements are not regulated
by a separate pedestrian signal, you need to protect these movements by
providing enough intergreen time for a pedestrian to cross the intersection. In
other words, if a pedestrian begins to cross the street just as the signal turns
yellow for the vehicular traffic, he/she must be able to cross the street safely
before the next phase of the cycle begins. The formula for this calculation is
shown below.

Pedestrian Crossing Time:

PCT = W/V

Where:
PCT = Pedestrian crossing time (sec)
W = Width of the intersection (m)
V = Velocity of the pedestrian (usually 1.2m/sec)

Once you have considered the safety of both the vehicular traffic and the
pedestrian traffic for the given phase, you can choose the intergreen time. The
intergreen time is equal to whichever is larger, the pedestrian crossing time or
the intersection clearance time.

As you know, the intergreen period is composed of the yellow interval and
the all-red interval. The allocation of the intergreen time to these separate
intervals is a question that is answered best by referring you to your local

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codes. In some areas, the yellow time has been standardized for several
speeds. This would make the all-red time the difference between the standard
yellow time and the intergreen time. One other option is to allocate all of the
intergreen period as calculated to the yellow interval. You could then tack on
an all-red period as a little extra safety. This, however, might increase delay
at your intersection.

On your way home from work a light turns yellow ahead of you. You are too
close to the intersection to stop without a heroic effort, so you proceed toward
the intersection, assuming that you'll get through it before the opposing phase
is unleashed. To your surprise, the intersection signal turns red before you
have made it to the stop-bar. Luckily you clear the intersection, but
unfortunately, the local sheriff witnessed your maneuver. As part of your plea
for mercy, you mention that the signal seems to have an inadequate intergreen
period that produces a dilemma zone. Your plea doesn't work and you resolve
to dispute the matter in court.

Example

You return to the intersection and measure the intergreen time, using a
stopwatch. It turns out to be 4 seconds. You also note the speed limit (80
Km/hr in this case), the width of the intersection (around 18 m), and your
car's length (5.4m). The approach to the intersection is level, and you assume
that the coefficient of friction is around 0.5. Because you were only paying
casual attention to the road when the incident occurred, you decide to use 1
second as your perception reaction time. Can you successfully argue that a
dilemma zone exists? If one exists, what should be done to the intergreen
time to fix the problem?

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Sol.

The first step in this analysis is to calculate the minimum stopping distance
you had under the given circumstances. The minimum safe stopping distance
can be calculated using the formula below.

VO 2
SD = 0.278  VO  t r 
254( f  g )

Placing the given information into the equation yields:

80 2
SD = 0.278  80  1  =72.63
254(0.5  0)

Solving this equation gives us a stopping distance of 72.63

Next you must calculate the time required to traverse the sum of the stopping
distance, intersection width, and one car length. This will give you the
intergreen time that is necessary for a car to safely pass through the
intersection from the point-of-no-return. The intersection clearance time is
given by the equation below.

SD  L  W
T=
0.278  VO

Placing the given information into the equation yields:

72 .63  18  5.4
T=  4.3  5 sec
0.278  80

Solving this equation gives us an intersection clearance time of 5

seconds. Since the intersection clearance time provided was only4 seconds,
and a full5 seconds is required for a car to safely pass through the intersection

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from the point-of-no-return, your claim that a dilemma zone exists is well
founded. To fix the problem, the city should increase the intergreen time by 1
second.

Note:
The example and the important notes will be given in the class.

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