University of Thi-Qar

College of engineering

Oil & gas engineering department

Petroleum pollution
And its effect on the environment
 Introduction 01
Drilling Pollutants 02
Refining Pollutants 03
Storage pollution 04
Contents

Environmental Impacts
05
Waste Treatment & Disposal
06
1 Introduction to petroleum industry

Petroleum industry is the industry, which unites anthropogenic activities to explore

for, produce, transport worldwide, and process around 3.5 billion tons of crude oil
and 2.5 giga of natural gas and their derivatives each year. More than 2500
refined products, including liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, kerosene, aviation fuel,
diesel fuel, fuel oils, lubricants, and feed stocks for the petrochemical industry are
the direct results of these activities. Bigger refineries integrated with petrochemical
plants may produce additionally different synthetic derivatives - from pure chemicals
to additives for fuels and lubricants, synthetic polymers, rubber, etc.

1.2 oil and gas pollution

In areas where oil and gas development is prevalent, air, water and soil resources can
become contaminated with oil and gas wastes and byproducts. Citizens commonly
report that drilling and production activities contaminate water wells, surface waters
and soils surrounding well sites; and that air emissions from drilling sites, well heads,
compressor stations, pipelines and other oil and gas field infrastructure contribute to
air quality concerns. A variety of air contaminants are emitted throughout the oil and
gas development process. If you think oil and gas production does not affect air
quality, think again. Air pollution also impacts the health of communities surrounded
by oil and gas development.

Oil and gas industry wastes, which may contain petroleum hydrocarbons, metals,
naturally occurring radioactive materials, salts and toxic chemicals, have the potential
to cause soil pollution, and prevent the growth of vegetation. Produced water, which
may contain high concentrations of salts and other contaminants, is often stored in
pits or disposed of in evaporation ponds. Spills of produced water can kill vegetation
and sterilize soils. Contaminants that enter the soil do not necessarily stay put. They
can move down through the soil and contaminate groundwater, or up through the
soil and be released to air.
 2 Drilling operation pollutants
Drilling is the process in which a hole is made on the earth to allow subsurface HCs to
flow to the surface. The process of drilling oil and gas wells generates a variety of
different types of wastes. Some of these wastes are natural by-products of drilling
through the earth, e.g., drill cuttings, and materials used to drill the well, e.g., drilling
fluid and its associated additives. The major way in which drilling activities can impact
the environment is through the drill cuttings and the drilling fluid used to lift the
cuttings from the well. Secondary impacts can occur due to air emissions from the
internal combustion engines used to power the drilling rig. All drilling muds generally
have a number of unwanted components that can potentially harm the environment.
The most common of these are heavy metals, salt, and HCs.

2.1 Heavy Metals

Heavy metals can enter into drilling fluids in two ways:

i. many metals occur naturally in most formations and will be incorporated into
the fluid during drilling. These includes arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium,
lead, mercury etc.
ii. also metals are added to the drilling fluid as part of the additives used to alter
the fluid properties. This includes barium from barite weighing agents and
chromium from chrome-lignosulfonatedeflocculants.

Heavy metals may incorporate into the Drilling fluid from the thread compound
(pipe dope) used on the pipe threads when making up a drill string or from the
formation containing crude oil. The heavy metals encountered during drilling
activities are related to a variety of environmental concerns, depending on the metal
and its concentration. At very low concentrations, some metals are essential to
healthy cellular activity. Because most concentrations encountered during drilling are
relatively low, the environmental impact is generally observed only after chronic
exposure. The environmental impact of heavy metals is manifested primarily through
their interaction with enzymes in animal cells. Enzymes are complex proteins that
catalyze specific biochemical reactions. Heavy metals affect the action of enzymes.
Excess concentrations of metals inhibit normal biochemical processes in cells. This
inhibition can result in damage to the liver, kidney, or reproductive, blood forming, or
nervous systems.
 2.2 Salts
Another unwanted component of drilling fluid at disposal time is salts, like sodium or
potassium chloride, are often added to drilling fluid to protect sensitive formations
from reacting with the drilling fluid. Salt (sodium chloride) in low concentrations is
essential to the health of plants and animals. At concentrations different from the
naturally occurring levels found in a given ecosystem, however, salt can cause an
adverse impact

2.3 Hydrocarbons
Except for oil-based mud, HCs are normally an undesirable material in drilling mud
because they contaminate the cuttings. HCs enter into mud while drilling through a
HC bearing formation or when oil is used for spotting fluid when a pipe becomes
stuck.

3 petroleum refining pollutants

The petroleum refining industry has a significant influence on the total pollution of
the environment by industrial discharges and wastes. In the operation of petroleum
refineries, the atmosphere is polluted with hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other toxic substances. The main
pollutants are sulfur dioxide and hydrocarbons. The fresh water used by refineries in
product cooling is returned to the original source of water containing crude oil,
petroleum products, and mineral salts as contaminants. The extent of air and water
pollution depends on the particular processing technology, control measures that are
employed and also on the scale of the processing. In working out these measures, the
primary attention of scientific-research institutes and design and planning
organizations must be directed not only towards how to reduce the contaminating
and poisoning action of industrial discharges on the environment, but primarily
towards preventing or minimizing these discharges in the refineries.
3.1 petroleum refining air pollutants
Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and toxic air pollutants such as
BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene). They are also a
major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and
other light volatile fuels and oils. Some of the chemicals released are known or
suspected cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive
problems. They may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood
asthma. Along with the possible health effects from exposure to these chemicals,
these chemicals may cause worry and fear among residents of surrounding
communities. Air emissions can come from a number of sources within a petroleum
refinery including: equipment leaks (from valves or other devices); high-temperature
combustion processes in the actual burning of fuels for electricity generation; the
heating of steam and process fluids; and the transfer of products. Many thousands of
pounds of these pollutants are typically emitted into the environment over the
course of a year through normal emissions, fugitive releases, accidental releases, or
plant upsets. The combination of volatile hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen also
contribute to ozone formation, one of the most important air pollution problems.

3.2 petroleum refining water pollution

Refineries are also potential major contributors to ground water and surface water
contamination. Some refineries use deep-injection wells to dispose of wastewater
generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in aquifers and
groundwater. These wastes are then regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act
(SDWA). Wastewater in refineries may be highly contaminated given the number of
sources it can come into contact with during the refinery process (such as equipment
leaks and spills and the desalting of crude oil). This contaminated water may be
process wastewaters from desalting, water from cooling towers, stormwater,
distillation, or cracking. It may contain oil residuals and many other hazardous
wastes. This water is recycled through many stages during the refining process and
goes through several treatment processes, including a wastewater treatment plant,
before being released into surface waters. The wastes discharged into surface waters
are subject to state discharge regulations and are regulated under the Clean Water
Act (CWA). These discharge guidelines limit the amounts of sulfides, ammonia,
suspended solids and other compounds that may be present in the wastewater.
 Although these guidelines are in place, sometimes significant contamination from
past discharges may remain in surface water bodies.

3.3 Petroleum refining soil pollution

Contamination of soils from the refining processes is generally a less significant

problem when compared to contamination of air and water. Past production
practices may have led to spills on the refinery property that now need to be cleaned
up. Natural bacteria that may use the petroleum products as food are often effective
at cleaning up petroleum spills and leaks compared to many other pollutants. Many
residuals are produced during the refining processes, and some of them are recycled
through other stages in the process. Other residuals are collected and disposed of in
landfills, or they may be recovered by other facilities. Soil contamination including
some hazardous wastes, spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from
the treatment processes can occur from leaks as well as accidents or spills on or off
site during the transport process.
4 pollution from storage & transportation of petroleum

Storage, and transportation are operations, which are inherent to all branches of the
petroleum industry. Considerable amounts of crude oil and/or natural gas are stored
at the production site and transportation terminals. Processing facilities keep
considerable amounts of crude oil and gas, as well as finished products.

Storage of liquid petroleum products may be done in above ground or underground

steel or concrete tanks or in underground salt domes, mined caverns or abandoned
mines. Above ground storage in tanks may require between 16 000 and 121 500
of land. Storage site in a salt dome, a former salt mine usually, may be up to 10 km in
diameter. Small amounts of petroleum products might be kept for a shorter period in
barrels. The normal practice for petroleum products is storage in specifically
designed steel tanks, such as those at the gasoline stations.

Transportation of crude oil and natural gas can be with pipelines, tanker ships, rail or
road transport, or inland waterway barges. Tankers are a fifth of the total world
merchant tonnage of marine transport, tanker-ships with up to 300 000 tons capacity
or more being in use. Air emissions from storage and transportation are mainly
evaporative hydrocarbon emissions from manipulation - loading/unloading, and
transit (“breathing”) losses from the storage tanks and the tanks of transporting
vehicle. When the volume of the liquid phase in a tank is changing, the volume of the
gas phase is also increasing or decreasing. This leads to emission of vapors in the
atmosphere or sucking in of air during loading/unloading. Breathing, which occurs
also in transit, is the result of changing of temperature and pressure outside of the
tank. Fugitive emissions from different leaks of relevant equipment include those
from pressurized pipelines as well. Ballast water from transporting vessels and
especially tankers is the major source of secondary emissions, but also a major
source of marine water pollution. The other source polluting underground water is
leaking liquids from tanks and pipelines. Solid waste generated in storage and
transportation is mainly sludge from the storage and transportation tanks.
5 Environmental impact of petroleum industry

Substantial quantities of toxic and non-toxic waste are generated during

the extraction, refinement, and transportation stages of oil and gas. Some industry
by-products, such as volatile organic compounds, nitrogen & sulfur compounds,
and spilled oil can pollute air, water, and soil at levels that are harmful to life where
improperly managed. Climate warming, ocean acidification, and sea level rise are
global changes enhanced by the industry's emissions of greenhouse gases. Among all
human activities, fossil-fuel extraction is the largest contributor to the ongoing
buildup of carbon compounds in the earth's biosphere. the petroleum industry
directly contributed about 8% (2.7 BT) of the 32.8 BT (Billion Ton) year 2017 total of
CO2 from fossil fuels. Also, due to its intentional and other releases of natural gas, the
industry directly contributed at least 79 Million Tons of methane (2.4 BT CO2-
equivalent) that same year; an amount equal to about 14% of all known
anthropogenic and natural emissions of the potent warming gas. the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide and methane have increased about 50% and 150%,
respectively, above their relatively stable levels of the prior 800,000+ years. Each is
currently increasing at a rate of about 1% every year, since about half of the added
carbon is absorbed by the world's oceans. The acceleration is also so rapid that half
of all emissions and buildup have occurred over just the past 30 years.

5.1 Impact on plants

The impact of salt on plants arises primarily from an excess salt concentration in the
cellular fluids of the plants or from an alteration in the soil structure in which the
plants grow. The primary impact of an abnormal salt concentration in cellular fluids is
the disruption of the fluid chemistry balance within cells. This disruption inhibits
cellular growth, water uptake, and the overall health of the plants. Salt can indirectly
impact plant growth by altering the physical properties of soil. When saline water is
discharged on land, it can alter the pore structure of the soil by causing compaction,
limiting the access of air and water to the plant roots. The impact varies, however,
with salinity level and plant type. Excess sodium in soil can also cause clays to
disperse, lowering the permeability of the soil. This can form an impenetrable surface
crust that hinders the emergence of seedlings and limits the availability of nutrients
such as iron, manganese, calcium, and magnesium to the plants. On the other hand,
 the addition of clays from drilling muds can increase the water holding capacity of
sandy/coarse-textured soils, improving plant growth. The number of ways to
measure the salinity of soils has been developed; these measurements include
directly measuring the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil and various
measurements of sodium concentration.

5.2 Impact on aquatic organisms

Most, but not all, produced waters have a salt content higher than that found in the
local ecosystems. The discharge of water having a higher salt content can impact
aquatic organisms. High concentrations of sodium chloride can affect the
development of embryos and foetuses and can cause fetal death. High salt
concentrations can also affect the development of the musculoskeletal system and
cause eye, skin, and upper respiratory system irritation. Because the salinity of many
produced waters is greater than that of marine waters, the environmental impact of
high salt concentrations is also of concern regarding marine organisms. Highly saline
water has a higher density than seawater and will segregate to the bottom of any
surface waters. This density gradient inhibits the mixing and dilution of the very salty
water.

5.3 Impact of crude oil on marine animals

The actual impact of HC exposure on marine animals is more complex than simple
bioassay tests reveal. Oil at sub lethal concentrations can significantly alter the
behavior and development of marine organisms. These effects, however, are difficult
to quantify. The problem of determining sub lethal toxicity is further compounded
because different species have different reactions and there is mixed effect when
multiple toxins are present. Behavior changes from exposure to HCs are primarily
those involving motility, while in higher organisms, changes affect avoidance,
burrowing, feeding, and reproductive activities [3]. Exposure to HCs can adversely
affect the development of organisms in some species at concentrations below 1 mg/l.
Some species show no long-lasting damage, while other species can suffer long-term
damage at an oiled site. The impact of HC exposure also depends on whether the HC
is dissolved or dispersed as suspended droplets [4-5]. The most common impact of
crude oil on birds is by direct contact, oil coats their feathers, causing them to lose
 their water-repellence and thermal insulation. The birds then sink and drown or die
of hypothermia. Oil can also be ingested by the birds during preening of oiled
plumage. Although this oil becomes distributed throughout the body, there is no
evidence that ingested oil is a primary cause of death amongst birds. The effect of oil
on marine mammals is highly variable. Fur-insulated mammals lose their ability to
thermally regulate their temperature as their oil-contaminated fur loses its insulating
capacity. The loss of thermal insulation creates a higher metabolic activity to regulate
body temperature, which results in fat and muscular energy reserves being rapidly
exhausted. This can result in the animal's death by hypothermia or drowning. Many
species show no avoidance response to oiled areas. Chronic contact of marine
mammals with oil may also result in skin and eye lesions.

5.4 Impact of Crude Oil on Ecosystem

Only a few studies have been conducted on the chronic effects of HC releases on
ecosystem. No apparent long-term impacts on the productivity of ecosystem have
been observed. In all cases, the affected areas recovered after the HC source had
been removed, although full recovery could take a number of years. One difficulty
with ecosystem studies, however, is that little is known about ecosystems that have
not been exposed to HCs. This makes it difficult to determine what lasting effects HCs
do have on ecosystems . One important way to gain information about the effects of
chronic exposure of ecosystems to crude oil is to study areas having natural oil seeps.
Studies at natural seeps at Coal Oil Point in the Santa Barbara Channel, California,
have shown that the level of macro fauna is reduced when the HC content in the
sediments is high. The reason for the lower faunal level is the reduced amount of
oxygen, high sulfide content, and high level of dissolved HCs (mostly aromatics) in the
surrounding water.
 5.5 Impact on Human Health

The impact of HCs on human health depends somewhat on whether exposure was
from ingestion, inhalation, or dermal (skin) contact and on whether the exposure was
acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). The acute effects of ingestion may include
irritation to the mouth, throat, and stomach, and digestive disorders and/or damage.
Small amounts of HCs can be drawn into the lungs, either from swallowing or
vomiting, and may cause respiratory impact. The chronic effects of ingestion may
include kidney, liver, or gastrointestinal tract damage, or abnormal heart rhythms.
Prolonged and/or repeated exposure to aromatics like benzene may cause damage to
the blood-producing system and serious blood disorders, including leukemia. A
number of PAHs have been linked to cancer of the skin, lung, and other sites on the
body. Most human exposure to PAHs comes from nonpetroleum sources, including
cigarette smoke, fossil fuel combustion products, and food. The acute symptoms of
HC exposure by inhalation may include irritation of the nose, throat, and lungs,
headaches and dizziness, anaesthetic effects, and other central nervous system
depression effects. Chronic effects of inhalation exposure to HCs containing high
concentrations of aromatic compounds, including gasoline, can be weight loss from
loss of appetite, muscular weakness and cramps, and possible liver and renal
damage. Exposure of eyes and skin to HCs may result in irritation, mechanical or
chemical damage to eye tissue, or dermatitis. Exposure to petrochemicals,
particularly polyaromatic HCs, increases susceptibility to skin infections, including
skin cancer when there is simultaneous exposure to sunlight. One potential source of
HC exposure to humans is ingestion of HC-contaminated food, particularly seafood.
Studies have shown that most organisms cleanse themselves of HCs within a matter
of weeks after being removed from the source of contamination. This cleansing time,
however, depends upon the contaminated organism.

5.6 Impact on Plant Growth

HCs also impact plant growth when released on land. Levels of oil and grease above a
few percent in soils (by weight) have shown degradation of plant growth. Levels
below a few percent have shown an actual enhancement of some crop growth.
Airborne HCs emitted during blowouts can impact plant growth around the wellhead.
Waste was defined as "any material that is surplus to requirement" and
“management” comprises EandP project definition, selection of technology, design of
 facilities, waste collection, transport, treatment, and disposal . Waste management is
an integral component of oil and gas exploration and production that can have a
substantial bearing on environmental performance and corporate reputation. The
benefits of sound management of waste can minimize environmental impacts,
reduce operational and capital expenditures, and minimize risk to corporate
reputation.

6 Waste management & treatment

Waste management is an integral component of oil & gas exploration & production.
The principal benefits of sound management include avoidance of impacts on human
health and the environment. Proper waste management may bring additional
benefits in terms of reducing operational and capital expenditures, reducing
reputation risk, and reducing financial and legal liability.

Waste is defined in a number of ways; by regulatory background and company

approach. The term is frequently qualified with adjectives such as ‘special’, ‘harmful’,
‘hazardous’ or ‘non-hazardous’, but these qualifiers have no universal understanding
such that they can be adopted in the context of this publication. For the purpose of
this publication, waste is defined as ‘any material that is surplus to requirement’ and
‘management’ comprises E&P project definition, selection of technology, design of
facilities, waste collection, storage, transport, treatment and disposal. In using the
preceding waste definition, it is recognized that a waste material in these terms may
in fact be a raw material or a material that is reusable in another context.

Waste can be of particular concern when it poses a threat to human health and the
environment. Waste can also have aesthetic impacts by creating a visual disturbance
and/or odors that may affect people who live or work near treatment and disposal
sites. Finally, the production of waste can represent the unproductive consumption
of a natural resource: it is unwanted by the producer.
6.1 Wastes Treatment & Disposal Methods

The OGP Exploration and Production Waste Management Guidelines document

reviews and describes a wide range of waste handling includes:

6.1.1 Biological treatment

Biological treatment methods are among the most practicable methods for managing
E&P waste. Biodegradation is a natural process by which hydrocarbons and other
organic materials are consumed by microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) that
utilize these materials as a food source. Before beginning a biological treatment
operation, one should consider several site-specific parameters to determine the
feasibility of successfully bio-treating the wastes Of the biological treatment methods
described below, land-farming and land-treatment may be considered disposal
options as well as treatment options.

6.1.2 Thermal treatment

Thermal treatment is useful for primarily organic compounds but can also process
other wastes. There are several types of thermal treatment technologies, but
incineration and reuse as fuel (fuel blending) are the most applicable ones for the
wastes considered in this guidance. Risk-based decision-making can be applied to
certain aspects of thermal treatment. Risk assessments can be used to evaluate:

 Siting and design of the facility to mitigate potential air quality, soil and
groundwater impacts.
 Treatment targets for treated waste materials.
 Reuse or disposals options for the treated residual or ash generated by the
thermal process.
6.1.3 Chemical treatment

Chemical treatment processes are those in which materials are altered by chemical
reactions. The chemical reactions can improve or enhance a separation/filtration
process or, in some cases, create a product that is in a more convenient form for
further processing or disposal.

6.1.4 Physical treatment

Physical treatment processes are characterized by the ability to separate the various
phases of a waste without performing any chemical reaction or changing the
chemistry of the mixture. Phase separation, such as separating solids from liquids or
oil from water, is useful in concentrating constituents or removing free liquids to
render a waste suitable for land disposal. By concentrating the material, additional
treatment can be done more economically or conveniently, or recycling/reuse
options may be possible. Typical treatments utilized in this waste management
process include evaporation, gravity separation and centrifugation.

6.1.5 Waste-specific treatment

Several waste-specific treatment technologies that have particular relevance for E&P
operations are highlighted below.

6.1.6 Waste disposal options

Multiple approaches for waste management may be appropriate, depending on local
needs and the availability of resources and technology. In any one region, site specific
factors can be important in deciding which of the available disposal options is most
appropriate and may provide the best environmental benefit in a risk-based and
practicable manner.
 This work is done by:
 Murtada Rawdan Enyma(‫)مرتضى روضان انعيمه‬
 Hassan Ali (‫)حسن علي‬
 Habeeb Marzooq (‫)حبيب مرزوق‬

References:

 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil

and Gas engineering.
 OGP Exploration & Production
Waste Management Guidelines
 Wikipedia