Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture

NOTE: This is an updated version of LUH T a c ibed INTERMEDIATE HOST

Notes with some additional info from past transes and o Harbors the immature or larval forms of the parasite.
Foundations of Parasitology 9th ed Some parasites undergo both asexual and sexual
reproduction.
o Where asexual process takes place
INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY
DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST
Terminologies o Where mature or adult forms of the parasites are
found
PARASITOLOGY o Where sexual cycle of some organisms take place
Branch of biology that deals with the
phenomenon of dependence of one living organism RESERVOIR HOSTS
to another. o Some animals, domestic or wild, may serve as
respiratory host to a parasite.
CLINICAL (OR MEDICAL) PARASITOLOGY o Man, in this case, is onl incidentall involved but
Primarily deals with animal parasites of man and not a natural host.
their medical significance and importance in human o Are of epidemiologic importance in the spread of
communities. some infection since the have served as the read
and constant source of the infectious organisms to
PARASITES the community.
Organisms that depend on another living
creature, referred to as the host, for survival. TRANSPORT/PARATHENIC HOST
Lives at the expense of another organism o Some parasites require passage through an
intermediate host before the infective stage (i.e. the
OBLIGATE PARASITES specific developmental form capable of causing
Cannot survive without the assistance of the host. infection to man) is developed.
Parasite is totall dependent and unable to o The infective stage may not be transferred directly
multiply if it is not in the body of a host. from intermediate to definitive host. Instead, it may be
passed to a transport host, whereby no development
FACULTATIVE PARASITES OR OPPORTUNISTS or transformation of the parasite takes place but
Parasites that are able to adapt to a free-living or infectivity is preserved.
parasitic existence depending upon the condition. o Not essential in the life cycle of the parasite but may
serve as another source of infection to man aside from
SPURIOUS PARASITES the natural intermediate host of the organism.
Parasitic to other creatures but not to humans.
Man may ingest these organisms passing through Interrelationship of Organisms
the alimentary canal, excreted in the feces, alive or Different organisms exhibit various kinds of associations
dead, in the unchanged state. with one another throughout their entire life

Parasites, like other living creatures, undergo different Close association of two
stages of development before reaching full maturity. SYMBIOSIS organisms, hereb a give
Each set of metamorphosis results to a distinct stage of and take relationship e ist
development. Some parasites may need a particular
MUTUALISM Relationship is beneficial to
kind of host for a particular stage of development.
both associates
HOST SPECIFICITY COMMENSALISM Parasite derives benefits
The transformation and survival of a certain stage without reciprocating and/or
of development may not occur if the organism is in the without causing injury to the
bod of a non-appropriate host. host

There are some parasites that do not inhabit only a Some large animals attack, kill, and use smaller ones
single host throughout their lifetime. Some organisms, for food. In this form of existence, the larger animal is
while undergoing development, inhabit a host referred to as PREDATOR while the smaller is called
different from the one where the adult forms are found. PREY.

ORION 2021 1
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
SCAVENGERS Parasites have specific developmental forms ith
Animals that derive their nourishment from the ability to enter the human body to initiate an
already dead ones either by devouring those that infection process. The developmental form of the
died of natural causes or taking the leftovers of parasite capable to doing so is called INFECTIVE
predators. STAGE.

The Process of Infection PATHOGENIC STAGE is the developmental form may or

may not be able to cause pathologic damage but is
ECTOPARASITES the only stage that can enter the body of the host.
Parasites that live on the surface of the host s
body There are some parasites whose infective form, as well
their condition is referred to as INFESTATION as their mature stages, can cause pathologic
damage or disease to man. In certain species, the
ENDOPARASITES infective stage may also be the pathogenic form and
Parasites found inside the body of their host vice versa.
condition is called INFECTION
Prior to the development of an infection, a person Some animals serve to transfer the infective stage of
must be in a situation considered at risk of acquiring an organism from one source to another. The transfer
it. may be from one person to another, from an animal
to a human being, or from inanimate objects into a
Risk situation is called EXPOSURE person. Commonly, the animals that transfer the
Organism is given the chance to enter the organism or parasite are various kinds of insects.
body of the individual.

The process of introducing the organism into the VECTOR/TRANSMITTERS

body of the host (e.g. man) is called INOCULATION. These animals that transfer the infective form

Parasites that successfully enter the body of a person BIOLOGIC VECTORS

may establish a colony through reproduction. These Essential or needed in the life cycle of the parasite
organisms, may be recovered in body fluids like blood, The life cycle of some parasites will not be
urine, CSF, or tissues at that times that the organisms completed without the participation or involvement of
are still unable to produce signs and or/symptoms of a particular biologic vector
the infection.
PHORETIC/MECHANICAL VECTORS
BIOLOGIC INCUBATION/PRE-PATENT PERIOD Not necessarily needed in the life cycle
Period of time from entry of the organism until Act as mechanical transmitters of the organism
they may be recovered in body fluids, tissues,
or excreta, without any manifestation yet HORIZONTAL TRANSMISSION
An organism coming from the body of a person
Disease producing organisms will be able to produce and transferred to another individual
signs and/or symptoms of the infection later after Man acquires many parasites, pathogenic and
inoculation. commensal ones, through horizontal transmission.

CLINICAL INCUBATION PERIOD VERTICAL TRANSMISSION

Period of time from the entry of the organism An unborn baby may be infected with a parasite
into the body of the host until the earliest sign that came from the mother via placental transfer
and/or symptom of the infection appear This process is responsible for congenital infection.
Most parasites that cause infection to man originated
Disease-producing organism (also called PATHOGEN from animals thus, commonly referred to as ZOONOTIC
or pathogenic organism), in certain conditions may INFECTIONS.
not be able to cause damage to the host and be
unable to produce signs and/or symptoms of the A person may excrete the infective form of an
infection. This condition is referred to as INAPPARENT organism and this stage of development may re-enter
INFECTION, and the person who harbors such the person s bod in the process of AUTOINFECTION.
organism without manifestation of the infection (i.e.
person is asymptomatic) is called a CARRIER. Other Autoinfection may occur via:
susceptible individuals, who later manifest the o retrograde migration of the infective form
infection, may acquire the infection from carriers. (retroinfection)

ORION 2021 2
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
o outside part of body (external
autoinfection). Vegetables
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciolopsis buski
This process may lead to a severe type of infection
in an individual without necessarily acquiring infective Snail
forms from another person or other sources. Echinostoma ilocanum (aka Euparyphium
ilocanum)
HETEROINFECTION Infective stages coming
from another source of the BLOOD SUCKING INSECTS
same species
Mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles serve as
SUPERINFECTION An already infected vectors for malaria Plasmodium
individual and has been Wuchereria bancrofti causes lymphatic
re-infected with the same filariasis (Elephantiasis) (They become adults
species of the parasite in lymphatics and block it)
Leishmana donovani cases Leishmaniasis
MIXED INFECTION A person may be Trypanosoma Trypanosomiasis (Chagas
harboring more than one disease) (African sleeping sickness)
species of organism at the
same time. DOMESTIC ANIMALS
Cat Toxocara cati
DELUSIONAL PARASITOSIS
Dog – Toxocara canis
There are some individuals who may think they are
Pig (pig = Baboy) Balantidium coli
infected ith some bi arre parasite but in realit , no
Wild animals like tiger, lion Gnathostoma
such parasite exists in their bodies.
spinigerium, Toxoplasma gondii

Sources of Parasitic Infection ANOTHER PERSON (Minor STI)

Entamoeba histolytica
CONTAMINATED SOIL– STD (Soil Transmitted Diseases) Enterobius vermicularis
o Ascaris lumbricoides Embryonic egg Giardia lamblia
o Necator americanus Filariform Larva Trichomonas vaginalis
o Ancyclostoma duodenale Filariform Larva
o Strongyloides stercoralis Filariform Larva AUTOINFECTION IN MAN (Self Infection)
Capillaria philippinensis
Strongyloides stercoralis
CONTAMINATED WATER Enterobius vermicularis
Parasitic amoeba Taenia solium
Cercariae of Schistosoma (larval stage) Hymenolepis nana
which penetrates the skin of the individual.
Even just wading in contaminated water may
get you infected
Portals of Entry
Specific site in the human body where parasites
enter
CONTAMINATED FOOD
Some organisms may not be able to effectively
Fish
cause infection if they enter the wrong portals thus in
Capillaria philippinensis
most instances each species has its own entry point
Diphylobotrium latum
into the host s bod .
Clonorchis sinensis
Mouth (Most common portal of entry) (Fecal oral
Crab route)
Paragonimus westermani (lung fluke) Ascaris lumbricoides
Entamoeba histolytica
Pork Taenia solium
Taenia solium Taenia saginata
Trichinella spiralis Giardia lamblia
Capillaria philippinensis
Trichuris trichiuria
Beef Echinostoma ilocanum
Taenia saginata Trichinella spiralis

ORION 2021 3
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
Diphylobotrium latum 3. Stimulation of the host s tissue reaction (cellular or
Fasciolopsis buski immunologic)
Fasciola hepatica 4. Toxic and/or allergic phenomenon
Paragonimus westermani
Necator americanus (only sometimes, mainly TRAUMA
skin penetration) Filariform Larva they penetrate the skin and
Opisthorchis viverrini produce puncture wounds.
Necator americanus
HINT: Foods go through the mouth Ancylostoma duodenale
Strongyloides stercoralis
Skin by arthropod vector like insects (mosquitoes,
bugs) or penetration. These puncture wounds can serve as an entry point for
bacteria and cause bacterial infection.
Hookworm
Necator americanus Some parasites can enter a tissue cell, grow and
Ancylostoma duodenale develop inside the cell, then rupture the infected cell
producing trauma or physical damage.
Threadworm Plasmodium enter RBC (Note: Plasmodium is
Strongyloides stercoralis smaller than the RBC)

Bloodfluke Parasites with blood-lung phase in their life cycle they

Schistosoma japonicum pass from the blood to the lungs before they can
become an adult. (Note: larva migrate)
* Cercariae of Schistosoma (larval stage) as well Ascaris lumbricoides
Necator americanus
Nose Ancylostoma duodenale
Enterobius vernicularis (Embryonated egg) Strongyloides stercoralis
aside from entering the mouth as portal of
entry, may also enter through the nose via When we inhale, the alveolus expands. When we
inhalation exhale, it contracts. Nakadikit yung pulmonary
capillaries dito. Ano dumadaan sa capillaries? Blood
Placenta Trans-placental transfer para merong exchange of gases. Now yung larva ng
Toxoplasma gondii apat na ito pass from blood through the lungs via
capillaries. They then break the pulmonary capillaries,
Milk Trans-mammary transfer goes to the air sac, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea,
Some species of Strongyloides hanggang epiglottis tapos swallow. Pupunta sa GI
Trematodes tract mo and that larva becomes adult. GG .
Ancylostoma
Some Schistosoma species When they break the pulmonary capillaries, they
produce trauma. Consolidation in the lungs will occur
The infective larvae of Strongyloides and species of = Pneumonia
Ancylostoma may cause infection among babies of
infected mothers through the milk Ano yung nagmimigrate? Larvae

Sexual Organ Ascaris lumbricoides - They can destroy an organ by

Trichomonas vaginalis enters the body of an obstruction, perforation and occlusion. (OPO)
individual through genital organs during
unprotected se ual intercourse Obstruction: They can entangle each other forming a
bolus obstructing the intestines. Intestinal obstruction
Pathogenesis of Parasitic Infections
Each pathogenic parasite utilizes different Perforation: Even a single Ascaris adult can perforate
mechanisms (pathogenesis) of causing damage the intestine. This then goes out and travels to the liver,
among humans or other animals. These mechanisms causing trauma.
maybe one or a combination of the following:
Occlusion: A single worm can occlude the alveoli or
1. Trauma or physical damage can go down and occlude the appendix or the
2. Lytic (liquefaction) necrosis ampulla of vater and can cause trauma

ORION 2021 4
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
LYTIC NECROSIS – involves tissue lysing enzymes Puncture wounds will make the area affected
Entamoeba histolytica they invade the susceptible to microorganisms. This may result to
tissue causing necrosis. bacteremia leading to septicemia.
Balantidium coli they have hyaluronidase
which lyse the tissue causing necrosis. Diagnosis of Parasitic Infections
The medical technologist plays a very important role
STIMULATION OF HOST S TISSUE REACTION in the diagnosis of infections with parasites. Diagnosis
An indirect way of producing disease. This process of parasitic infection is, oftentimes, based on
stimulates the host tissue to react. The response is to identification of organism in specimen submitted to
destroy this parasite or prevent further migration. There the laboratory. The technologist, therefore, should be
will be cellular proliferation, cellular infiltration, very accurate in the identification of the organisms.
granuloma formation, and lastly, fibrosis. The function
of the affected organ will be impaired. Different diagnostic tests in Parasitology may be
classified as either direct or indirect .
Example: Eggs of Schistosoma
In the liver, the eggs stimulate the liver tissue to react DIRECT APPROACH
in order to prevent migration or destruction of the Is to demonstrate the organisms where they can
parasite. Then the tissue reacts causing cellular be recovered.
proliferation, infiltration, granuloma formation, and Feces:
fibrosis. There will be diffuse fibrosis in the liver. o Eggs of:
Continuous flow of blood in a fibrotic liver will result to Ascaris lumbricoides
an increase in pressure of the portal system (portal Trichuris trichiura
hypertension). Because of this, there will be fluid Capillaria philippinensis
escaping the portal system and goes to the abdomen Taenia saginata
resulting to ascites. Taenia solium
Schistosoma japonicum
Aside of the increase in pressure of the portal system,
there will be an increase in pressure of the anus, o Larval forms of:
ballooning the vessels causing hemorrhoids. Threadworm
Some species of hookworm.
Esophagus is also affected resulting to esophageal
varices. Rupture of the varices will result to death. Tapeworms may evacuate segments of the worms in
their feces. The segments may be examined and
There will also be dilation of the veins of the identified with or without stain.
abdomen (caput medusa)
Muscle Tissues:
TOXIC AND ALLERGIC PHENOMENON o Patients infected with Trichinella spiralis are
The parasite and its metabolic waste product can diagnosed through recovery of the larval stage in
serve as an antigen or allergen which is stimulates the biopsy material of muscle tissues
production of specific antibodies. Succeeding
exposure to the same antigen will produce an Blood Films
antigen-antibody reaction resulting to an immune Malaria
response. This can either be beneficial (immunizations) Filariasis
or harmful (hypersensitivity reactions). Trypanosomiasis

Allergy (Type 1 hypersensitivity) activates IgE that may Urine

result to anaphylactic shock (fatal outcome). o Trichomonas vaginalis infection is easily diagnosed
by finding the trophozoites of the parasite in the
COATING patient s urine.
Example: Giardia lamblia
The trophozoite will carpet the intestinal mucosa, CSF
serving as barrier for absorption. This will result to o Examination of CSF will also be of great help in the
malabsorption. diagnosis of Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba
culbertsoni infections.
RECRUITEMENT OF MICROORGANISMS
Example: Filariform larva

ORION 2021 5
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
INDIRECT APPROACH
In quite a number of instances, recovery of Entamoeba histolytica
parasites in body fluids may not be that easy or Ascaris lumbricoides
impractical. Also, there are some conditions whereby Trichuris trichiura
the location of the organism is quite inaccessible or Giardia lamblia
trying to get them, such as in biopsy, may entail more Trichomonas vaginalis
damages that benefits. In such situations, the indirect
approach may be resorted to instead. Surgical intervention
These diagnostic procedures, however, are not Hydatid disease due to the larvae of
readily available, more likely to be less accurate, and Echinococcus granulosus is treated by
are of limited application. surgical removal of the cyst.
Cysticorcus larvae of Taenia solium located in
Circumoval Precipitin Test (COPT) the eye of a patient are also removed
If the organism is able to stimulate the immune through surgical procedure.
system of the host, antibodies may be detected in the
blood such as in the case of schistosomiasis, where the
patient s blood ill contain antibodies against the Combination of the both
eggs of the parasite. Vaccination against parasite infection is not yet
May be used in the diagnosis of schistosomiasis. perfect at the present time. Researchers are still
ongoing for the development of vaccine that may
Serologic tests effectively protect humans from acquiring infection
are also available, although expensive, for the with some parasites. At the present time, vaccines are
diagnosis of human infections with: being developed and tested for organisms such as:
Echinococcus granulosus Plasmodium species (causing malaria)
Trichinella spiralis Schistosoma japonicum
Leishmania donovani, etc. Entamoeba histolytica, etc.

Xenodiagnosis
May be used to diagnose infection with some
parasites such as Trypanosoma cruzi. PROTOZOOLOGY
In this method, a laboratory-bred insect, the one All living organisms may be classified according to
that serves as vector to the organisms, is allowed to either:
feed on the blood of individuals suspected to be
PROTOZOA
infected with the parasite.
o Unicellular
The feces of the insect is then examined for the
presence of the organism after sometime. o Although looking very simple, is capable of the
various processes of life
Coproculture o Subkingdom of Animalia
Some parasites may also be grown in artificial
culture media such as rice-starch agar for Entamoeba METAZOA
histolytica, as well as other protozoa parasites. o Have numerous cells, tissues, and organs.
Coproculture (i.e. stool or soil culture) will enable o Have organ systems that perform the complex
the recovery of the larval forms of hookworms and processes of life
threadworms.
Stages of Development of Parasites
Animals such as rabbits, hamsters, and monkeys may Parasites under Protozoa, generally, undergo different
also be used to grow parasites in the laboratory to stages of development throughout their life. In most
produce more parasites and therefore, make the instances, these developmental forms will include:
diagnosis easier, more accurate, and to have high 1. Trophozoite
yield of positive result. 2. Cyst

Treatment of Parasitic Infections TROPHOZOITE

Also called trophic form
Infections with parasites may be treated with:
Is the VEGETATIVE STAGE
Chemotherapy (use of commercially available
referred to as the pathogenic: stage of parasite
drugs)
which produces disease and pathological changes
Infections with organisms that are effectively
Also referred to as the MOTILE STAGE because of
treated through the administration of specific drug for
the organelles of locomotion
the particular organism:

ORION 2021 6
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
Organelles of locomotion, generally, are present A long time ago, MERTHIOLATE-FORMALDEHYDE
in the trophic forms. In general, different group of solution was being used to preserve trophozoite forms
protozoa has their own type of locomotion organelles: but because of the harmful effects of some of its
Pseudopodia (fingerlike) Entamoeba ingredients its use was halted.
histolytica
Flagella (hair like) Giardia lamblia Stool sample preserved with PVA, whether it contains
Cilia (thread like) Balantidium coli cyst or trophozoite, may be kept for quite a long time.
Surrounded by plasma membrane. They acquire They may also be smeared later and stained
nutrients through a semi-permeable membrane. permanent stains and be kept as permanent record
FEEDING STAGE or for teaching purposes, or even in research. However,
Easily destroyed by adverse condition in the about 5 years or a little more, the quality of stain color
environment such as strong chemicals, urine, changes tends to be lesser and lesser through passage of time.
in temperature, presence of other organisms, and
other physical, chemical, and biologic factors. Trophozoite Cyst
Easily destroyed and quite fragile compared to Motile Non-motile
cyst Feeding Non-feeding
Stool samples suspected to contain these must be -Absorption of nutrients -Stored food in
examined within 30 minutes after collection, lest the from environment INCLUSION BODIES
organism will disintegrate and make identification Chromatoidal
rather difficult if not impossible. Bodies
If examination of the specimen suspected to Glycogen
contain trophozoites is delayed or cannot be done at Vacuole
once, preservatives may be used but the parasite PATHOGENIC/ INFECTIVE/TRANSFER
becomes immotile. VEGETATIVE STAGE STAGE
Has 1 nucleus except:
o Balantidium coli
o Giardia lamblia Structures and Organelles (Protozoa)
o Dientamoeba fragilis
Has 2 nuclei in the trophozoite stage. A macronucleus 1. NUCLEUS
and a micronucleus Has the chromosomes which is essential for:
Life
CYST Reproduction
Dormant or the non-motile form of the parasite Transmission of the composition of the
and has no organ of locomotion. organism
Referred to as the INFECTIVE STAGE (aka Inside the nucleus, an aggregate mass of granules
TRANSFER STAGE) is present and referred to as the karyosome (also
Also called NON-FEEDING STAGE because it is called endosome or nucleolus). SI KEN yung boypren
surrounded by a tough cyst wall (because of this they ni Barbie.
can t get nourishment The nucleus may either be:
They use stored food in the form of chromatoidal Vesicular
bodies and glycogen vacuoules or mass. Compact
Most are more resistant than the trophozoite forms
Likely to be found in: Vesicular Nucleus
formed stool samples Has the karyosome
water fecal specimen suspended in a large amount of
Being more resistant than the trophozoite, the cyst nucleoplasm
may easily be preserved using chemical agents such May be provided with
as 5 10% formalin solutions. chromatin particles arranged on
The cyst may also be maintained, for a definite an achromatic network or the chromatin granules
period of time, in the laboratory or longer in may line the inner part of the nuclear membrane.
refrigerator temperature. Entamoeba histolytica
There are times that the motility of the organism in the Entamoeba coli
living state is quite helpful in the identification of the Endolimax nana
parasite because there are parasites whose motility is Giardia lamblia
quite characteristic
The most widely used preservative for trophozoites
is POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVA).

ORION 2021 7
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
Compact Nucleus Nourishment is absorbed through the plasma
Has a very large granular membrane but there are some parasites that have a
chromatin filled karyosome and cell mouth and cell anus located on opposite ends.
a very scanty nucleoplasm.
4. CYST WALL
No space between the nuclear membrane and Relatively tough membrane secreted by the
the karyosome. ectoplasm
Balantidium coli Envelopes and protects the cyst form.

2. CYTOPLASM 5. CONTRACTILE VACUOLES

Is the interior of the cell where the different Are pulsating vacuoles of various sizes
organelles are found. Seen in the endoplasm of some organisms like
The cytoplasm has, more or less, two distinct Balantidium coli.
portions, namely: Act as osmoregulators
Endoplasm
Ectoplasm 6. FOOD INCLUSION BODIES
Are structures present in the endoplasm of some
protozoa, which serve as foods to the parasite.
Synthesis of foods takes place in the endoplasm
and may be stored in the form of:
o Chromatoidal bodies consist of proteins
o Glycogen mass composed of CHO
It is more likely that these inclusion bodies are
observed in the cyst form of the parasite.

7. CYTOSTOME AND CYTOPYGE

Endoplasm Some species of protozoa have a specialized:
Dense granular part and less homogenous o cell mouth called CYTOSTOME
Surrounding the nucleus o cell anus termed CYTOPYGE
Synthesis of food occurs and is stored as Pag ilalabas mo sa mouth sasabihin nung partner mo
chromatoidal bodies found in cyst form give it to me – CYTOSTOME
Located here are the: Pag ipapasok mo sa anus sasabihin ng baby mo wag!
Stored food Pipigilan ka nya – CYTOPYGE
Mitochondria BTW: Sabi ni doc mas madami daw hair structures sa
Golgi apparatus bibig
Microsomes Ciliates commonly have these structures and are
Endoplasmic reticulum mostly found in the trophozoite form.

Ectoplasm e.g. trophozoite of Balantidium

Less granular and more homogenous part
Envelopes the endoplasm
Functions
Locomotion
Procurement of food
Respiration
Excretion
Protection of the organism

3. PLASMA MEMBRANE
Is the semi-permeable, limiting boundary of the
trophozoite stage. 8. LOCOMOTION ORGANELLES
Functions: May be classified as:
o Controls: Pseudopodia
Intake and output of nutrients Flagella
secretion and excretion Cilia
o Maintains the normal concentration of the plasma
substance.

ORION 2021 8
Introduction to Parasitology and Protozoology Lecture
Pseudopodia 1. Deficiency or overabundance of foods in the
In some species, like the amoeba, the plasma environment,
membrane has no constant shape. Its form changes 2. Accumulation of excessive waste products of
by means of extension and retraction of temporary, metabolism produced by the parasite or
finger-like structures called pseudopodia. other associated organisms such as bacteria
Its active protrusion & retraction enables the 3. Significant changes in the pH of the
amoeba trophozoite to move from one place to surrounding medium,
another. 4. Loss of water or desiccation of the medium,
May aid the organism to obtain particles of food 5. Diminished or too much supply of the oxygen,
from the environment. and
6. Overpopulation
E.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba coli, In most situations, encystations will involve two or
Endolimax nana more of these factors.
In the process, the ectoplasm secretes a thick cyst
Flagella wall, which will enable the organism to be more
Member species of Zoomastigophora, mostly in resistant to the adverse changes in the environment
the trophic forms, possess hair-like projections of the that the trophozoite may be unable to adapt to.
cytoplasm called flagella. two types of encystations, namely
Arise from kinetoplast (consisting of parabasal protective
bodies and blepharoplast) within the cytoplasm reproductive
Constant whipping movement enables the
parasite move. Protective Encystation
A small portion of the flagellum, within the cell wall, Parasite undergoes encystation without
that is connected to the kinetoplast is called significant changes in the morphology
axoneme . Aimed to protect the organism
happens, for example, when the parasite is about
e.g. Giardia lamblia to be excreted and transferred into a new host
Example: Balantidium coli
Cilia
In Ciliophora, there are numerous short, threadlike Reproductive Encystations
structures called cilia. Is characterized with multiplication of the nucleus
Arise from the basal granules ithin the in the cyst form thus resulting to numerous daughter
ectoplasm organisms when the parasite later transforms into the
Are distributed throughout the entire body surface trophozoite form.
of the parasite. Organisms include:
Entamoeba histolytica
e.g. Balantidium coli Entamoeba coli
Giardia lamblia, etc.
Encystation and Excystation
Protozoa parasites transform from trophozoite to cyst, *All except Balantidium coli can do both protective
and vice versa, during their existence. and reproductive encystations.

EXCYSTATION
Cyst stage of parasite undergoes excystation to
produce trophozoites. The process is, probably,
favored by the following factors:
1. Osmotic changes in the surrounding medium
2. Enzymatic action of the enclosed organism
on the inner surface of the cyst wall
ENCYSTATION 3. Favorable pH of the environment and
The formation of cyst from trophozoite form. enzymatic action of the tissues to the parasite
Occurs when the organism is subjected to
The last two items are affecting most of the
conditions, which are unsuitable for continued
protozoa, which are parasitic to man (e.g. the
existence in trophic form. Conditions believed to favor
amoeba). It is noteworthy that the two processes do
encystations include the ff:
not necessarily happen outside of the outside of the
body of the host that supports the existence of the
parasite.

ORION 2021 9