Chapter 5

Participatory communication:
the new paradigm?
Jan Servaes
& Patchanee Malikhao

Participatory communication requires first of all changes in the thinking of ‘com- | 91

municators’. The needles, targets, and audiences of communication and development
models, combined with self-righteousness, titles, and insecurities, perhaps sprinkled
with a dash of misdirected benevolence, often render ‘experts’ a bit too verbose and
pushy. Perhaps this is because it requires much more imagination, preparation and
hard work to have dialogical learning. It is far easier to prepare and give lectures.
However, there is possibly a valid reason why we have two ears, but
only one mouth. Communication between people thrives not on the ability to
talk fast, but the ability to listen well. People are ‘voiceless’ not because they have
nothing to say, but because nobody cares to listen to them. Authentic listening
fosters trust much more than incessant talking.
Participation, which necessitates listening, and moreover, trust, will
help reduce the social distance between communicators and receivers, between
teachers and learners, between leaders and followers as well as facilitate a more
equitable exchange of ideas, knowledge and experiences. However, the need to
listen is not limited to those at the receiving end. It must involve the governments
as well as the citizens, the poor as well as the rich, the planners and administra-
tors as well as their targets.
In this chapter we present:

» an historical overview of the debate on development in general, and

development communication in particular, since its emergence on the
political agenda in the fifties;
 Media and Glocal Change

92 | » the differences between a so-called diffusionist or top-down commu-

nication model versus a participatory or bottom-up communication
model;
» two general differences in approach within the participatory model,
which lead to different ‘types’ of participatory communication proj-
ects, especially at the community media level;
» by way of conclusion we identify eleven changes within the communi-
cation for social change field which will, in our opinion, further condi-
tion and complicate the future of the field.

From modernization, over dependency, to multiplicity

Development communication in the 1950s and 1960s was generally greeted with
enthusiasm and optimism. Building on the American scholar Daniel Lerner’s influ-
ential 1958 study of communication and development in the Middle East and
Wilbur Schramm’s 1964 study on the role of media for national development,
communication researchers assumed that the introduction of media and certain
types of educational, political, and economic information into a social system
could transform individuals and societies from traditional to modern.
This optimism was in line with the ‘Zeitgeist’ after the Second World
War and the fall of Nazism and fascism. The founding of the United nations stim-
ulated relations among sovereign states, especially the North Atlantic Nations and
the developing nations, including the new states emerging out of a colonial past.
Though the ‘cold war’ clouded this stage of enthusiasm, the superpowers –the
United States and the former Soviet Union– tried to expand their own interests to
the developing countries. They both started to promote opposite versions of
‘modern futures’ to the so-called Third World.
In fact, the USA was defining development and social change as the
replica of its own political-economic system and opening the way for the transna-
tional corporations. At the same time, the developing countries saw the ‘welfare
state’ of the North Atlantic nations as the ultimate goal of development. These
nations were attracted by the new technology transfer and the model of a cen-
tralized state with careful economic planning and centrally directed development
bureaucracies for agriculture, education and health as the most effective strate-
gies to catch up with those industrialized countries.
This mainly economic-oriented view, characterized by endogenism
and evolutionism, ultimately resulted in the modernization and growth theory. It
sees development as an unilinear, evolutionary process and defines the state of
underdevelopment in terms of observable quantitative differences between so-
called poor and rich countries on the one hand, and traditional and modern soci-
eties on the other hand.
As a result of the general intellectual ‘revolution’ that took place in the
mid ‘60s, this Euro- or ethnocentric perspective on development was challenged
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

by Latin American social scientists, and a theory dealing with dependency and | 93
underdevelopment was born. This dependency approach formed part of a gener-
al structuralist re-orientation in the social sciences. The ‘dependistas’ were prima-
rily concerned with the effects of dependency in peripheral countries, but implic-
it in their analysis was the idea that development and underdevelopment must be
understood in the context of the world system.
This dependency paradigm played an important role in the movement
for a New World Information and Communication Order from the late 1960s to
the early 1980s. At that time, the new states in Africa, Asia and the success of
socialist and popular movements in Cuba, China, Chile and other countries pro-
vided the goals for political, economic and cultural self-determination within the
international community of nations. These new nations shared the ideas of being
independent from the superpowers and moved to form the Non-Aligned nations.
The Non-Aligned Movement defined development as political struggle.
Since the demarcation of the First, Second and Third Worlds has bro-
ken down and the cross-over centre-periphery can be found in every region, there
is a need for a new concept of development which emphasizes cultural identity
and multidimensionality. The present-day ‘global’ world, in general as well as in
its distinct regional and national entities, is confronted with multifaceted crises.
Apart from the obvious economic and financial crisis, one could also refer to
social, ideological, moral, political, ethnic, ecological and security crises. In other
words, the previously held dependency perspective has become more difficult to
support because of the growing interdependency of regions, nations and com-
munities in our globalized world.
From the criticism of the two paradigms above, particularly that of the
dependency approach, a new viewpoint on development and social change has
come to the forefront. The common starting point here is the examination of the
changes from ‘bottom-up’, from the self-development of the local community.
The basic assumption is that there are no countries or communities that function
completely autonomously and that are completely self-sufficient, nor are there
any nations whose development is exclusively determined by external factors.
Every society is dependent in one way or another, both in form and in degree.
Thus, a framework was sought within which both the centre and the periphery
could be studied separately and in their mutual relationship, both at global,
national and local levels.
More attention is also being paid to the content of development,
which implies a more normative approach. Another development questions
whether ‘developed’ countries are in fact developed and whether this genre of
progress is sustainable or desirable. It favours a multiplicity of approaches
based on the context and the basic, felt needs, and the empowerment of the
most oppressed sectors of various societies at divergent levels. A main thesis is
that change must be structural and occur at multiple levels in order to achieve
these ends.
 Media and Glocal Change

94 | Diffusion versus participatory communication

The above general typology of the so-called development paradigms (for more
details, see Servaes, 1999, 2003) can also be found at the communications and
culture level. The communication media are, in the context of development, gen-
erally used to support development initiatives by the dissemination of messages
that encourage the public to support development-oriented projects. Although
development strategies in developing countries diverge widely, the usual pattern
for broadcasting and the press has been predominantly the same: informing the
population about projects, illustrating the advantages of these projects, and rec-
ommending that they be supported. A typical example of such a strategy is situ-
ated in the area of family planning, where communication means like posters,
pamphlets, radio, and television attempt to persuade the public to accept birth
control methods. Similar strategies are used on campaigns regarding health and
nutrition, agricultural projects, education, and so on.
This model sees the communication process mainly as a message
going from a sender to a receiver. This hierarchic view on communication can be
summarized in Laswell’s classic formula, –‘Who says What through Which chan-
nel to Whom with What effect?’–, and dates back to (mainly American) research
on campaigns and diffusions in the late ‘40s and ‘50s.
The American scholar Everett Rogers (1983) is said to be the person who
introduced this diffusion theory in the context of development. Modernization is
here conceived as a process of diffusion whereby individuals move from a tradition-
al way of life to a different, more technically developed and more rapidly changing
way of life. Building primarily on sociological research in agrarian societies, Rogers
stressed the adoption and diffusion processes of cultural innovation. This approach
is therefore concerned with the process of diffusion and adoption of innovations in
a more systematic and planned way. Mass media are important in spreading aware-
ness of new possibilities and practices, but at the stage where decisions are being
made about whether to adopt or not to adopt, personal communication is far more
likely to be influential. Therefore, the general conclusion of this line of thought is
that mass communication is less likely than personal influence to have a direct
effect on social behaviour.
Newer perspectives on development communication claim that this is
a limited view of development communication. They argue that this diffusion
model is a vertical or one-way perspective on communication, and that develop-
ment will accelerate mainly through active involvement in the process of the com-
munication itself. Research has shown that, while groups of the public can obtain
information from impersonal sources like radio and television, this information
has relatively little effect on behavioural changes. And development envisions
precisely such change. Similar research has led to the conclusion that more is
learned from interpersonal contacts and from mass communication techniques
that are based on them. On the lowest level, before people can discuss and
resolve problems, they must be informed of the facts, information that the media
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

provide nationally as well as regionally and locally. At the same time, the public, if | 95
the media are sufficiently accessible, can make its information needs known.
Communication theories such as the ‘diffusion of innovations’, the
‘two-step-flow’, or the ‘extension’ approaches are quite congruent with the
above modernization theory. The elitist, vertical or top-down orientation of the
diffusion model is obvious.
The participatory model, on the other hand, incorporates the concepts
in the framework of multiplicity. It stresses the importance of cultural identity of
local communities and of democratisation and participation at all levels –interna-
tional, national, local and individual. It points to a strategy, not merely inclusive of,
but largely emanating from, the traditional ‘receivers’. Paulo Freire (1983: 76) refers
to this as the right of all people to individually and collectively speak their word:

This is not the privilege of some few men, but the right of every (wo)man.
Consequently, no one can say a true word alone –nor can he say it for
another, in a prescriptive act which robs others of their words.

In order to share information, knowledge, trust, commitment, and a right atti-

tude in development projects participation is very important in any decision-mak-
ing process for development. Therefore, the International Commission for the
Study of Communication Problems, chaired by the late Sean MacBride, argued
that “this calls for a new attitude for overcoming stereotyped thinking and to
promote more understanding of diversity and plurality, with full respect for the
dignity and equality of peoples living in different conditions and acting in differ-
ent ways” (MacBride, 1980: 254). This model stresses reciprocal collaboration
throughout all levels of participation.
Also, these newer approaches argue, the point of departure must be
the community. It is at the community level that the problems of living conditions
are discussed, and interactions with other communities are elicited. The most
developed form of participation is self-management. This principle implies the
right to participation in the planning and production of media content. However,
not everyone wants to or must be involved in its practical implementation. More
important is that participation is made possible in the decision-making regarding
the subjects treated in the messages and regarding the selection procedures. One
of the fundamental hindrances to the decision to adopt the participation strategy
is that it threatens existing hierarchies. Nevertheless, participation does not imply
that there is no longer a role for development specialists, planners, and institution-
al leaders. It only means that the viewpoint of the local groups of the public is con-
sidered before the resources for development projects are allocated and distrib-
uted, and that suggestions for changes in the policy are taken into consideration.

Two major approaches to participatory communication

There are two major approaches to participatory communication that everybody
today accepts as common sense. The first is the dialogical pedagogy of Paulo
 Media and Glocal Change

96 | Freire (1970, 1973, 1983, 1994), and the second involves the ideas of access, par-
ticipation and self-management articulated in the UNESCO debates of the 1970s
(Berrigan, 1977, 1979). Every communication project that calls itself participatory
accepts these principles of democratic communication. Nonetheless there exists
today a wide variety of practical experiences and intentions. Before moving on to
explore these differences it is useful to briefly review the common ground.
The Freirian argument works by a dual theoretical strategy. He insists
that subjugated peoples must be treated as fully human subjects in any political
process. This implies dialogical communication. Although inspired to some
extent by Sartre’s existentialism –a respect for the autonomous personhood of
each human being–, the more important source is a theology that demands
respect for otherness –in this case that of another human being. The second
strategy is a moment of utopian hope derived from the early Marx that the
human species has a destiny which is more than life as a fulfilment of material
needs. Also from Marx is an insistence on collective solutions. Individual oppor-
tunity, Freire stresses, is no solution to general situations of poverty and cultur-
al subjugation.
These ideas are deeply unpopular with elites, including elites in the
Third World, but there is nonetheless widespread acceptance of Freire’s notion of
dialogic communication as a normative theory of participatory communication.
One problem with Freire is that his theory of dialogical communication is based
on group dialogue rather than such amplifying media as radio, print and televi-
sion. Freire also gives little attention to the language or form of communication,
devoting most of his discussion to the intentions of communication actions.
The second discourse about participatory communication is the
UNESCO language about self-management, access and participation from the
1977 meeting in Belgrade, the former Yugoslavia. The final report of that meet-
ing defines the terms in the following way.

» Access refers to the use of media for public service. It may be defined
in terms of the opportunities available to the public to choose varied
and relevant programs and to have a means of feedback to transmit
its reactions and demands to production organizations.
» Participation implies a higher level of public involvement in communi-
cation systems. It includes the involvement of the public in the produc-
tion process, and also in the management and planning of communi-
cation systems.
» Participation may be no more than representation and consultation of
the public in decision-making.
» On the other hand, self-management is the most advanced form of
participation. In this case, the public exercises the power of decision-
making within communication enterprises and is also fully involved in
the formulation of communication policies and plans.
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

Access by the community and participation of the community are to be consid- | 97

ered key defining factors, as Berrigan eloquently summarizes: “[Community
media] are media to which members of the community have access, for informa-
tion, education, entertainment, when they want access. They are media in which
the community participates, as planners, producers, and performers. They are the
means of expression of the community, rather than for the community”
(Berrigan, 1979: 8). Referring to the 1977 meeting in Belgrade, Berrigan (1979:
18) (partially) links access to the reception of information, education, and enter-
tainment considered relevant by/for the community:

[Access] may be defined in terms of the opportunities available to the pub-

lic to choose varied and relevant programs, and to have a means of feed-
back to transmit its reactions and demands to production organizations.

Others limit access to mass media and see it as ‘the processes that permit users to
provide relatively open and unedited input to the mass media’ (Lewis, 1993: 12)
or as ‘the relation to the public and the established broadcasting institutions’
(Prehn, 1991: 259). Both the production and reception approaches of ‘access’ can
be considered relevant for an understanding of ‘community media’.
These ideas are important and widely accepted as a normative theory
of participatory communication: it must involve access and participation
(Pateman, 1972). However, one should note some differences from Freire. The
UNESCO discourse includes the idea of a gradual progression. Some amount of
access may be allowed, but self-management may be postponed until some time
in the future. Freire’s theory allows for no such compromise. One either respects
the culture of the other or falls back into domination and the ‘banking’ mode of
imposed education. The UNESCO discourse talks in neutral terms about ‘the pub-
lic’. Freire talked about ‘the oppressed’. Finally, the UNESCO discourse puts the
main focus on the institution. Participatory or community radio means a radio sta-
tion that is self-managed by those participating in it.

Participatory communication for social change

Participation involves the more equitable sharing of both political and economic
power, which often decreases the advantage of certain groups. Structural change
involves the redistribution of power. In mass communication areas, many commu-
nication experts agree that structural change should occur first in order to estab-
lish participatory communication policies. Mowlana and Wilson (1987: 143), for
instance, state:

Communications policies are basically derivatives of the political, cultural

and economic conditions and institutions under which they operate. They
tend to legitimize the existing power relations in society, and therefore, they
cannot be substantially changed unless there are fundamental structural
changes in society that can alter these power relationships themselves.
 Media and Glocal Change

98 | Therefore, the development of a participatory communication model has to take

place in relation with overall societal emancipation processes at local, national as well
as international levels. Several authors have been trying to summarize the criteria for
such a communication model. The Latin American scholar Juan Somavia (1977,
1981) sums up the following (slightly adapted) components as essential for it:

(a) Communication is a human need: the satisfaction of the need for

communication is just as important for a society as the concern for
health, nutrition, housing, education and labour. Together with all the
other social needs, communication must enable the citizens to eman-
cipate themselves completely. The right to inform and to be informed,
and the right to communicate, are thus essential human rights and
this both individually and collectively.
(b) Communication is a delegated human right: within its own cultural,
political, economic and historical context, each society has to be able
to define independently the concrete form in which it wants to organ-
ize its social communication process. Because there are a variety of
cultures, there can therefore also arise various organizational struc-
tures. But whatever the form in which the social communication func-
tion is embodied, priority must be given to the principles of participa-
tion and accessibility.
(c) Communication is a facet of the societal conscientization, emancipa-
tion and liberation process. The social responsibility of the media in
the process of social change is very large. Indeed, after the period of
formal education, the media are the most important educational and
socialization agents. They are capable of informing or disinforming,
exposing or concealing important facts, interpreting events positively
or negatively, and so on.
(d) The communication task involves rights and responsibilities/obliga-
tions. Since the media in fact provide a public service, they must carry
it out in a framework of social and juridical responsibility that reflects
the social consensus of the society. In other words, there are no rights
without obligation.

The freedom and right to communicate, therefore, must be approached from a

threefold perspective: first, it is necessary for the public to participate effectively
in the communication field; secondly, there is the design of a framework in which
this can take place; and, thirdly, the media must enjoy professional autonomy,
free of economic, political or whatever pressure.
In sum, participatory communication for social change sees people as
the nucleus of development. Development means lifting up the spirits of a local
community to take pride in its own culture, intellect and environment.
Development aims to educate and stimulate people to be active in self and com-
munal improvements while maintaining a balanced ecology. Authentic participa-
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

tion, though widely espoused in the literature, is not in everyone’s interest. Due to | 99
their local concentration, participatory programmes are, in fact, not easily imple-
mented, nor are they highly predictable or readily controlled.

Different ‘types’ of participatory communication projects

In spite of the widespread acceptance of the ideas of Freire and UNESCO by
development organizations and communication researchers, there is still a very
wide range of projects calling themselves ‘participatory communication projects’.
There is an evident need for clarification in descriptive and normative theories of
participatory media. What does it mean to be participatory? It is necessary to
make further distinctions and arguments to deal with a wide variety of actually
existing experiences and political intentions.
A review of the literature turns up the following types (Berrigan, 1979;
Berque, Foy and Girard, 1993; Fraser and Restrepo, 2000; Girard, 1992; Lewis,
1993; O’Connor, 1988; O’Sullivan, 1979):

(1) participatory media are internally organized on democratic lines (as

worker co-operatives or collectives);
(2) participatory media are recognized by their opposition to cultural
industries dominated by multinational corporations;
(3) participatory media may be traced to the liberation of linguistic and
ethnic groups following a major social transformation;
(4) the strong existence of participatory media may be explained in terms
of class struggle within the society;
(5) participatory media may be identified as “molecular” rather than
“molar” (a collectivity of individual autonomous units rather than one
that is homogenized and one-dimensional);
(6) participatory media (like the montage of Eisenstein and the theatre of
Brecht) by design requires a creative and varied reception from its
audience.
Reyes Matta (1986) argues that participatory communication is first and foremost
an alternative to media dominated by transnational corporations. This is the con-
text in which any alternative must operate. To succeed is to have won against the
culture industries that are dominated by multinational corporations. The line of
thought developed by CINCO (1987) is a development of this because it involves
above all a structural analysis of communicative institutions. For the CINCO
researchers media are alternative if they have a democratic institutional structure.
Here the issue is one of ownership and control that is external to the community
against access and participation in the media organization.
Legitimacy and political credibility can be fostered by the establishment
of what is called participatory democracy, the building in of actual participation
from the public. This is only possible when the communication system is decentral-
 Media and Glocal Change

100 | ized. The control over communication and information may not be monopolized
by one or a few segments of the society. Unfortunately, most of the time structur-
al aspects stand in the way of the ideal of democracy. In most developing coun-
tries, the first stone for bridging the gap between the ruling elite and the masses
has still to be laid. For the establishment of participatory democracy, therefore, dia-
logue must be made possible between the authorities and the public, nationally,
regionally, and locally. In the political sector, this can be done through political par-
ties, pressure groups, civil action groups, environmental movements, and the like.
Thus political credibility as well as social and cultural identity of the population and
an awareness and support of the development goals are needed.
The concept of Community Media (CM) has shown to be, in its long the-
oretical and empirical tradition, highly elusive. The multiplicity of media organizations
that carry this name has caused most mono-theoretical approaches to focus on cer-
tain characteristics, while ignoring other aspects of the identity of community media.
This theoretical problem necessitates the use of different approaches towards the
definition of community media (Table 1), which will allow for a complementary
emphasis on different aspects of the identity of community media (for an elabora-
tion, see Carpentier, Lie and Servaes, 1991). For a more elaborate description of the
different domains of alternative/participatory media, see Lewis (1993: 12).

Table 1: Positioning the four theoretical approaches on Community Media (CM)

Media-centred Society-centred
Autonomous identity Approach I: Approach III:
of CM (essentialist) Serving the community Part of civil society
Identity of CM in relation Approach II: Approach IV:
to other identities An alternative to mainstream Rhizome
(relationalist)

By way of summary
The above-described changes in the field of communication for development
could be summarized as follows.

1. The growth of a deeper understanding of the nature of communication

The perspective on communication has changed. Early models in the ‘50s and
‘60s saw the communication process simply as a message going from a sender to
a receiver (that is, Laswell’s classic S-M-R model). The emphasis was mainly
sender- and media-centric; the stress laid on the freedom of the press, the
absence of censorship, and so on. Since the ‘70s, communication has become
more receiver- and message-centric.
The emphasis now is more on the process of communication (that is,
the exchange of meaning) and on the significance of this process (that is, the
social relationships created by communication and the social institutions and con-
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

text which result from such relationships). As a result, the focus has moved from | 101
a ‘communicator‘ to a more ‘receiver-centric’ orientation, with the resultant
emphasis on meaning sought and ascribed rather than information transmitted.

2. A new understanding of communication as a two-way process

With this shift in focus, one is no longer attempting to create a need for the infor-
mation one is disseminating, but one is rather disseminating information for
which there is a need. The emphasis is on information exchange rather than on
the persuasion in the diffusion model.
The ‘oligarchic’ view of communication implied that freedom of infor-
mation was a one-way right from a higher to a lower level, from the centre to the
periphery, from an institution to an individual, from a communication-rich nation
to a communication-poor one, and so on. Today, the interactive nature of com-
munication is increasingly recognized. It is seen as fundamentally two-way rather
than one-way, interactive and participatory rather than linear.

3. A new understanding of culture

The cultural perspective has become central to the debate on communication for
development. Culture is not only the visible, non-natural environment of a person,
but primarily his/her normative context. Consequently, one has moved away from
a more traditional mechanistic approach that emphasized economic and material-
istic criteria to a more multiple appreciation of holistic and complex perspectives.

4. The trend towards participatory democracy

The end of the colonial era has seen the rise of many independent states and the
spread of democratic principles, even if only at the level of lip service. Though
often ignored in practice, democracy is honoured in theory. Governments and/or
powerful private interests still largely control the world’s communication media,
but they are more attuned to and aware of the democratic ideals than previously.
At the same time, literacy levels have increased, and there has been a remarkable
improvement in people’s ability to handle and use communication technology. As
a consequence, more and more people can use communication media and can
no longer be denied access to and participation in communication processes for
the lack of communication and technical skills.

5. Recognition of the imbalance in communication resources or the digital divide

The disparity in communication resources between different parts of the world is

increasingly recognized as a cause of concern. As the centre nations develop their
resources, the gap between centre and periphery becomes greater. The plea for a
more balanced and equal distribution of communication resources can only be
discussed in terms of power at local, national and international levels. The
 Media and Glocal Change

102 | attempt by local power-elites to totally control the modern communication chan-
nels –press, broadcasting, education, and bureaucracy– does no longer ensure
control of all the communication networks in a given society. Nor does control of
the mass media ensure support for the controlling forces, nor for any mobilization
around their objectives, nor for the effective repression of opposition.
Some may argue that thanks to the new ICTs, especially the Internet
and www, one has to re-address the debate on the digital divide; however, others
remain sceptical and less optimistic.

6. The growing sense of globalization and cultural hybridity

Perhaps the greatest impetus towards a new formulation of communication free-
doms and the need for realistic communication policies and planning have come
from the realization that the international flow of communication has become
the main carrier of cultural globalization. This cultural hybridity can take place
without perceptible dependent relationships.

7. A new understanding of what is happening within the boundaries of the

nation-state

One has to accept that “internal” and “external” factors inhibiting development
do not exist independently of each other. Thus, in order to understand and devel-
op a proper strategy one must have an understanding of the class relationships of
any particular peripheral social formation and the ways in which these structures
articulate with the centre on the one hand, and the producing classes in the Third
World on the other. To dismiss Third World ruling classes, for example, as mere
puppets whose interests are always mechanically synonymous with those of the
centre, is to ignore the realities of a much more complex relationship. The very
unevenness and contradictory nature of the capitalist development process nec-
essarily produces a constantly changing relationship.

8. Recognition of the ‘impact’ of communication technology

Some communication systems (e.g., audio- and video-taping, copying, radio broad-
casting, and especially the Internet) have become cheap and so simple that the ration-
ale for regulating and controlling them centrally, as well as the ability to do so, is no
longer relevant. However, other systems (for instance, satellites, remote sensing, trans-
border data flows) remain very expensive. They are beyond the means of smaller
countries and ‘have-nots’. Moreover, they may not be ‘suitable’ to local environments.

9. From an information society to knowledge societies

Information has been seen as the leading growth sector in society, especially in
advanced industrial economies. Its three strands –computing, telecommunica-
tions and broadcasting– have evolved historically as three separate sectors, and
by means of digitization these sectors are now converging.
 Jan Servaes & Patchanee Malikhao

Throughout the past decade a gradual shift can be observed away | 103
from a technological in favour of more socio-economic and cultural definitions of
the Information Society. The term Knowledge Societies (in plural as there are
many roads) better coins this shift in emphasis from ICTs as ‘drivers’ of change to
a perspective where these technologies are regarded as tools which may provide
a new potential for combining the information embedded in ICT systems with the
creative potential and knowledge embodied in people: “These technologies do
not create the transformations in society by themselves; they are designed and
implemented by people in their social, economic, and technological contexts”
(Mansell & When, 1998: 12).
True knowledge is more than information. Knowledge is the sense or
meaning that people make of information. Meaning is not something that is deliv-
ered to people, people create/interpret it themselves. If knowledge is to be effec-
tively employed to help people, it needs to be interpreted and evaluated by those it
is designed to help. That requires people to have access to information on the issues
that affect their lives, and the capacity to make their own contributions to policy-
making processes. Understanding the context in which knowledge moves –factors
of control, selection, purpose, power, and capacity– is essential for understanding
how societies can become better able to learn, generate and act on knowledge.

10. A new understanding towards integration of distinct means of

communication

Modern mass media and alternate or parallel networks of folk media or interper-
sonal communication channels are not mutually exclusive by definition. Contrary
to the beliefs of diffusion theorists, they are more effective if appropriately used
in an integrated fashion, according to the needs and constraints of the local con-
text. The modern mass media, having been mechanically transplanted from
abroad into Third World societies, enjoy varying and limited rates of penetration.
They are seldom truly integrated into institutional structures, as occurs in some
Western societies. However, they can be effectively combined, provided a func-
tional division of labour is established between them, and provided the limits of
the communication media are recognized.

11. The recognition of dualistic or parallel communication structures

No longer governments or rulers are able to operate effectively, to control, cen-

sor, or to play the role of gatekeeper with regard to all communications net-
works at all times in a given society. Both alternate and parallel networks, which
may not always be active, often function through political, socio-cultural, reli-
gious or class structures or can be based upon secular, cultural, artistic, or folk-
loric channels. These networks feature a highly participatory character, high
rates of credibility, and a strong organic integration with other institutions
deeply rooted in a given society.