Operating Systems

Introduction
Operating is one of the component of computer. The operating system (OS) controls almost all functions
on a computer

Characteristics of an Operating System

To understand the capabilities of an operating system, it is important to first understand some basic
terms. The following terms are often used when describing operating systems:

 Multi-user - Two or more users have individual accounts that allow them to work with programs
and peripheral devices at the same time.

 Multitasking - The computer is capable of operating multiple applications at the same time.

 Multiprocessing - The operating system can support two or more CPUs.

 Multithreading - A program can be broken into smaller parts that are loaded as needed by the
operating system. Multithreading allows different parts of a program to be run at the same
time.

All computers rely on an OS to provide the interface for the interaction between users, applications, and
hardware. The OS boots the computer and manages the file system. Operating systems can support
more than one user, task, or CPU.

Basic function of an Operating System

Regardless of the size and complexity of the computer and the operating system, all operating
systems perform the same four basic functions:

 Control hardware access

 Manage files and folders

 Provide a user interface

 Manage applications

Hardware Access

The OS manages the interaction between applications and the hardware. To access and
communicate with each hardware component, the OS uses a program called a device driver.
When a hardware device is installed, the OS locates and installs the device driver for that
component. Assigning system resources and installing drivers are performed with a plug-and-
play (PnP) process. The OS then configures the device and updates the registry, which is a
database that contains all the information about the computer.
If the OS cannot locate a device driver, a technician must install the driver manually either by
using the media that came with the device or downloading it from the manufacturer’s website.

File and Folder Management

The OS creates a file structure on the hard disk drive to store data. A file is a block of related
data that is given a single name and treated as a single unit. Program and data files are grouped
together in a directory. The files and directories are organized for easy retrieval and use.
Directories can be kept inside other directories. These nested directories are referred to as
subdirectories. Directories are called folders in Windows operating systems, and subdirectories
are called subfolders.

User Interface

The OS enables the user to interact with the software and hardware. Operating systems include
two types of user interfaces:

 Command-line interface (CLI) - The user types commands at a prompt, as shown in

Figure 1.

 Graphical user interface (GUI) - The user interacts with menus and icons, as shown in
Figure 2.

Application Management

The OS locates an application and loads it into the RAM of the computer. Applications are
software programs, such as word processors, databases, spreadsheets, and games. The OS
allocates available system resources to running applications.

To ensure that a new application is compatible with an OS, programmers follow a set of
guidelines known as an Application Programming Interface (API). An API allows programs to
access the resources managed by the operating system in a consistent and reliable manner. Here
are some examples of APIs:

 Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) - Cross-platform standard specification for

multimedia graphics

 DirectX - Collection of APIs related to multimedia tasks for Microsoft Windows

 Windows API - Allows applications from older versions of Windows to operate on

newer versions

 Java APIs - Collection of APIs related to the development of Java programming

Command line interface Graphical user Inerface

Processor Architecture

The way that a CPU handles information can affect the performance of the OS. Two common
architectures used to process data are:

 x86 - A 32-bit architecture that processes multiple instructions with a single request. An x86
processor uses fewer registers than an x64 processor. Registers are storage areas used by the
CPU when performing calculations. An x86 processor can support a 32-bit operating system.

 x64 - This 64-bit architecture adds additional registers specifically for instructions that use a 64-bit
address space. The additional registers allow the CPU to process instructions much faster than x86.
The x64 processer is backward compatible with the x86 processor. An x64 processor can support
32-bit and 64-bit operating systems.

A 32-bit OS is capable of addressing only 4 GB of system memory, while a 64-bit OS can address more
than 128 GB. Memory management differs between the two systems. A 64-bit system has better
performance. A 64-bit OS also includes features that provide additional security

32 and 64 bit compatibility in windows

As you remember from our OS lab we chose this architecture in different environment(view)
Operating system Types
There are two kinds of operating system

a. Desktop operating system

b. Network operating system

Desktop Operating system

A technician might be asked to choose and install an OS for a customer. There are two distinct types of
operating systems: desktop and network. A desktop operating system is intended for use in a small office,
home office (SOHO) environment with a limited number of users. A network operating system (NOS) is
designed for a corporate environment serving multiple users with a wide range of needs.

A desktop OS has the following characteristics:

 Supports a single user

 Runs single-user applications

 Shares files and folders on a small network with limited security

In the current software market, the most commonly used desktop operating systems fall into three groups:
Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS, and Linux. This chapter focuses on Microsoft operating systems
Network Operating system

A NOS contains additional features to increase functionality and manageability in a networked

environment. A NOS has the following characteristics:

 Supports multiple users

 Runs multi-user applications

 Provides increased security compared to desktop operating systems

A NOS provides network resources to computers, including:

 Server applications, such as shared databases

 Centralized data storage

 Centralized repository of user accounts and resources on the network

 Network print queue

 Redundant storage systems, such as RAID and backups

The following are examples of network operating systems:

 Windows Server

 Red Hat Linux

 Mac OS X Server
Operating system Upgrades

An OS must be upgraded periodically to remain compatible with the latest hardware and software. It is
also necessary to upgrade an OS when a manufacturer stops supporting it. Upgrading an OS can
increase performance. New hardware products often require that the latest OS version be installed to
operate correctly. While upgrading an OS may be expensive, you can gain enhanced functionality
through new features and support for newer hardware.

NOTE: When newer versions of an OS are released, support for older versions is eventually withdrawn.

Before upgrading the operating system, check the minimum hardware requirements of the new OS to
ensure that it can be installed successfully on the computer. Also check the Windows Compatibility
Center for Windows 7 and Vista, or the Windows XP HCL to ensure that the hardware is compatible with
the new OS

The process of upgrading a computer’s OS can be quicker than performing a new installation. The
upgrade process varies depending on the version. For example, the Windows 7 setup utility replaces
existing Windows Vista files with Windows 7 files. However, the existing applications and settings are
saved.

The version of an OS determines available upgrade options. For example, a 32-bit OS cannot be
upgraded to a 64-bit OS. Another example is that Windows XP cannot be upgraded to Windows 7. Before
attempting an upgrade, check the OS developer's website for a list of possible upgrade paths.

NOTE: Prior to performing an upgrade, back up all data in case there is a problem with the installation.
Operating system Installation

As a technician, you might have to perform a clean installation of an OS. Perform a clean install in the
following situations:

 When a computer is passed from one employee to another

 When the OS is corrupt

 When the primary hard drive is replaced in a computer

The installation and initial booting of the OS is called the operating system setup. Although it is possible
to install an OS over a network from a server or from a local hard drive, the most common installation
method for a home or small business is with CDs or DVDs. To install an OS from a CD or DVD, first
configure the BIOS setup to boot the system from the CD or DVD.

Important: If the hardware is not supported by the OS, you may need to install third party drivers when
performing a clean installation.

Partitioning

A hard drive is divided into specific areas called partitions. Each partition is a logical storage unit that can
be formatted to store information, such as data files and applications. During the installation process,
most operating systems automatically partition and format available hard drive space.

A technician should understand the process and terms relating to hard drive setup.

 Primary partition - This primary partition containing the operating system files is usually the first
partition. There can be up to four primary partitions per hard drive. A primary partition cannot be
subdivided into smaller sections.

 Active partition - The OS uses the active partition to boot the computer. Only one primary partition
per disk can be marked active. In most cases, the C: drive is the active partition and contains the
boot and system files. Some users create additional partitions to organize files or to be able to dual-
boot the computer.

 Extended partition - The extended partition normally uses the remaining free space on a hard drive
or takes the place of a primary partition. There can be only one extended partition per hard drive,
but it can be subdivided into smaller sections called logical drives.

 Logical drive - A logical drive is a section of an extended partition. It can be used to separate
information for administrative purposes.
 Basic disk - A basic disk (the default) contains primary and extended partitions, as well as logical
drives. A basic disk is limited to four partitions.

 Dynamic disk - A dynamic disk has the ability to create volumes that span across more than one
disk. The size of the partitions can be changed after they have been set. Free space can be added
from the same disk or a different disk, allowing a user to efficiently store large files. After a partition
has been extended, it cannot be shrunk without deleting the entire partition.

 Formatting - This process prepares a file system in a partition for files to be stored.

 Sector - A sector contains 512 bytes.

 Cluster - A cluster is also called a file allocation unit. It is the smallest unit of space used for storing
data. It is made up of one or more sectors.

 Track - A track is one complete circle that can contain data on one side of a hard drive platter. A
track is broken into groups of sectors.

 Cylinder - A cylinder is a stack of tracks lined up one on top of another to form a cylinder shape.
Formatting

A clean installation of an OS proceeds as if the disk were brand new. No information that is currently on
the hard drive is preserved. The first phase of the installation process partitions and formats the hard
drive. This process prepares the disk to accept the new file system. The file system provides the directory
structure that organizes the user’s operating system, application, configuration, and data files.

Windows operating systems use one of these file systems:

 New Technology File System (NTFS) - Supports partition sizes up to 16 exabytes, in theory. NTFS
incorporates more file system security features and extended attributes than the FAT file system.

 File Allocation Table, 32 bit (FAT32) - Supports partition sizes up to 2 TB or 2,048 GB. The FAT32
file system is used by Windows XP and earlier OS versions.

The preferred file system type for a clean installation of Windows is NTFS. Security is one of the most
important differences between FAT32 and NTFS. NTFS can support more and larger files than FAT32
and also provides more flexible security features for files and folders. Figure 1 is a comparison of the
Windows file systems.

To use the extra security advantages of NTFS, you can convert partitions from FAT32 to NTFS using the
CONVERT.EXE utility. To make an NTFS partition a FAT32 partition, back up the data, reformat the
partition, and restore the data from a backup.

CAUTION: Before converting a file system, remember to back up the data.

Windows 7 and Windows Vista automatically create a partition using the entire hard drive. If a user does
not create custom partitions using the New option, as shown in Figure 2, the system formats the partition
and begins installing Windows. If users create a partition, they will be able to determine the size of the
partition. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, there is no option to select a file system. All partitions are
formatted with NTFS.

Before users can install Windows XP, they must create a new partition. When a user creates a new
partition, they will be prompted to choose the size of the partition. After a partition has been created,
Windows XP provides users with a choice of formatting it with the NTFS or FAT file systems. A technician
should also be familiar with the following multimedia file systems:

 exFAT (FAT 64) - Created to address some of the limitations of FAT, FAT32, and NTFS when
formatting USB flash drives, such as file size and directory size.

 Compact Disc File System (CDFS) - Created specifically for optical disk media.
Quick Format versus Full Format

When installing Windows XP, you can format a partition using a quick format or full format, as shown in
Figure 3. The quick format removes files from the partition, but does not scan the disk for bad sectors.
Scanning a disk for bad sectors can prevent data loss in the future. For this reason, do not use the quick
format for disks that have been previously formatted. The quick format option is not available when
installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista.

The full format removes files from the partition while scanning the disk for bad sectors. It is required for all
new hard drives. The full format option takes more time to complete.
Installation

When a computer boots with the Windows 7 installation disc (or USB flash drive), the installation wizard
presents three options, as shown in Figure 1:

 Install now - Sets up and installs the Windows 7 OS.

 What to know before installing Windows - Opens a Help and Support window describing the
Upgrade and Custom options for installing Windows 7. The window also describes how to prepare
for and install Windows 7.

 Repair your computer - Opens the System Recovery Options utility to repair an installation. Select
the Windows 7 installation that needs repair and click Next. You can then select from a number of
recovery tools, such as Startup Repair. Startup Repair locates and repairs problems with the OS
files. If Startup Repair does not solve the problem, additional options, such as System Restore or
System Image Recovery, are available.

NOTE: Before performing a repair installation, back up important files to a different physical location, such
as a second hard drive, optical disc, or USB storage device.

For this section, select the Install now option. Three options are available:

 Upgrade - Upgrades Windows but keeps your current files, settings, and programs. You can use
this option to repair an installation.

 Custom (advanced) - Installs a clean copy of Windows in your choice of location and allows you to
change disks and partitions. It is also known as a clean installation. Selecting a custom installation
increases the likelihood of a successful installation.

 Quit - Exits Setup.

If existing Windows installations are not found, the Upgrade option is disabled, as shown in Figure 2.

NOTE: Unless you perform a clean installation of Windows 7, the previous Windows folder is kept, along
with the Documents and Settings and Program Files folders. During the Windows 7 installation, these
folders are moved to a folder named Windows.old. You can copy files from the previous installation to the
new installation if you need them.

During an installation, you must provide the following information:

 Language to install
  Standards and formats that define currency and numerals

 Keyboard or input method

 Physical location of the installation

 Username and computer name

 Password for the administrative account

 Product key

 Time and date settings

 Network settings

Network Settings

When configuring initial network settings during installation, you are prompted to select one of the
following current locations, as shown in Figure 3:

 Home network

 Work network

 Public network

Depending on the current location of the computer and version of the OS, you are prompted to select a
method for organizing computers and sharing resources on a network. The options are Homegroup,
Workgroup, and Domain.

If Home network is selected, you are prompted to enter the name of a workgroup, with the option of
configuring a homegroup. A workgroup provides a network structure that permits file and printer sharing.
All computers in a workgroup must have the same workgroup name. A homegroup allows computers on
the same network to automatically share files, such as music and pictures, as well as printers.

If Work network is selected, you can choose to enter the name of a domain or a workgroup. A computer
on a domain is governed by a central administrator and must follow the rules and procedures set by the
administrator. A domain, like a workgroup, provides users with the ability to share files and devices.
Account Creation

When users attempt to log in to a device or to access system resources, Windows uses the process of
authentication to verify that the users are who they say they are. Authentication occurs when users enter
a username and password to access a user account. Windows OSs use Single-Sign On (SSO)
authentication, which allows users to log in once to access all system features versus requiring them to
log in each time they need to access an individual resource.

User accounts allow multiple users to share a single computer, with each user having their own files and
settings. Windows 7 and Windows Vista have three types of user accounts: Administrator, Standard, and
Guest. Each account type provides a user with a different level of control over system resources.

An account with administrator privileges must be created when Windows 7 is installed, as shown in the
figure. A user with administrator privileges can make changes that impact all users of the computer, such
as altering security settings or installing software for all users. Accounts with administrator privileges
should be used only to manage a computer and not for regular use, because drastic changes that affect
everyone can be made when using the administrator account. Attackers also seek out an administrator
account because it is so powerful. For this reason, it is recommended that a standard user account is
created for regular use.

Standard user accounts can be created at any time. A standard user account has fewer permissions than
an administrator account. For example, users might have the right to only read, but not modify, a file.

Individuals without a standard user account on the computer can use a guest account. A guest account
has limited permissions and must be turned on by an administrator.

To create or remove a user account in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > User Accounts > Add or remove user accounts

Windows XP features a fourth group of users called Power Users. Power Users have privileges that are
extended beyond those of standard users, providing them with some of the capabilities given to
Administrator accounts. Power users are not able to fully administrate system resources. The group has
not been included in Windows 7 or Windows Vista.

To create or remove a user account in Windows XP, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > User Accounts > Select the Users tab and click Add
Custom Windows operating system installation

Installing an OS on a single computer takes time. Imagine the time it would take to install operating
systems on multiple computers, one at a time. To simplify this activity, you can use the Microsoft System
Preparation (Sysprep) tool, as shown in the figure, to install and configure the same OS on multiple
computers. Sysprep prepares the OS with different hardware configurations. With Sysprep and a disk
cloning application, technicians can quickly install the OS, complete the last configuration steps, and
install applications.

Disk Cloning

Disk cloning creates an image of a hard drive in a computer. For disk cloning, follow these steps:
Step 1. Create a master installation on one computer. This master installation includes the OS, software
applications, and common configuration settings that will be used by the other computers in the
organization.

Step 2. Run Sysprep.

Step 3. Create a disk image of the configured computer using a third-party disk-cloning program.

Copy the disk image onto a server. When the destination computer is booted, a shortened version of the
Windows setup program runs. The setup installs the drivers for the hardware components, creates user
accounts, and configures network settings to finish the installation.

Other installation methods

A standard installation of Windows 7 is sufficient for most computers used in a home or small office
environment. A custom installation of Windows 7 can save time and provide a consistent configuration
across computers on a large network. When deploying Windows to multiple computers, technicians may
elect to use a pre-installation environment such as Windows PE. Pre-installation environments are basic
operating systems that enable a user to partition and format drives, or start an installation from a network.

Windows 7 has several different types of custom installations.

 Network Installation - Requires all setup files to be copied to a network server

 Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) Installation - Uses a PXE boot program and a client’s
network card to access the setup files
  Unattended Installation - Uses a network distribution point that uses an answer file

 Image-based Installation - Uses Sysprep and a disk-imaging program, such as ImageX, that
copies an image of the OS directly to the hard drive with no user intervention

 Remote Installation - Downloads the installation across the network. The installation can be
requested by the user or forced on to a computer by an administrator.

NOTE: To simplify OS deployment across an organization, consider using an OS Deployment Feature

Pack using Microsoft System Center Configuration Manager (SCCM).

Network Installation

To install Windows 7 or Windows Vista over a network, follow these steps:

Step 1. Prepare the computer by creating a NTFS partition of at least 5 GB. You must make the partition
bootable and include a network client. You can also use a boot disk that contains a network client so that
the computer can connect to a file server over the network.

Step 2. Copy the installation media to the network server. Make sure to share the directory so that clients
can connect and use the files.

Step 3. Boot the computer and connect to the shared directory.

Step 4. From the shared directory, run the setup program, setup.exe, located in the directory called
Sources. The setup program copies the installation files to your hard drive. After the installation files have
been copied, the installation continues.

To install Windows XP over a network, follow these steps:

Step 1. Prepare the computer by creating a FAT or FAT32 partition of at least 1.5 GB. You must make
the partition bootable and include a network client. You can also use a boot disk that contains a network
client so that the computer can connect to a file server over the network.

Step 2. Copy the Windows XP installation files (the I386 folder from the installation disc) to the network
server. Make sure to share the directory so that clients can connect and use the files.

Step 3. Boot the computer and connect to the shared directory.

Step 4. From the shared directory, run the setup program, WINNT.EXE. The setup program copies the
installation files from the network onto your hard drive. After the installation files have been copied, the
installation continues.
PXE Installation

A PXE installation uses a method similar to a network installation. The only difference is that a PXE
installation uses a PXE boot file instead of a boot disk. The PXE boot file allows the network interface
card (NIC) to communicate with the server and obtain setup files. After a client has access to the setup
files, it boots to a command window where the user is prompted for the network username and password.

Unattended Installation in Windows 7 and Vista

An unattended installation using an unattend.txt answer file or an autounattend.xml file is the easiest
alternative installation method to perform on a network. To customize a standard Windows 7 or Windows
Vista installation, the System Image Manager (SIM) is used to create the setup answer file. You can also
add packages, such as applications or drivers, to an unattended answer file and an autounattend.xml file.

The figure shows an example of an answer file. After all questions have been answered, the file is copied
to the distribution shared folder on a server. At this point, you can do one of two things:

 Run the unattended.bat file on the client machine to prepare the hard drive and install the OS from
the server over the network.

 Create a boot disk that boots the computer and connects to the distribution share on the server. You
then run the batch file to install the OS over the network.

NOTE: Windows SIM is part of the Windows Automated Installation Kit (AIK). You can download it from
the Microsoft website.

NOTE: In Windows XP, you can create an answer file with the application setupmgr.exe, located in the
deploy.cab file on the Windows XP media.

Image-based Installation

When performing image-based installations, begin by completely configuring one computer to an

operational state. Next, run Sysprep to prepare the system for imaging. A third-party drive-imaging
application prepares an image of the completed computer, which can be burned on to a DVD. You can
then copy the image on to computers with compatible Hardware Access Layers (HALs) to complete the
installation of multiple computers. After the image is copied, boot up the computer, but you might have to
configure some settings, such as the computer name and domain membership.

Remote Installation

With Remote Installation Services (RIS), the process is similar to an image-based installation, except you
do not use a drive-imaging utility. You use an RIS network shared folder as the source of the Windows
OS files. You can install operating systems on remote boot-enabled client computers. You can also start
user computers that are connected to the network with a remote boot disk or network adapter capable of
booting the computer. The user then logs on with valid user account credentials.

System Repair

When a system failure occurs users can employ the following recovery tools:

 System Recovery Options

 Automated System Recovery (Windows XP Professional only)

 Factory Recovery Partition

System Recovery Options

The System Recovery Options are a set of tools that allow users to recover or restore an operating
system when it has failed. The System Recovery Options are a part of the Windows Recovery
Environment (WinRE). WinRE is a recovery platform based on the Windows Preinstallation Environment
(PE). Windows PE is a basic operating system created to prepare a computer for Windows installation
and help users troubleshoot operating system failures when no OS is available.
WinRE can be accessed by pressing and holding the F8 key when starting a computer. Once the
Advanced Boot Options screen appears, highlight Repair your computer and press Enter to access the
System Recovery Options. You can then use system recovery tools to repair errors that prevent system
startup. The following tools are available in the System Recovery Options menu:

 Startup Repair – Scans the hard drive for problems and automatically fixes missing or corrupt
system files that prevent Windows from starting

 System Restore – Uses restore points to restore Windows system files to an earlier point in time

 System Image Recovery - Creates a system image that replicates the system drive that Windows
requires to operate

 Windows Memory Diagnostic – Examines computer memory to detect malfunctions and diagnose
problems

 Command Prompt – Opens a command prompt window where the bootrec.exe tool can be used to
repair and troubleshoot startup issues for Windows. The bootrec.exe utility can be used with the
fixmbr command to repair the Master Boot Record or the fixboot command to write a new boot
sector that is compatible with the OS. This command prompt replaces the Recovery Console from
Windows XP.

If Repair your computer does not appear as an option, users can access the System Recovery Options in
WinRE by booting the computer from installation media or a system repair disc. A system repair disc
allows users to access the System Recovery Options in the same way that installation media would.
Before a system repair disc can be used to boot a computer, it must be created.

To create a Windows 7 system repair disc, as shown in Figure 1, follow these steps:

Step 1. Select Start > Control Panel > Backup and Restore > Create a system repair disc.

Step 2. Insert a blank disc in the optical disc drive and click Create Disc.

Step 3. Test the disc by using it to boot the computer.

Step 4. After the System Recovery Options window is displayed, highlight the OS that needs to be
restored and click Next. The following tools should be available:

 Startup Repair

 System Restore
  System Image Recovery

 Windows Memory Diagnostic

 Command Prompt

NOTE: When using a recovery disc, make sure that it uses the same architecture as the OS being
recovered. For example, if the computer is running a 64-bit version of Windows 7, the recovery disc must
use a 64-bit architecture.

System Image Recovery

The System Image Recovery utility, as shown in Figure 2, is a new recovery option that is included in all
versions of Windows 7. It allows users to back up the contents of their hard drive, including personal files
and settings, if an operating system needs to be restored.

To create a system image in Windows 7, follow these steps:

Step 1. Select Start > Control Panel > Backup and Restore > Create a system image.

Step 2. Select a location for the system image:

 On a hard disk - Stores the system image on an external hard drive.

 On one or more DVDs - Burns the system image to a DVD.

 On a network location - Stores the system image in a shared folder on a network.

Step 3. Click Next and confirm the selections. A system image is created and stored in the selected
location.

Automated System Recovery in Windows XP Professional

You must create an Automated System Recovery (ASR) set to use for the recovery. The ASR Wizard, as
shown in Figure 3, creates a backup of the system state, services, and OS components. It also creates a
file containing information about your disks, the backup, and how to restore the backup.

Use the following path:

Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Backup > click the Advanced Mode link >
Automated System Recovery Wizard
To restore your system, press F2 after booting the Windows XP installation disc. ASR reads the set and
restores the disks needed to start the computer. After the basic disk information has been restored, ASR
installs a basic version of Windows and begins restoring the backup created by the ASR Wizard.

Factory Recovery Partition

Some computers that have Windows 7 pre-installed from the factory contain a section of the disk that is
inaccessible to the user. This partition, called a factory recovery partition, contains an image of the
bootable partition created when the computer was built. You can use this partition to restore the computer
to its original configuration.

Occasionally, the option to reach this partition is hidden, and you must use a special key or key
combination when the computer is starting. Sometimes, the option to restore from the factory recovery
partition is located in the BIOS. Contact the computer manufacturer to find out how to access the partition
and restore the original configuration of the computer.

Book Sequence and Registry files

Understanding the boot process in Windows can help a technician troubleshoot boot problems. Figure 1
displays the boot sequence for Windows 7.

Windows Boot Process

To begin the boot process, turn on the computer. This is called a cold boot. When the computer is
powered on, it performs a Power On Self Test (POST). Because the video adapter has not yet been
initialized, errors that occur at this point in the boot process are reported by a series of audible tones,
called beep codes.
After POST, the BIOS locates and reads the configuration settings that are stored in the CMOS memory.
The boot device priority, as shown in Figure 2, is the order in which devices are checked to locate the
operating system. The boot device priority is set in the BIOS and can be arranged in any order. The BIOS
boots the computer using the first drive that contains an operating system.

Hard drives, network drives, USB drives, and even removable magnetic media, such as CompactFlash or
Secure Digital (SD) cards can be used in the boot order, depending on the capabilities of the
motherboard. Some BIOS also have a boot device priority menu that is accessed with a special key
combination while the computer is starting but before the boot sequence begins. You can use this menu
to select the device to boot, which is useful if multiple drives can boot the computer.

Windows Boot Loader and Windows Boot Manager in Windows 7 and Windows Vista

When the drive storing the OS is located, the BIOS finds the Master Boot Record (MBR). At this point,
Windows Boot Manager (BOOTMGR) controls several installation steps. For instance, if more than one
OS is present on the disk, BOOTMGR gives the user a chance to select which one to use. If there are no
other operating systems, or if the user does not make a selection before the timer expires, the following
process occurs:

1. WinLoad uses the path specified in BOOTMGR to find the boot partition.

2. WinLoad loads two files that make up the core of Windows 7: NTOSKRNL.EXE and HAL.DLL.

3. WinLoad reads the Registry files, chooses a hardware profile, and loads the device drivers.

NOTE: If another OS version is on the disk that is Windows Vista or later, BOOTMGR repeats the
process. If another OS version is on the disk that is Windows XP or earlier, BOOTMGR invokes the
Windows XP boot loader (NTLDR).

NTLDR and the Windows Boot Menu in Windows XP

When the drive with the OS is located on a computer running Windows XP, the BIOS locates the MBR.
The MBR locates the OS boot loader NTLDR. At this point, NTLDR controls several installation steps. For
instance, if more than one OS is present on the disk, BOOT.INI gives the user a chance to select which
one to use. If there are no other operating systems, or if the user does not make a selection before the
timer expires, the following process occurs:

1. NTLDR runs NTDETECT.COM to get information about the installed hardware.

2. NTLDR uses the path specified in the BOOT.INI to find the boot partition.

3. NTLDR loads two files that make up the core of XP: NTOSKRNL.EXE and HAL.DLL.
4. NTLDR reads the Registry files, chooses a hardware profile, and loads the device drivers.

NT Kernel

At this point, the NT kernel takes over. The NT kernel is the heart of all Windows operating systems. The
name of this file is NTOSKRNL.EXE. It starts the login file called WINLOGON.EXE and displays the
Windows Welcome screen.
Startup modes

Startup Modes

Windows can boot in one of many different modes. Pressing the F8 key during the boot process opens
the Windows Advanced Startup Options menu, as shown in the figure. This allows users to select how to
boot Windows. The following startup options are commonly used:

 Safe Mode - Starts Windows but only loads drivers for basic components, such as the keyboard and
display.

 Safe Mode with Networking - Starts Windows as for Safe Mode, but also loads the drivers for
network components.

 Safe Mode with Command Prompt - Starts Windows and loads the command prompt instead of
the GUI.

 Last Known Good Configuration - Loads the configuration settings that were used the last time
that Windows started successfully. It does this by accessing a copy of the registry that is created for
this purpose.

NOTE: Last Known Good Configuration is not useful unless it is applied immediately after a failure
occurs. If the machine is restarted and manages to open Windows, the registry is updated with the faulty
information
MultiBoot

You can have multiple operating systems on a single computer. Some software applications may require
the most recent version of an OS, while other applications require an older version. There is a dual-boot
process for multiple operating systems on a computer. During the boot process, if the Windows Boot
Manager (BOOTMGR) determines that more than one OS is present, you are prompted to choose the OS
that you want to load, as shown in Figure 1.

To create a dual-boot system in Microsoft Windows, the hard drive must contain more than one partition.

The oldest OS should be installed on the primary partition or the hard drive marked as the active partition
first. Install the second OS on the second partition or hard drive. The boot files are automatically installed
in the active partition.

BOOTMGR File

During the installation, the BOOTMGR file is created on the active partition to allow selecting the OS to
boot on startup. You can edit the BOOTMGR file to change the order of the operating systems. You can
also change the length of time allowed during the boot phase to select the OS. Typically, the default time
is 30 seconds. This time period delays the boot time of the computer by the specified time, unless the
user intervenes to select a particular OS. If the disk has only one OS, change the time to 5 or 10 seconds
to boot up the computer faster.

NOTE: In Windows XP, the BOOT.INI file fills the role of the BOOTMGR file.

To change the time to display the operating systems, use the following path:

Select Start > Control Panel > System and Security > System > Advanced System Settings > click
the Advanced tab > In the Startup and Recovery area, select Settings

To edit general boot configuration data in Windows 7 and Vista, use the bcdedit.exe command-line tool,
as shown in Figure 2. To access the bcdedit.exe tool, use the following path:

Select Start > All Programs > Accessories > right-click Command Prompt > Run as administrator >
Continue > type bcdedit.exe

To edit the boot.ini file in Windows XP, use the following path:

Select Start > right-click My Computer > Properties > Advanced tab > in the Startup and Recovery
area, select Settings > click Edit
Disk management

A multiboot setup requires multiple hard drives or a hard drive that has multiple partitions. To create a
new partition, access the Disk Management Utility, as shown in Figure 1. You can also use the Disk
Management utility to complete the following tasks:

 View drive status

 Extend partitions

 Split partitions

 Assign drive letters

 Add drives

 Add arrays

To access the Disk Management utility in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, use the following path:

Start > right-click Computer > Manage > select Disk Management

To access the Disk Management utility in Windows XP, use the following path:
Start > right-click My Computer > Manage > select Disk Management

Drive Status

The Disk Management utility displays the status of each disk, as shown in Figure 2. The drives in the
computer display one of the following conditions:

 Foreign - A dynamic disk that has been moved to a computer from another computer running
Windows XP

 Healthy - A volume that is functioning properly

 Initializing - A basic disk that is being converted into a dynamic disk

 Missing - A dynamic disk that is corrupted, turned off, or disconnected

 Not Initialized - A disk that does not contain a valid signature

 Online - A basic or dynamic disk that is accessible and shows no problems

 Online (Errors) - I/O errors detected on a dynamic disk

 Offline - A dynamic disk that is corrupted or unavailable

 Unreadable - A basic or dynamic disk that has experienced hardware failure, corruption, or I/O
errors

Other drive status indicators might be displayed when using drives other than hard drives, such as an
audio CD that is in the optical drive or a removable drive that is empty.

Extending Partitions

In Disk Manager, you can extend primary partitions and logical drives if there is unallocated space on the
hard disk. To extend a basic disk, it must be formatted with the NTFS file format. Extending a hard disk
increases the amount of space available on a primary partition or logical drive. Logical drives and system
volumes must be extended into contiguous space, and the disk type must be converted to dynamic. Other
partitions can be extended into noncontiguous space, and the disk type must be converted to dynamic

To extend a partition in the Disk Manager, follow these steps:

Step 1. Right-click the desired partition.

Step 2. Click Extend Volume.

Step 3. Follow the instructions on the screen.

Splitting Partitions

If a hard drive is partitioned automatically in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, there is only one partition. If
you want to split the partition, you can use the Shrink Volume feature. This feature reduces the size of the
original partition, which creates unallocated disk space that is used to create a new partition. You must
format the unallocated space and assign it a drive letter.

To shrink a partition in Windows 7 and Windows Vista from the Disk Management utility, right-click the
drive and select Shrink Volume.

Assigning Drive Letters

You can change, add, and remove drive letters and paths. By default, Windows assigns a letter to a
partition or drive after it is created or added. You can change the drive designation to any letter as long as
that letter is not already in use.

To change a drive letter in Windows 7 from the Disk Management utility, right-click the drive and select
Change Drive Letter and Paths.

Adding Drives

To increase the amount of storage space available on a computer, or implement a RAID setup, you can
add drives to the computer. If the additional hard drive has been installed correctly, the BIOS should
automatically recognize it. After the drive is installed, you can check if it is recognized using the Disk
Management utility. If the disk is available, it probably requires formatting before it can be used. If it does
not appear, troubleshoot the problem.

Adding Arrays

To set up a RAID, two or more drives must be installed in a computer. You can add an array with the Disk
Management utility. You have the following options:

 New Spanned Volume - Creates a disk partition that consists of disk space from more than one
physical disk. The data on a spanned volume is not fault tolerant.

 New Striped Volume - A dynamic partition that stores data in stripes on more than one physical
disk. The data on a striped volume is not fault tolerant.

 New Mirrored Volume - Duplicates data from one disk to one or more additional physical disks.
The data on a mirrored volume is fault tolerant.
  New RAID-5 Volume - A dynamic partition that stores data in stripes on more than one physical
disk, while also providing parity for each stripe. The data on a RAID-5 volume is fault tolerant.

NOTE: The options available for adding an array are based on system limitations. Not all options may be
available.

To add an array in the Disk Management utility, right-click the desired disk and select an option.
Directory Structure

In Windows, files are organized in a directory structure. A directory structure is designed to store system
files, user files, and program files. The root level of the Windows directory structure, the partition, is
usually labeled drive C, as shown in the figure. Drive C contains a set of standardized directories, called
folders, for the operating system, applications, configuration information, and data files. Directories may
contain subdirectories. Subdirectories are commonly called subfolders.

Following the initial installation, you can install most applications and data in whichever directory you
choose. The Windows setup program creates directories that have specific purposes, such as storing
photos or music files. When files of the same type are saved to a certain location, it is easier to find
things.

NOTE: It is a best practice to store files in folders and subfolders rather than at the root level of a drive.

Drive Mapping

In Windows, letters are used to name physical or logical drives. This process is called drive mapping. A
Windows computer can have up to 26 physical and logical drives, because there are 26 letters in the
English alphabet. Drives A and B have traditionally been reserved for floppy disk drives, and drive C is
reserved for the primary, active partition. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, you can assign drives A and
B to volumes if you do not have floppy drives. An optical drive is traditionally labeled as drive D. The
maximum number of additional drives is dependent on the hardware of a specific computer.

Mounting a Volume

With the NTFS file system, you can map a drive to an empty folder on a volume. This is referred to as a
mounted drive. Mounted drives are assigned drive paths instead of letters and are displayed as a drive
icon in Windows Explorer. Windows Explorer is a tool that allows users to view all the drives, folders, and
files on a computer in an organized manner. Use a mounted drive to configure more than 26 drives on
your computer or when you need additional storage space on a volume.

To mount a volume in Windows, follow these steps:

Step 1. Select Start > Control Panel > Administrative Tools > Computer Management.

Step 2. Click Disk Management in the left pane.

Step 3. Right-click the partition or volume to mount.

Step 4. Click Change Drive Letter and Paths.

Step 5. Click Add.

Step 6. Click Mount in the following empty NTFS folder.

Step 7. Browse to an empty folder on an NTFS volume or create one, and click OK.

Step 8. Close Computer Management.

User File Location

User File Locations

By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista stores most of the files created by users in the folder
C:\Users\User_name\. Windows XP uses the folder C:\Documents and Settings\User_name\.

Each user’s folder contains folders for music, videos, websites, and pictures, among others, as shown in
Figure 1. Many programs also store specific user data here. If a single computer has many users, each
user has their own folder containing their favorites, desktop items, and cookies. Cookies are files that
contain information from web pages that the user has visited.

System Folder

When the Windows OS is installed, all files that are used to run the computer are located in the folder
C:\Windows\system32. The content of the Windows System Folder is shown in Figure 2.

Fonts

The folder C:\Windows\Fonts contains the fonts installed on the computer. Fonts come in several
formats, including TrueType, OpenType, Composite, and PostScript. Some examples of font typefaces
are Arial, Times New Roman, and Courier. You can access the Fonts folder through the Control Panel.
You can install fonts using the File > Install New Font menu.

Temporary Files
The Temporary Files folder contains files created by the OS and programs that are needed for a short
period of time. For example, temporary files might be created while an application is being installed to
make more RAM available for other applications.

Almost every program uses temporary files, which are usually automatically deleted when the application
or the OS is finished using them. However, some temporary files must be deleted manually. Because
temporary files take up hard drive space that could be used for other files, it is a good idea to delete them
as necessary every two or three months.

In Windows Vista and Windows 7, temporary files are usually located in the following folders:

 C:\Windows\Temp

 C:\Users\User_Name\AppData\Local\Temp

 %USERPROFILE%\AppData\Local\Temp

In Windows XP, temporary files are usually located in the following folders:

 C:\Temp

 C:\Tmp

 C:\Windows\Temp

 C:\Windows\Tmp

 C:\Documents and Settings\%USERPROFILE%\Local Settings\Temp

NOTE: %USERPROFILE% is an environment variable set by the OS with the username that is currently
logged on to the computer. Environment variables are used by the operating system, applications, and
software installation programs.

To see the environment variables that are configured on Windows 7, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > System > Advanced System Settings > Advanced tab > Environment
Variables

To see the environment variables that are configured on Windows Vista, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > System > Advance system settings > Advanced tab > Environmental
Variables
To see the environment variables that are configured on Windows XP, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > System > Advanced > Environment Variables

Program Files

The Program Files folder is used by most application installation programs to install software. In 32-bit
systems, programs are usually installed in the folder C:\Program Files. In 64-bit systems, 64-bit
programs are usually installed in the folder C:\Program Files, while 32-bit programs are usually installed
in the folder C:\Program Files (x86).

User File Image

System Files image

File Extension and Attribute

Files in the directory structure adhere to a Windows naming convention:

 A maximum of 255 characters is allowed.

 Characters such as a slash or a backslash (/ \) are not allowed.

 An extension of three or four letters is added to the filename to identify the file type.

 Filenames are not case sensitive.

By default, file extensions are hidden. To display the file extensions you must disable the Hide
extensions for known file types setting in the Folder Options control panel utility, as shown in the figure.

To display file extensions, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > Folder Options > View > uncheck Hide extensions for known file types

The following filename extensions are commonly used:

 .docx - Microsoft Word

 .txt - ASCII text only

 .jpg - Graphics format

 .pptx - Microsoft PowerPoint

 .zip - Compression format

The directory structure maintains a set of attributes for each file that controls how the file can be viewed
or altered. These are the most common file attributes:

 R - The file is read-only.

 A - The file will be archived the next time that the disk is backed up.

 S - The file is marked as a system file, and a warning is given if an attempt is made to delete or
modify the file.

 H - The file is hidden in the directory display.

Application file and folder property

To view or change the properties of an application, file, or folder, right-click the icon and select
Properties.

Application and File Properties

The Properties view, as shown in Figure 1, for an application or file may contain the following tabs:

 General - Displays basic information, including location and the attributes.

 Security - Provides the option to change file access permissions for user accounts and the system.

 Details - Displays basic information for the file, including attributes.

 Compatibility - Provides options for configuring file compatibility mode and operational settings. In
Windows 7, compatibility mode allows a user to run a program created for earlier versions of the
Windows OS. For Windows Vista and Windows XP, the number of options available in compatibility
mode is limited.

Folder Properties

The Properties view, as shown in Figure 2, for an individual folder may contain the following tabs:

 General - Displays basic information, such as location and size. Provides options to change
attributes, such as making a folder read-only or hidden.

 Sharing - Displays options for folder sharing. Users can share folders with computers on the same
network. Password protection settings can also be configured.

 Security - Displays options for basic and advanced security settings.

 Previous Versions - Displays options for restoring a folder from a previous version.

 Customize - Displays options for customizing the appearance of the folder and optimizing it for
specific file types, such as music or photo files.

Shadow Copy

Shadow Copy is a feature of Windows Operating Systems that automatically creates backup copies of
files and data on a hard drive. It can be found under the Previous Versions tab, and is often referred to as
the previous versions feature. Shadow Copy requires the hard disk to be formatted as NTFS and works in
conjunction with System Restore and Windows Backups. Before Shadow Copy can be used, it must be
enabled. To enable Shadow Copy, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > System Protection link > Click the checkboxes next to the desired drives >
Click OK.

After Shadow Copy has been enabled, users can view, copy, or restore previous versions of file.
Selecting the view option will open the file as read-only, while the copy option will save an older version of
the file in another folder. Restore will overwrite the file in its current state.
Install and unintall application

As a technician, you will be responsible for adding and removing software from your customers’
computers. Most applications use an automatic installation process when the application disc is inserted
in the optical drive. The installation process updates the Add or Remove Programs utility. The user is
required to click through the installation wizard and provide information when requested.

Adding an Application

In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, insert the CD or DVD or open the downloaded program file. The
program installer should start. If it does not start, run the setup or install file on the disc to begin
installation or download the program again.

After the application is installed, you can start the application from the Start Menu or the shortcut icon that
the application installs on the desktop. Check the application to ensure that it is functioning properly. If
there are problems, repair or uninstall the application using the Uninstall or Change a Program utility.
Some applications, such as Microsoft Office, provide a repair option in the install process. You can use
this function to try to correct a program that is not working properly.

NOTE: In Windows XP, if a program or application is not automatically installed when the disc is inserted,
you can use the Add or Remove Programs utility to install the application. Click the Add New Programs
button and select the location where the application is located.

Uninstalling or Changing a Program

If an application is not uninstalled properly, you might be leaving files on the hard drive and unnecessary
settings in the registry, which depletes the hard drive space and system resources. Unnecessary files
might also reduce the speed at which the registry is read. Microsoft recommends that you always use the
Programs and Features utility, as shown in the figure, when removing, changing, or repairing applications.
The utility guides you through the software removal process and removes every file that was installed.

In some instances, you can install or uninstall optional features of an application using the Programs and
Features utility. Not all programs offer this option.

To open the Programs and Features utility in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > Programs and Features

In Windows XP, use the following path:

Start > Control Panel > Add or Remove Programs