21.

Geometry of Bolted Connections:

-The number of bolts in a group results from calculation according to code rules;

-Bolts in a group are arranged in lines called “rows”

-Specified distances between bolts in a row and between rows have to be respected, otherwise the
calculation formulae given for bolts in the code are NOT valid;

-These specified maximum and minimum distances are given in a code table further on presented.

Hole spacing and code formula:

-The ultimate strength of bolted connections may be evaluated assuming some hypothesis on the
redistribution of internal forces as suggested by experimental evidence.

-Therefore the dimensional limitations on geometry of connection given in next table and figures
have to be fulfilled, in order to keep within the bounds derived from the experimental evidence!
Categories of bolted connections to EN 1993-1-8:
-Shear type connections including categories A,B and C;

-Tension type connections including categories D and E;

Category A: Shear connections of bearing type

-In this category bolts from grade 4.6 up to and including grade 10.9 should be used.

-No preloading and special provisions for contact surfaces are required.

Category B: Shear connections, slip-resistant at serviceability limit state

-In this category preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts with controlled tightening in conformity with execution
standards should be used.

-Slip should not occur at the serviceability limit state.

- The design serviceability shear load should not exceed the design slip resistance,

Category C: Shear connections, slip-resistant at ultimate limit state

-In this category preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts with controlled tightening should be used.

-Slip should not occur at the ultimate limit state.

-The design ultimate shear load should not exceed the design slip resistance obtained nor the design
bearing resistance;

Category D: Tension connections with non-preloaded bolts

In this category bolts from grade 4.6 up to (and including) grade 10.9 should be used.

No preloading is required.

This category should not be used where the connections are frequently subjected to

variations of tensile loading.

- However, they may be used in connections designed to resist normal wind loads.

Category E: Tension connections with preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts

In this category preloaded 8.8 and 10.9 bolts with controlled tightening in conformity with execution
standards should be used.
22.Design Resistance of Bolted Connections:
The strength of bolted joints can conventionally be evaluated by means of formulae that interpret
their true behaviour as shown in tests.

For this purpose, joints can be classified as those with:(a) Bolts in shear only (b) Bolts in tension only

(c) Bolts simultaneously in tension and shear.

For each type of joint, strength must be separately defined with reference to:

-1) Serviceability limit states;

- 2)Ultimate limit states;

-1)Defines possible limitations to joint deformability such as slipping with ensuing settlement due to
the hole/bolt clearance for shear bolts;

Also defines loss of pressure between thenplates leading to plate separation for tension bolts
(HSFG).

-2)Ultimate limit state:

Corresponds to joint failure: for example incase of a shear connection the following types (or modes)
of collapse exist (see next figure):

- Collapse due to bolt failure;

- Collapse due to hole failure (contact between bolt shank and plate also called

“bearing”);

- Collapse by tension failure of the joined plates

24. Slip-resistant connections using 8.8 or 10.9 bolts
 The design slip resistance of a preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolt should be taken as:

 where:


ks should be taken as given in table 3.6

n is the number of the friction surfaces

Classes of the friction surfaces :

 Class A (best surface preparation!):

- surfaces blasted with shot or grit with any loose rust removed, no pitting;

-surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and spray - metallized with aluminium;

-surfaces blasted with shot or grit and spray - metallized with zinc - based coating
certified to provide a slip factor of not less than 0.5

 Class B - surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and painted with an alkai - zinc silicate
paint to produce a coating thickness of 50 - 80;

 Class C - surface cleaned by wire brushing or flame cleaning, with any loose rust
removed;

 Class D - surface not treated;

-When a moment is applied to a joint, the distribution of internal forces may be either linear
proportional to the distance from the centre of rotation or else plastic,

-Any distribution that is in equilibrium is acceptable provided that the resistances of the components
are not exceeded and the ductility of the components are sufficient.

-The distribution of internal forces should be proportional to the distance from the centre of
rotation: - when bolts are used creating a category C slip-resistant connection,

- in other shear connections where the design shear resistance Fv,Rd of a fastener is less than the
design bearing resistance Fb,Rd ,

- where connections are subjected to impact, vibration or load reversal

25. Welded joint: A welded joint is made by fusing steel platesections along the line
of a joint.

Metal melted from each member of the joint unites in a pool of molten metal which bridges the
interface. As the pool cools, molten metal at the fusion boundary solidifies, forming a solid bond
with the parent metal.

There are two forms of weld commonly used in construction, the butt and the fillet weld.

-The butt weld is generally contained within the profile of the welded elements

-The fillet weld leaves the deposited weld metal external to the profile of the welded elements.

At the same time, the metal at the trailing edge of the pool solidifies.

In structural works the most commonly used heat source is the low-voltage (13-35 V), high-current
(50-1000 A) arc.

The problem can also be avoided by replacing the air around the weld pool with a non-reactive gas:
26.Structure and properties of weld metal:
-The solidified weld metal has a structure and properties very similar to a cast metal.

-It has a high yield to ultimate stress ratio and lower ductility compared with structural steel.

-It is desirable for the weld metal, a mixture of parent metal and electrode metal, to have greater
strength properties than the parent metals.

-It is usual to ensure the composition of the electrode is adequate to the case.

-When the weld pool is cooling and solidifying, the majority of the heat flows through the

parent metal alongside the joint.

-The steel is thus subjected to heating and cooling cycles similar to those experienced in heat-
treatment practice.

The structure of the HAZ will be dictated by:

1. The composition of the steel (carbon equivalent);

2. The cooling rate in the HAZ.

In turn, the cooling rate is determined by:

1. Arc energy (i.e. heat input to the joint);

2. Type of joint;

3. Thickness of steel;

4. Temperature of steel plate or section during welding

27.Types of welded joint:
A fillet weld is applied outside the surfaceprofile of the plates.

Thus the joint must be formed either by the overlapping of members or by the use of secondary
joining material.

Although this implies eccentricity in the flow of force there is the practical benefit that the cutting
tolerance on members may be relaxed appreciably.

The fillet weld account for about 80% of all welding in the construction industry.

The butt weld account for about 15% of all welding in the construction industry.

The remainder comprises plug, slot and spot resistance welds which are not considered here.

The advantages of fillet welds are:

- they are cheap (for small sizes);

- no preparation of edges is required

As disadvantages:

- they are not very satisfactory for fatigue;

- they have a less attractive appearance

Symbols for fillet weld on technical drawings: The symbols used to show the presence of various
types of fillet weld on technical drawings are further on presented: (single sided)
28.Butt weld: By definition, a but weld is one made within the surface profile of abutting
plates, either filling a cavity created by “edge preparation” or penetrating and fusing an unprepared
junction.

The advantages of butt weld are: - better fatigue performance - good appearance

The disadvantages of butt weld are: - expensive solution - requires edge preparation

Symbols for butt weld on technical drawings: double wee butt weld

Welding procedure covers: - choice of electrode, - edge preparation, - preheat,

- welding parameters (voltage, current andtravel speed)

- welding position,

- number of weld runs to fill the groove and

- post-weld treatments (for example grinding or heat treatment).

Weld procedures may be devised to meet various needs - for example:

- to minimize costs,- control distortion (see below),- avoid defects or

- achieve good impact properties.

29.Welding position:
Welding in the overhead position requires greater skill to avoid defects such as poor profile and
should only be allowed when absolutely necessary.

Vertical welding is slower than welding in the flat position.

Environment:

-Work on site creates constraints which must be accommodated by the weld procedure. In cold-
weather, steel may need to be heated to bring it up to 200C.

-Overnight condensation and high humidity can lead to porosity;

note the problems of keeping electrodes dry in store.

-It is often difficult to achieve accurate fitting of the joint, and variable and/or large root gaps result
in defective welds.

Technology of welds:

Currently, about forty different welding system are available to meet different constructional
requirements.
30.Manual-metal-arc (MMA) welding
It is manually operated and requires considerable skill to produce good – quality welds.

The electrode consists of a steel core wire and the covering flux contains alloying elements
(manganese and silicon).

The arc melts the parent metal and electrode.

As metal is transferred from the end of the weld pool, the welder moves the electrode to keep the
arc length constant.

This is esential, as the width of the weld run is largely governed by the arc length.

The flux melts with the core wire and flows over the surface of the pool to form a slag, which must
be removed after solidification.

Attractions: -it has low capital cost, freedom of movement

-it can be used in all position,

-it is suitable for structural and stainless steel

Drawbacks of MMA:

Its main drawback is a low duty cycle, i.e. only a small volume of metal is deposited before the
welder has to stop and insert another electrode.

This is not a problem on short welds but becomes a considerable problem on long welds, especially
when labour costs are high.

The operating characteristic of the electrode are controlled by the composition of the flux covering.

A variety of electrodes is available to suit different applications and MMA electrodes for structural
welds are specified in specific codes.
31.Metal - active (MAG) welding:
-This process sometimes referred to as “metal-inert gas” (MIG) welding, although strictly the term
MIG should be limited to the use of pure argon as a shielding gas, which is not used for steel.

-MAG is also manually operated. The arc and pool are shielded by a gas which does not react with
molten steel;

-No flux is necessary to shield the pool but sometimes a flux-cored electrode is used to produce a
slag which controls the weld.

-The arc length is controlled by the power supply unit.

-Although MAG welding is somewhat easier to use than MMA, considerably more skill is required to
set up the correct welding conditions.

-For “positional” welding i.e. vertical and overhead, the current must be kept below 180 A and
welding speeds are comparable with MMA.

-Overall times for a jointare better since there is no need to deslag or change electrode.

-In the flat position currents up to 400A (“spray transfer”) can be used to give high welding speeds.

-MAG welding is especially suitable for fillet-welded joints.

-It is not easy to use on site because of problems of equipment movement and the need to provide
screens to avoid loss of the gas shield in windy conditions.
32.Submerged-arc welding (SAW):
-This a fully mechanized process, in which the welding head is moved along the joint by a tractor or
lead-screw.

-The electrode is a bare wire which is advanced by a governed motor.

-The voltage and current are selected at the begining of weld and are maintained at the preselected
values by feedback systems which, in practice, vary in sophistication.

-The flux is in the form of granules and is placed on the surface of the joint.

-The arc operates below the surface of the flux, melting a proportion of it to form a slag. Un-fused
flux is collected and re-used for the next weld.

Submerged-arc welding operates best at currents between 400 and 1000 A.

-This means that weld pools are large and can only be controlled in the flat position, although fillets
can be deposited in the horizontal-vertical position up to 10 mm leg length in one run.

-It is also difficult to control penetration in the root run, and a backing strip is usually used for butt
welds.

-Alternatively, the root run can be made by MMA or MAG and the groove filed with SAW.

-SAW offers considerably advantages when welding long joints .

-The high welding speeds and continous operation, lead to high productivity.

An accurate joint fit-up is, however, a prime requirement.

33.Metallurgic and thermal phenomena in welding.
Consequence of metallurgic phenomena:

-There are, essentially, two metallurgical phenomena:

- solidification of the material that has melted during the various weld passes,

- heat treatment of the parent metal around the weld.

Welding is characterized by small masses of metal, rapidly melted and rapidly cooled due to heat
absorption by the surrounding metal.

-The origin of such cracks is due to the hydrogen absorbed by weld material in the molten state and
by the adjacent area of parent material brought to high temperature.

-Another dangerous phenomenon is that of hot cracking which can occur in the molten area
whenever the content of parent material is high;

Consequence of thermal phenomena: Welding processes are always accompanied by a

development of a great quantity of heat; Angular deformation:
34.Welding defects and controls:
-The worst defect which can affect a weld is the presence of cracks;

-Blow-holes are metallurgical defects due to unforeseen reactions which arise in the molten pool
because of operational imperfection;

-Slag inclusions, are defects generally caused by improper shape or sequence of weld pass.

-A further possible defect is lack of penetration due to failure of the weld metal to penetrate and fill
the root of the weld at the vertex of the grooves or at the centre;

Lack of penetration at weld vertex: Lack of penetration at weld centre:

Weld control: -The most common way of detecting internal welding defects is by X-ray examination,
using the X- rays.

Ultrasound control:

Controls can be performed also by means of a thin ray of ultrasounds produced by a probe
containing a quartz crystal, which is vibrated at its fundamental frequency by means of a variable
high frequency electric field.

Simpler control methods for weld:

-Magnetoscopic (magnaflux) examination: Consists of two wire - bearing poles which when put in
contact with the weld, create a magnetic field which, by means of magnetic powders, allows
detection of cracks near the surface.

-Examination by penetrants:

-Liquid penetrants, because of their low surface tension can penetrate even into very narrow
superficial cracks; which are practically invisible to the naked eye.

-Their presence is detected by means of a thin coat of a revealing liquid applied over the area after
the surplus penetrating liquid has been removed from the surface.
35.Design resistance of butt welds:
Full penetration and partial penetration butt weld:

-The design resistance of a full penetration butt weld should be taken as equal to the design
resistance of the weaker of the parts connected;

-Condition: the weld is made with a suitable consumable which will produce all weld tensile
specimens having both a minimum yield strength and a minimum tensile strength not less than
those specified for the parent metal.

-Partial penetration butt welds:

The resistance of a partial penetration butt weld should be determined as for a deep penetration
fillet weld, according to EN 1993-1-8 provisions
36.Design resistance of fillet welds:
-The effective length of a fillet weld should be taken as the overall length of the full-size fillet,
including end returns.

-Provided that the weld is full size throughout this length, no reduction in effective length need be
made for either the start or the termination of the weld.

If the reduction has to be made, the actual length of the weld should be reduced;

-This reduction may be assumed to be as twice the effective throat thickness (a).

-The design length of a fillet weld (l ) is the length of the weld required by calculations and given in
the drawings including end returns.

Minimum length of a fillet weld: (i.e. = 6 x a)

Maximum length of a fillet weld: long joints

-The design resistances of welds in long overlapped joints and in long transverse stiffeners should be
reduced. In lap joints the design resistance of a fillet weld should be reduced by multiplying it by a
reduction factor βLw to allow for the effects of non-uniform distribution of stress along its length.

Effective throat thickness of a fillet weld:

-The effective throat thickness (a), of a fillet weld should be taken as the height of the largest
triangle (with equal or unequal legs) which can be inscribed within the fusion faces and the weld
surface, measured perpendicular to the outer side of this triangle.

Resistance of fillet welds: - the basic method prescribed by the code;

- an alternative (simplified) method;