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Pasteurization
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such
as milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate
pathogens and extend shelf life.

The process is intended to destroy or deactivate organisms and

enzymes that contribute to spoilage or risk of disease, including
vegetative bacteria, but not bacterial spores.[1][2] Since
pasteurization is not sterilization, and does not kill spores, a
second "double" pasteurization will extend the quality by killing
spores that have germinated.

The process was named after the French microbiologist, Louis

Pasteur, whose research in the 1880s demonstrated that thermal
processing would inactivate unwanted microorganisms in
Pasteurized milk -Japan
wine.[2][3] Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during
pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy
industry and other food processing industries to achieve food
preservation and food safety.[3]

Most liquid products are heat treated in a continuous system

where heat can be applied using a plate heat exchanger or the
direct or indirect use of hot water and steam. Due to the mild
heat, there are minor changes to the nutritional quality and
sensory characteristics of the treated foods.[4] Pascalization or
high pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric field (PEF)
are non-thermal processes that are also used to pasteurize
foods.[1]

Contents
History A Chicago Department of Health
Milk poster explains to mothers about
Medical equipment natural Pasteurization

Pasteurization process
Equipment
Verification
Efficacy against pathogenic bacteria
Effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods
Milk
Sensory effects
Novel pasteurization methods
Products that are commonly pasteurized
See also
References
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Further reading
External links

History
The process of heating wine for preservation purposes has been
known in China since AD 1117,[5] and was documented in Japan
in the diary Tamonin-nikki, written by a series of monks between
1478 and 1618.

Much later, in 1768, research performed by Italian priest and

scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved a product could be made
"sterile" after thermal processing. Spallanzani boiled meat broth
for one hour, sealed the container immediately after boiling, and
noticed that the broth did not spoil and was free from
microorganisms.[2][6] In 1795, a Parisian chef and confectioner
named Nicolas Appert began experimenting with ways to
preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, Louis Pasteur's pasteurization
dairy products, jellies, jams, and syrups. He placed the food in experiment illustrates the fact that
glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax and placed the spoilage of liquid was caused by
them in boiling water.[7] In that same year, the French military particles in the air rather than the air
offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to itself. These experiments were
preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert important pieces of evidence
supporting the idea of the Germ
submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810.[8]
Theory of Disease.
Later that year, Appert published L'Art de conserver les
substances animales et végétales (or The Art of Preserving
Animal and Vegetable Substances). This was the first cookbook
of its kind on modern food preservation methods.[9][10]

La Maison Appert (English: The House of Appert), in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first
food-bottling factory in the world,[7] preserving a variety of foods in sealed bottles. Appert's method
was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and
fowl to eggs, milk and prepared dishes. He left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would
then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a vise. The bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it
while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed
appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called
appertisation in his honor.[11]

Appert's method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, British
inventor and merchant Peter Durand, also of French origin, patented his own method, but this time
in a tin can, so creating the modern-day process of canning foods. In 1812, Englishmen Bryan Donkin
and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, Appert's
method of canning had made its way to America.[12] Tin can production was not common until the
beginning of the 20th century, partly because a hammer and chisel were needed to open cans until
the invention of a can opener by Robert Yeates in 1855.[7]

A less aggressive method was developed by French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864[13] summer
holiday in Arbois. To remedy the frequent acidity of the local aged wines, he found out experimentally
that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) for a short time to kill
the microbes, and that the wine could subsequently be aged without sacrificing the final quality.[13] In
honour of Pasteur, this process is known as "pasteurization".[2][14] Pasteurization was originally used

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as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring,[15] and it would be many years before milk was
pasteurized. In the United States in the 1870s, before milk was regulated, it was common for milk to
contain substances intended to mask spoilage.[16]

Milk

Milk is an excellent medium for microbial growth,[17] and when it

is stored at ambient temperature bacteria and other pathogens
soon proliferate.[18] The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
says improperly handled raw milk is responsible for nearly three
times more hospitalizations than any other food-borne disease
source, making it one of the world's most dangerous food
products.[19][20] Diseases prevented by pasteurization can
include tuberculosis, brucellosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and Q-
fever; it also kills the harmful bacteria Salmonella, Listeria,
180 kilograms (400 lb) of milk in a
Yersinia, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus aureus, and cheese vat
Escherichia coli O157:H7,[21][22] among others.

Prior to industrialization, dairy cows were kept in urban areas to

limit the time between milk production and consumption, hence the risk of disease transmission via
raw milk was reduced.[23] As urban densities increased and supply chains lengthened to the distance
from country to city, raw milk (often days old) became recognized as a source of disease. For
example, between 1912 and 1937, some 65,000 people died of tuberculosis contracted from
consuming milk in England and Wales alone.[24] Because tuberculosis has a long incubation period in
humans, it was difficult to link unpasteurized milk consumption with the disease.[25] In 1892,
chemist Ernst Lederle experimentally inoculated milk from tuberculosis-diseased cows into guinea
pigs, which caused them to develop the disease.[26] In 1910, Lederle, then in the role of Commissioner
of Health, introduced mandatory pasteurization of milk in New York City.[26]

Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a
result milk is now considered a safer food.[27] A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and
straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of butter was practiced in Great Britain in the
18th century and was introduced to Boston in the British Colonies by 1773,[28] although it was not
widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by
Franz von Soxhlet in 1886.[29] In the early 20th century, Milton Joseph Rosenau established the
standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at 60 °C (140 °F) for 20 minutes – for the
pasteurization of milk[30][31] while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his
publication of The Milk Question (1912).[32] States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy
pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required
pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce.[33]

The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of raw milk. For example, high-
temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurized milk typically has a refrigerated shelf life of two to three
weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When
ultra-heat treatment (UHT) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as
aseptic packaging), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months.[34]

According to the Centers for Disease Control, between 1998 and 2011, 79% of dairy-related disease
outbreaks were due to raw milk or cheese products.[35] They report 148 outbreaks and 2,384 illnesses
(with 284 requiring hospitalization), as well as two deaths due to raw milk or cheese products during
the same time period.[35]

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Medical equipment

Medical equipment, notably respiratory and anesthesia equipment, is often disinfected using hot
water, as an alternative to chemical disinfection. The temperature is raised to 70°C (158°F) for 30
minutes.[36]

Pasteurization process
Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment of liquid foods (both
packaged and unpackaged) where products are typically heated
to below 100 °C. The heat treatment and cooling process are
designed to inhibit a phase change of the product. The acidity of
the food determines the parameters (time and temperature) of
the heat treatment as well as the duration of shelf life.
Parameters also take into account nutritional and sensory
qualities that are sensitive to heat.

In acidic foods (pH <4.6), such as fruit juice and beer, the heat General overview of the
treatments are designed to inactivate enzymes (pectin pasteurization process. The milk
methylesterase and polygalacturonase in fruit juices) and destroy starts at the left and enters the
spoilage microbes (yeast and lactobacillus). Due to the low pH of piping with functioning enzymes
acidic foods, pathogens are unable to grow. The shelf-life is that, when heat-treated, become
thereby extended several weeks. In less acidic foods (pH >4.6), denatured and stop the enzymes
such as milk and liquid eggs, the heat treatments are designed to from functioning. This helps to stop
destroy pathogens and spoilage organisms (yeast and molds). pathogen growth by stopping the
Not all spoilage organisms are destroyed under pasteurization functionality of the cell. The cooling
process helps stop the milk from
parameters, thus subsequent refrigeration is necessary.[1]
undergoing the Maillard reaction
and caramelization. The
pasteurization process also has the
Equipment
ability to heat the cells to the point
that they burst from pressure build-
Food can be pasteurized in two ways: either before or after being
up.
packaged into containers. When food is packaged in glass, hot
water is used to lower the risk of thermal shock. Plastics and
metals are also used to package foods, and these are generally
pasteurized with steam or hot water since the risk of thermal shock is low.[1]

Most liquid foods are pasteurized using continuous systems that have a heating zone, hold tube, and
cooling zone, after which the product is filled into the package. Plate heat exchangers are used for
low-viscosity products such as animal milks, nut milks and juices. A plate heat exchanger is
composed of many thin vertical stainless steel plates which separate the liquid from the heating or
cooling medium. Scraped surface heat exchangers contain an inner rotating shaft in the tube, and
serve to scrape highly viscous material which might accumulate on the wall of the tube.[37]

Shell or tube heat exchangers are designed for the pasteurization of Non-Newtonian foods such as
dairy products, tomato ketchup and baby foods. A tube heat exchanger is made up of concentric
stainless steel tubes. Food passes through the inner tube while the heating/cooling medium is
circulated through the outer or inner tube.

The benefits of using a heat exchanger to pasteurize non-packaged foods versus pasteurizing foods in
containers are:

Heat exchangers provide uniform treatment, and there is greater flexibility with regards to the
products which can be pasteurized on these plates

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The process is more energy-efficient compared to pasteurizing foods in packaged containers[1]

Greater throughput

After being heated in a heat exchanger, the product flows through a hold tube for a set period of time
to achieve the required treatment. If pasteurization temperature or time is not achieved, a flow
diversion valve is utilized to divert under-processed product back to the raw product tank.[38] If the
product is adequately processed, it is cooled in a heat exchanger, then filled.

High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, such as that used for milk (71.5 °C (160.7 °F) for
15 seconds) ensures safety of milk and provides a refrigerated shelf life of approximately two weeks.
In ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization, milk is pasteurized at 135 °C (275 °F) for 1–2
seconds, which provides the same level of safety, but along with the packaging, extends shelf life to
three months under refrigeration.[39]

Verification

Direct microbiological techniques are the ultimate measurement of pathogen contamination, but
these are costly and time-consuming, which means that products have a reduced shelf-life by the time
pasteurization is verified.

As a result of the unsuitability of microbiological techniques, milk pasteurization efficacy is typically

monitored by checking for the presence of alkaline phosphatase, which is denatured by
pasteurization. Destruction of alkaline phosphatase ensures the destruction of common milk
pathogens. Therefore, the presence of alkaline phosphatase is an ideal indicator of pasteurization
efficacy.[40][41] For liquid eggs, the effectiveness of the heat treatment is measured by the residual
activity of α-amylase.[1]

Efficacy against pathogenic bacteria

During the early 20th century, there was no robust knowledge of what time and temperature
combinations would inactivate pathogenic bacteria in milk, and so a number of different
pasteurization standards were in use. By 1943, both HTST pasteurization conditions of 72 °C (162 °F)
for 15 seconds, as well as batch pasteurization conditions of 63 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes, were
confirmed by studies of the complete thermal death (as best as could be measured at that time) for a
range of pathogenic bacteria in milk.[42] Complete inactivation of Coxiella burnetii (which was
thought at the time to cause Q fever by oral ingestion of infected milk)[43][44] as well as of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (which causes tuberculosis)[45] were later demonstrated. For all
practical purposes, these conditions were adequate for destroying almost all yeasts, molds, and
common spoilage bacteria and also for ensuring adequate destruction of common pathogenic, heat-
resistant organisms. However, the microbiological techniques used until the 1960s did not allow for
the actual reduction of bacteria to be enumerated. Demonstration of the extent of inactivation of
pathogenic bacteria by milk pasteurization came from a study of surviving bacteria in milk that was
heat-treated after being deliberately spiked with high levels of the most heat-resistant strains of the
most significant milk-borne pathogens.[46]

The mean log10 reductions and temperatures of inactivation of the major milk-borne pathogens
during a 15-second treatment are:

Staphylococcus aureus > 6.7 at 66.5 °C (151.7 °F)

Yersinia enterocolitica > 6.8 at 62.5 °C (144.5 °F)
pathogenic Escherichia coli > 6.8 at 65 °C (149 °F)
Cronobacter sakazakii > 6.7 at 67.5 °C (153.5 °F)

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Listeria monocytogenes > 6.9 at 65.5 °C (149.9 °F)

Salmonella ser. Typhimurium > 6.9 at 61.5 °C (142.7 °F)[46]

(A log10 reduction between 6 and 7 means that 1 bacterium out of 1 million (106) to 10 million (107)
bacteria survive the treatment.)

The Codex Alimentarius Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk notes that milk pasteurization is
designed to achieve at least a 5 log10 reduction of Coxiella burnetii.[47] The Code also notes that: “The
minimum pasteurization conditions are those having bactericidal effects equivalent to heating every
particle of the milk to 72°C for 15 seconds (continuous flow pasteurization) or 63°C for 30 minutes
(batch pasteurization)” and that “To ensure that each particle is sufficiently heated, the milk flow in
heat exchangers should be turbulent, i.e. the Reynolds number should be sufficiently high.” The point
about turbulent flow is important because simplistic laboratory studies of heat inactivation that use
test tubes, without flow, will have less bacterial inactivation than larger-scale experiments that seek
to replicate conditions of commercial pasteurization.[48]

As a precaution, modern HTST pasteurization processes must be designed with flow-rate restriction
as well as divert valves which ensure that the milk is heated evenly and that no part of the milk is
subject to a shorter time or a lower temperature. It is common for the temperatures to exceed 72 °C
by 1.5 °C or 2 °C.[48]

Effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods

Because of its mild heat treatment, pasteurization increases the shelf-life by a few days or weeks.[1]
However, this mild heat also means there are only minor changes to heat-labile vitamins in the
foods.[4]

Milk

According to a systematic review and meta-analysis,[49] it was found that pasteurization appeared to
reduce concentrations of vitamins B12 and E, but it also increased concentrations of vitamin A. Apart
from meta-analysis, it is not possible to draw conclusions about the effect of pasteurization on
vitamins A, B12, and E based merely on consultation of the vast literature available.[49] Milk is not an
important source of vitamins B12 or E in the North American diet, so the effects of pasteurization on
the adult daily intake of these vitamins is negligible.[50][51] However, milk is considered an important
source of vitamin A,[52] and because pasteurization appears to increase vitamin A concentrations in
milk, the effect of milk heat treatment on this vitamin is a not a major public health concern.[49]
Results of meta-analyses reveal that pasteurization of milk leads to a significant decrease in vitamin C
and folate, but milk is also not an important source of these vitamins.[52][51] A significant decrease in
vitamin B2 concentrations was found after pasteurization. Vitamin B2 is typically found in bovine
milk at concentrations of 1.83 mg/liter. Because the recommended daily intake for adults is
1.1 mg/day,[53] milk consumption greatly contributes to the recommended daily intake of this
vitamin. With the exception of B2, pasteurization does not appear to be a concern in diminishing the
nutritive value of milk because milk is often not a primary source of these studied vitamins in the
North American diet.

Sensory effects

Pasteurization also has a small but measurable effect on the sensory attributes of the foods that are
processed.[1] In fruit juices, pasteurization may result in loss of volatile aroma compounds.[4] Fruit
juice products undergo a deaeration process prior to pasteurization that may be responsible for this

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loss. Deaeration also minimizes the loss of nutrients like vitamin C and carotene.[1] To prevent the
decrease in quality resulting from the loss in volatile compounds, volatile recovery, though costly, can
be utilized to produce higher-quality juice products.[4]

In regards to color, the pasteurization process does not have much effect on pigments such as
chlorophylls, anthocyanins and carotenoids in plants and animal tissues. In fruit juices, polyphenol
oxidase (PPO) is the main enzyme responsible for causing browning and color changes. However, this
enzyme is deactivated in the deaeration step prior to pasteurization with the removal of oxygen.[4]

In milk, the color difference between pasteurized and raw milk is related to the homogenization step
that takes place prior to pasteurization. Before pasteurization milk is homogenized to emulsify its fat
and water-soluble components, which results in the pasteurized milk having a whiter appearance
compared to raw milk.[1] For vegetable products, color degradation is dependent on the temperature
conditions and the duration of heating.[54]

Pasteurization may result in some textural loss as a result of enzymatic and non-enzymatic
transformations in the structure of pectin if the processing temperatures are too high as a result.
However, with mild heat treatment pasteurization, tissue softening in the vegetables that causes
textural loss is not of concern as long as the temperature does not get above 80 °C (176 °F).[54]

Novel pasteurization methods

Other thermal and non-thermal processes have been developed to pasteurize foods as a way of
reducing the effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods and preventing degradation of
heat-labile nutrients. Pascalization or high pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric field (PEF)
are examples of these non-thermal pasteurization methods that are currently commercially
utilized.[1]

Microwave volumetric heating (MVH) is the newest available pasteurization technology. It uses
microwaves to heat liquids, suspensions, or semi-solids in a continuous flow. Because MVH delivers
energy evenly and deeply into the whole body of a flowing product, it allows for gentler and shorter
heating, so that almost all heat-sensitive substances in the milk are preserved.[55]

Low Temperature, Short Time (LTST) is a patented method that implies spraying droplets in a
chamber heated below the usual pasteurization temperatures. It takes several thousandth of a second
to treat liquid products, so the method is also known as the millisecond technology (MST). It
significantly extends the shelf life of products (50+ days) when combined with HTST[56] without
damaging the nutrients or flavor. LTST has been commercial since 2019.[57]

Products that are commonly pasteurized

Beer Low alcoholic beverages
Canned food Syrups
Dairy products Vinegar
Eggs Water
Milk Wines
Juices Nuts

See also
Food irradiation Pascalization
Flash pasteurization Homogenization

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Pasteurized eggs Food storage

Solar water disinfection Food microbiology
Thermoduric bacteria Sterilization
Food preservation Thermization

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Further reading
Raw milk expert testimony dated: April 25, 2008 Case: Organic Dairy Company, LLC, and
Claravale Farm, Inc., Plaintiffs, vs. No. CU-07-00204 State of California and A.G. Kawamura,
Secretary of California Department of Food and Agriculture, – Expert Witnesses: Dr. Theodore

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7/28/2020 Pasteurization - Wikipedia

Beals & Dr. Ronald Hull (https://web.archive.org/web/20120503232553/http://realmilk.com/docum

ents/expert-testimony-0508.pdf)
An alternate view on the alleged safety of pasteurized vs. natural milk from Johns Hopkins
University: Realmilk.com, Webmaster (12 August 2015). "The Johns Hopkins Raw Milk Study – A
Campaign for Real Milk" (http://www.realmilk.com/safety/the-johns-hopkins-raw-milk-study/). A
Campaign for Real Milk.

External links
Online forum on modern day pasteurization equipment (http://www.pasteurizers.info/)
Unraveling the mysteries of extended shelf life (https://web.archive.org/web/20141227032153/htt
p://www.innovatewithdairy.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/Unraveling%20the%20Mysteries%20o
f%20Shelf%20Lifepdf.pdf)
Hatch, Sybil E (1 January 2006). Changing our world: true stories of women engineers (https://arc
hive.org/details/changingourworld00hatc). Reston, Va.: American Society of Civil Engineers.
ISBN 978-0-7844-0841-4. OCLC 62330858 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62330858).

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