Predatory Pricing After Linkline and Wanadoo: Adrian Emch and Gregory K. Leonard Sidley Austin & Nera
Predatory Pricing After Linkline and Wanadoo: Adrian Emch and Gregory K. Leonard Sidley Austin & Nera
Predatory Pricing after linkLine and Wanadoo
Adrian Emch and Gregory K. Leonard
Sidley Austin & NERA
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Predatory Pricing after linkLine and Wanadoo
Adrian Emch and Gregory K. Leonard°
∗
I. INTRODUCTION
n April 2, 2009, the European Court of Justice (“ECJ”) issued its decision in the
Wanadoo case.1 This judgment is just the last of a series of developments in the
field of predatory pricing on both sides of the Atlantic.
In the United States, beginning with the Matsushita decision in 1986, the Supreme
Court has required plaintiffs in predatory pricing cases to meet stringent conditions to
prevail on their claims.2 As a result, in the United States, predatory pricing cases have
become “rarely tried and even more rarely successful,” to paraphrase Matsushita. The
Supreme Court’s point of view appears to have been motivated by a concern with the
chilling effects on price competition that “false positives” in predatory pricing cases
would have, combined with a strong skepticism, from both a theoretical and practical
point of view, about whether predatory pricing is a rational business strategy. More
recently, in September 2008, the U.S. Department of Justice (“DOJ”) published a report
on single‐firm conduct under Section 2 of the Sherman Act (“Monopolization Report”)
which dedicates a chapter to price predation.3 In the report, the DOJ takes a skeptical
view regarding the rationality and frequency of predatory pricing, much in line with the
U.S. Supreme Court’s view.
The European Union (“EU”) has generally followed a different path with regard
to predatory pricing. The traditional EU case law on predatory pricing, based on the
AKZO case, has set a substantially lower bar to prevail on a predatory pricing claim than
has the U.S. Supreme Court. For example, under EU case law, a price could be found to
be predatory, even if it were above average variable cost (“AVC”), where the defendant
had a “plan to eliminate a competitor.”4 This stood in contrast to the United States,
where generally a price above AVC is lawful without condition. In the recent decision in
Wanadoo, the ECJ largely opted to continue along the lines of the previous case law.
This raises the question: When it comes to predatory pricing, is the EU from
Venus, and the United States from Mars? The answer is not as simple as it may seem.
∗
Associate, Sidley Austin LLP, Beijing. The views expressed in this article are exclusively those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect those of Sidley Austin LLP, its partners and clients, or those of NERA Economic Consulting.
°
NERA Economic Consulting.
1 Case C‐202/07 P France Télécom v Commission [2009] not yet reported [“Wanadoo, ECJ”].
2 Matsushita v. Zenith Ratio, 475 U.S. 574, 582 (1986).
3 U.S. Department of Justice, Competition and Monopoly: Single‐Firm Conduct Under Section 2 of the Sherman Act (2008)
[“Monopolization Report”], available at http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/reports/236681.pdf (last visited on January 7,
2009), at 59‐75. 2
4 Case C‐62/86 AKZO Chemie v. Commission [1991] ECR I‐3359, paragraphs 71‐72.
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Despite the DOJ’s Monopolization Report, some degree of convergence is taking place at
the level of the enforcement agencies. However, whether convergence at the agency
level has any effect remains to be seen, given the divergence that exists at the level of the
courts.
In Section 2 below, we will first examine the Wanadoo case in more detail. Section
3 will show that the Wanadoo judgment is just one of a series of important developments
on predatory pricing. Our goal in Section 4 is to analyze whether general inferences can
be drawn from these developments.
II. THE WANADOO CASE
A. Background
Wanadoo, a subsidiary of the telephone incumbent France Télécom, is a provider
of high‐speed Internet access. During 2001 and 2002, Wanadoo charged low prices for
the provision of asymmetric digital subscriber line (“ADSL”) services to residential
customers in France. Wanadoo’s market share first increased from 50 percent to 72
percent in August 2002, but then dropped to 63.6 percent in October 2002. The share of
its closest competitor was about 8 percent. During the period at issue, one rival exited
the market, while some competitors increased their market shares.
In September 2001, the European Commission (“Commission”) launched an
investigation into Wanadoo’s practices. In its decision of July 16, 2003, the Commission
found that Wanadoo charged prices that did not cover variable costs (from March to
August 2001) and full costs (from August 2001 to October 2002), and followed a plan to
“pre‐empt” competition in the high‐speed Internet access market.5 In the Commission’s
view, customer acquisition costs (such as advertising, marketing activities, or special
offers) needed to be considered as variable costs. Although not directly related to each
sales unit, the Commission found there to be a sufficient correlation between these costs
and the sales generated. Recognizing that it was reasonable for Wanadoo not to aim for
instant profit, the Commission spread the costs of acquiring customers over a period of
48 months.
Finding that Wanadoo’s prices were below costs (even after adjustment), the
Commission held Wanadoo’s conduct to be an abuse of its dominant position, and
imposed a fine.
Wanadoo challenged the Commission decision before the Court of First Instance
(“CFI”). In its judgment of January 30, 2007, the CFI upheld the Commission decision in
its entirety.6 The court found that the Commission was right to spread the costs of
5 Case COMP/38.233 – Wanadoo Interactive [2003], available at
http://ec.europa.eu/competition/antitrust/cases/decisions/38233/en.pdf (last visited on April 21, 2009) [“Wanadoo,
Commission”]. 3
6 Case T‐339/04 France Télécom v Commission [2007] ECR II‐521 [“Wanadoo, CFI”].
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acquiring clients over 48 months, and rejected Wanadoo’s argument that a different
method (based on discounted cash flows) should have been used. The CFI also
dismissed Wanadoo’s claim that its low prices were only meant to “meet the
competition.”
Moreover, the CFI examined the applicant’s claim that the Commission had
failed to prove that competitors would be excluded and recoupment would have been
possible. The court held that according to the AKZO‐test the Commission must prove a
plan to eliminate “on the basis of sound and convincing evidence” if prices are below
average total cost but above AVC. The CFI found that the Commission’s evidence was
sufficient, as the case file contained many internal Wanadoo documents that showed the
company’s intention was to “pre‐empt” the market. The CFI dryly noted that proof of
recoupment was not a pre‐condition for a finding of predatory pricing. Finally, the CFI
also dismissed Wanadoo’s arguments that economies of scale and learning effects in a
new, dynamic market could justify its pricing below cost.
B. The ECJ Judgment
The ECJ rejected Wanadoo’s appeal brought against the CFI judgment. Many of
the appellant’s arguments were rejected as inadmissible on procedural grounds. The
only issue where the ECJ replied from a substantive viewpoint concerned the
recoupment criterion.
The ECJ first made reference to the “classic” judgments on Article 82 EC. By
repeating the mantra that the existence of a dominant position means that “competition
is already weakened” and that this is different from “normal competition,” the court
once more showed its skepticism towards dominant companies. In the ECJ’s view, this
situation of “weakened competition” gives the dominant company “a special
responsibility not to allow its behaviour to impair genuine undistorted competition.”7
Then, the ECJ turned to predatory pricing. Its verdict was clear:
“[D]emonstrating that it is possible to recoup losses is not a necessary precondition for a
finding of predatory pricing.”8 The reasons for this assertion are less clear‐cut. First, the
ECJ held that the proof of recoupment is “dispensed” where prices are below AVC, the
lower of the AKZO‐test’s two‐pronged thresholds for predatory pricing. Then, the court
stated as follows:
“the lack of any possibility of recoupment of losses is not sufficient to prevent the
undertaking concerned from reinforcing its dominant position, in particular,
following the withdrawal from the market of one or a number of its competitors,
so that the degree of competition existing on the market, already weakened
precisely because of the presence of the undertaking concerned, is further
7 Wanadoo, ECJ, supra note 1, paragraph 105. 4
8 Id., paragraph 113.
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reduced and customers suffer loss as a result of the limitation of the choices
available to them.”9
The ECJ held that Wanadoo’s pricing strategy would lead to the elimination of
rivals “with a view, subsequently, to profiting from the reduction of the degree of
competition still existing in the market.”10 But the court was silent as to how this
“profiting” would materialize from the predator’s perspective.
The ECJ still tried to see the positive side of a recoupment analysis. It found that
the Commission, for its part, can of course assess the existence of a recoupment
possibility to strengthen its case. And the ECJ gave some interesting examples of how
this could be done. First, it found that the possibility to recoup may help assist the
Commission in rejecting attempts to justify below‐cost prices put forward by
defendants. Second, the showing of a recoupment possibility can help prove that the
dominant company had a “plan to eliminate” rivals.
III. RECENT PREDATORY PRICING DEVELOPMENTS
The ECJ’s Wanadoo decision is not the only recent development in the field of
predatory pricing. Just a few weeks before the ECJ decision, the U.S. Supreme Court
examined predatory pricing claims in the linkLine case.11 Prior to that, the antitrust
agencies in the United States and the EU issued guidance on their respective
enforcement policies with regard to single‐firm conduct, including on predatory
pricing.12
A. The linkLine Judgment
The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in linkLine was issued on February 25, 2009.
That case pitted a number of companies of the AT&T group (“AT&T”) against four
independent Internet service providers (“ISPs”).
AT&T owns a large part of the telephone infrastructure in California, and
controls the “last mile” connecting private and personal premises to the telephone
9 Id., paragraph 112.
10 Id., paragraph 107.
11 Pacific Bell Telephone v. linkLine Communications, 555 U.S. __ (2009).
12 In January 2009, the Competition Bureau of Canada published the Updated Enforcement Guidelines on the Abuse
of Dominance Provisions of the Canadian Competition Act in draft form, for public consultation. See Competition Bureau
Canada, Draft Updated Enforcement Guidelines – The Abuse of Dominance Provisions (Sections 78 and 79 of the Competition Act),
available at http://www.cb‐bc.gc.ca/eic/site/cb‐bc.nsf/vwapj/Draft‐Abuse‐of‐Dominance‐Guidelines‐eng‐
16012009.pdf/$FILE/Draft‐Abuse‐of‐Dominance‐Guidelines‐eng‐16012009.pdf (last visited on April 11, 2009). Similar to
their U.S. and EU equivalents, these guidelines provide a comprehensive overview of the Canadian competition agency’s
enforcement policy for single‐firm conduct. However, the Competition Bureau does not disclose too much information
on the specifics of its approach towards predatory pricing. This is mainly because the agency had adopted more precise
guidance on predatory pricing in a separate document –the Predatory Pricing Enforcement Guidelines– in July 2008. See
Competition Bureau Canada, Enforcement Guidelines – Predatory Pricing, available at
http://www.competitionbureau.gc.ca/eic/site/cb‐bc.nsf/vwapj/Predatory_Pricing_Guidelines‐ 5
e.pdf/$file/Predatory_Pricing_Guidelines‐e.pdf (last visited on April 11, 2009).
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network. The four ISPs compete with AT&T in the provision of retail digital subscriber
line (“DSL”) services. However, as they do not own all the facilities needed to provide
this service, the ISPs lease DSL transport services from AT&T.
In their complaint to the District Court, the ISPs alleged that AT&T refused to
deal with them, denied them access to essential facilities, and engaged in a “price
squeeze.” The District Court held that AT&T had no antitrust duty to deal with the
plaintiffs, but denied AT&T’s motion to dismiss with respect to the price squeeze claims.
The Court of Appeals upheld the District Court’s denial of the motion to dismiss these
claims.
The Supreme Court did not agree. Although there were considerable doubts as
to whether the case was moot—as the plaintiffs’ claim seemed to have been abandoned
or changed unrecognizably—the Supreme Court reversed the Court of Appeals’
decision. The Supreme Court essentially held that price squeeze claims should be
assessed under two existing categories –refusal to deal and predatory pricing– rather
than under a separate theory of antitrust harm. Clearly, the Supreme Court found that
the plaintiffs’ claims could not succeed under the refusal to deal arguments. As the court
explained, if a firm has no antitrust duty to deal with its competitors, it has no duty to
deal under commercially advantageous terms and conditions either.
The Supreme Court then turned to the predatory pricing part of the plaintiffs’
claim. In that regard, the court essentially repeated its findings in the Brooke Group case:
The alleged predator’s prices must be below an appropriate measure of its rival’s costs,
and there must be a dangerous probability that it can recoup its “investment” in below‐
cost prices.13 In addition, the court continued with straight‐forward language: “[T]he
Sherman Act does not prohibit—indeed, it encourages—aggressive price competition at
the retail level, as long as the prices being charged are not predatory.”14
At the end of the judgment, the Supreme Court made another interesting remark:
“[I]f AT&T can bankrupt the plaintiffs by refusing to deal altogether, the
plaintiffs must demonstrate why the law prevents AT&T from putting them out
of business by pricing them out of the market.”15
B. The Commission’s Article 82 Guidance
A few months earlier, in December 2008, the Commission issued its formal
guidance document on enforcement priorities under Article 82 EC (“Article 82
Guidance” or “Guidance”).16 The Article 82 Guidance provides new thinking on the
13 See Brooke Group v. Brown & Williams Tobacco, 509 U.S. 209, 222‐224 (1993).
14 linkLine, supra note 11, at 14‐15 (emphasis in original).
15 Id., at 16‐17.
16 Guidance on the Commissionʹs Enforcement Priorities in Applying Article 82 EC Treaty to Abusive Exclusionary
Conduct by Dominant Undertakings [“Article 82 Guidance”], available at 6
http://ec.europa.eu/competition/antitrust/art82/guidance_en.pdf (last visited on February 17, 2009).
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Commission’s approach to Article 82 EC cases. In particular, the Commission now
officially espouses an economic approach, and adheres to the “equally efficient
competitor” test.
For predatory pricing cases, the Commission also proposes a new test. According
to the Guidance, the Commission will generally intervene where
“a dominant undertaking engages in predatory conduct by deliberately incurring
losses or foregoing profits in the short term, so as to foreclose or be likely to
foreclose one or more of its actual or potential competitors with a view to
strengthening or maintaining its market power, thereby causing consumer
harm.”17
In this new framework, the Commission essentially proposes to follow a
“sacrifice” test. Prices below average avoidable cost (“AAC”) will in most cases be
viewed as a clear indication of sacrifice.18 But in the Commission’s view the concept of
sacrifice also includes conduct that leads in the short term to net revenues lower than
could have been expected from a reasonable alternative conduct.
According to the Guidance, normally only pricing below long‐run average
incremental costs (“LRAIC”) is capable of excluding equally efficient competitors from
the market. Thus, the Commission proposes to use AAC and LRAIC as relevant
benchmarks, but does not clearly indicate how these two benchmarks relate to each
other or when they are used.
The Guidance also contains a sub‐section on “anticompetitive foreclosure” of
predatory pricing. Although it does not frame the discussion in these terms, the
Commission looks at various forms of recoupment of the investment in predation made
by the predator. The Commission mentions the possibilities of increasing prices after the
rival’s exit, deterring market entry, and “disciplining” rivals (which may refrain from
competing vigorously and instead follow the predator’s price leadership). In addition,
the Commission recognizes the possibility for the dominant company to acquire a
reputation for predatory conduct (which would in turn deter entry or discipline rivals’
conduct in other markets or later in time).
However, in spite of the relative detail of these recoupment possibilities, the
Commission uses a broad formula for the requirement to show consumer harm. It
suffices that the predator “is likely to be in a position to benefit from the sacrifice,” and
proof of overall profits is not required.19 This seems to imply that the Commission is
ultimately not under an obligation to prove concrete possibilities of recoupment.
Id., paragraph 63 (references and footnotes omitted).
17
This applies both for all or part of the alleged predator’s output –i.e., its sales in the entire market or only the
18
incremental sales. 7
19 Article 82 Guidance, supra note 16, paragraph 70.
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C. The DOJ’s Monopolization Report
Two months earlier, in September 2008, the DOJ issued the Monopolization
Report. While acknowledging that certain market characteristics may contribute to
potentially successful predatory pricing—for example where information is imperfect or
the predator engages in “reputation‐effect” predation—the Monopolization Report
generally takes a skeptical view as to the rationality and frequency of predatory pricing.
The report sets out the DOJ’s understanding of a sound approach to predatory
pricing. First, above‐cost pricing should be per se legal. Second, in its attempt to find a
sound and workable measure of incremental cost that can be used as a benchmark, the
DOJ opts for AAC.20 Third, the report maintains that recoupment is a constitutive
criterion for predatory pricing, as a valuable screen to identify implausible claims.
Importantly, the DOJ also states that it may consider both “in‐market and out‐of‐the‐
market effects” when assessing recoupment, opening the door to actions claiming that
recoupment takes the form of the acquisition of a reputation as a predator. Finally, the
DOJ expresses its willingness to consider possible defenses to below‐cost pricing if pro‐
competitive effects are shown in a persuasive way. While rejecting the “meeting the
competition defense,” the DOJ recognizes the pro‐competitive impact of certain kinds of
conduct such as promotional pricing, network effects, and learning‐by‐doing.
On the day of publication of the Monopolization Report, several commissioners
at the Federal Trade Commission (“FTC”) criticized it.21 With respect to predatory
pricing, the commissioners took issue with the DOJ’s proposals to use AAC as the
relevant benchmark and to allow an efficiency defense even in a setting where there is
existing monopoly power.
IV. TRANSATLANTIC TRENDS TO BE DISCERNED
As discussed, the Wanadoo case is just the last in a series of developments in the
field of predatory pricing in the United States and the EU. In our view, it may be
possible to discern two broad trends on an international level.
Importantly, while our analysis focuses on predatory pricing, we believe that it
may be possible to apply the findings to single‐firm conduct policy more generally.
Indeed, to our minds, recoupment is a good proxy for consumer harm. We believe that,
to the extent that a given enforcement policy requires a showing of recoupment, such
policy takes an effects‐based approach.
20 The report also examines the question of whether opportunity costs should be taken into account, but rejects that
possibility in the end.
21For the statement of commissioners Harbour, Leibowitz and Rosch, see
http://www.ftc.gov/os/2008/09/080908section2stmt.pdf (last visited on April 2, 2009). See, also, statement by former FTC
chairman William E. Kovacic, available at http://www.ftc.gov/os/2008/09/080908section2stmtkovacic.pdf (last visited on
April 2, 2009).
8
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A. Convergence at the Level of the Enforcement Agencies?
At the outset, we asked whether the EU was from Venus and the United States
from Mars, given the generally stringent conditions required to show predatory pricing
in the United States as compared to the EU. We believe that the recent events indicate
that some degree of convergence has occurred between the enforcement agencies in the
two jurisdictions.22
In particular, the Commission seems to have raised the bar for predatory pricing
claims, while evincing a stronger skepticism toward such claims and recognizing the
dangers of chilling competition through “false positives.”23 As described above, the
Commission’s Article 82 Guidance lays out an approach that is more effects‐based than
that established in the EU case law, including Wanadoo. Specifically, the Commission
now appears to accept that the showing of a practice’s foreclosure effects and consumer
harm is necessary, with certain limits. For example, Commissioner Kroes stated:
“Competition on the merits by firms which are dominant should not be
discouraged or undermined, even if it may hurt competitors. An effective
competitive process may well mean that competitors who deliver less to
consumers in terms of price, choice, quality and innovation will leave the market.
So be it.”24
In the Article 82 Guidance, the Commission proposes to rely on qualitative and,
where possible and appropriate, quantitative evidence to identify likely consumer harm.
This approach in principle represents progress over the Commission’s past practice.25
In the United States, on the other hand, the DOJ under the new Obama
administration is widely predicted to be substantially more active and aggressive in
pursuing what it views to be anticompetitive conduct than it was under the Bush
administration. Indeed, the current DOJ effectively renounced the Monopolization
22 Under the Bush Administration, FTC commissioners stated that they will “look around the world for additional
perspectives on dominant firm conduct…” See statement of commissioners Harbour, Leibowitz and Rosch, supra note 21,
at 11. Similarly, the DOJ’s Assistant Attorney General in the Obama Administration said that the DOJ would continue its
“efforts to work with [] international colleagues” in the area of single firm conduct. See Christine A. Varney, Vigorous
Antitrust Enforcement in this Challenging Era, Speech at the United States Chamber of Commerce on May 12, 2009, available
at http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/speeches/245777.htm (last visited on May 19, 2009).
23 To be sure, the convergence is far from complete. For example, in the Commission’s view, it is sufficient that the
contested conduct is likely to lead to anticompetitive foreclosure. In addition, the Commission states that it “will normally
intervene” only in cases where convincing evidence suggests that there will likely be foreclosure. Article 82 Guidance,
supra note 16, paragraph 20. This shows that the doors to bring cases in other circumstances are not entirely closed.
24 Neelie Kroes, The European Commission’s enforcement priorities as regards exclusionary abuses of dominance – current
thinking, Competition Law International 4, 5 (October 2008).
25 Adrian Emch, Frequent Flyer Programmes under Article 82 EC ‐ Is the Sky the Only Limit?, World Competition 645‐
9
673 (2007), note 82.
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Report.26 Accordingly, there are good reasons to think that a new DOJ approach to
predatory pricing will include liberalizing the conditions under which the DOJ will seek
to pursue predatory pricing claims, so that its approach may end up looking more like
that of the Commission.27 The FTC under the Bush administration was already more
aggressive than the DOJ, as demonstrated by several commissioners’ criticism of the
Monopolization Report and in particular their suggestion that AAC may not always be
the appropriate cost benchmark. With the change in the administration and the
chairmanship of the FTC, the FTC is expected to become even more aggressive.28
Of course, convergence at the level of the enforcement agencies means very little
if the rather large divergence between the courts in the EU and United States remains.
For example, the FTC has been convinced as to the anticompetitive effect of “reverse
payments” in pharmaceutical patent infringement litigation, but has been rebuffed on
several occasions by the courts.29 If the DOJ or FTC were to bring predatory pricing
actions under an approach that is inconsistent with Brooke Group, they may well
similarly run aground.
B. Persistent Divergence at the Level of the Courts?
In the Wanadoo and linkLine cases, the ECJ and the U.S. Supreme Court reached
decisions that starkly differ, in both tone and substance. The striking thing is that,
although the legal claims differed, the factual background of these two cases was rather
similar. Indeed, in both cases, the exclusion of rivals in DSL services retail markets was
alleged. Although there are limits to the degree to which the legal findings can be
compared, the factual similarity puts the spotlight on the different legal solutions
reached.
The ECJ’s and the Supreme Court’s stances seem to be two extremes. The ECJ
appears to reflect a skeptical view of dominant firms, is more concerned with “false
negatives” than “false positives,” and takes a form‐based approach. The U.S. Supreme
Court, on the other hand, reflects a skeptical view of predatory pricing, is more
concerned with “false positives” than “false negatives,” and takes an effects‐based
approach.
26 See Christine A. Varney, Vigorous Antitrust Enforcement in this Challenging Era, Speech at the Center for American
Progress on May 11, 2009, available at http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/speeches/245711.htm (last visited on May 19,
2009).
27 Simply by way of illustration, a recent publication of the new DOJ chief economist Carl Shapiro suggests a certain
degree of skepticism towards the recoupment criterion. See Louis Kaplow and Carl Shapiro, Antitrust, in HANDBOOK OF
LAW AND ECONOMICS (EDS. A. MITCHELL POLINSKY & STEVEN SHAVELL) 1202 (2007).
28 The new FTC Chairman Leibowitz was one of the commissioners who criticized the DOJ Monopolization Report.
29 Reverse payments are also one of the key issues in the Commission’s ongoing inquiry into the EU’s
pharmaceutical sector. See DG Competition Staff Working Paper, Pharmaceutical Sector Inquiry, November 28, 2008,
available at http://ec.europa.eu/competition/sectors/pharmaceuticals/inquiry/preliminary_report.pdf (last visited on April 10
21, 2009).
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In Wanadoo, the ECJ clearly showed that it does not intend to rely heavily on an
economics‐based approach, but rather continues its reliance on traditional, formalistic
case law. For example, in its view, recoupment is not a prerequisite to a successful
predatory pricing claim. Perhaps even more striking are the court’s explanations of why
a showing of recoupment is not necessary. In the extreme, its language suggests that the
elimination of a competitor is bad for consumers even if prices do not go up.30 Some
might say that this is protecting competitors, rather than protecting competition.
The ECJ’s findings in Wanadoo suggest that, as a showing of recoupment is not
necessary, an examination of consumer harm is not required either. These findings
would not come as a surprise. Already in the recent British Airways case, the ECJ
explicitly stated that it is not necessary for the Commission to show a direct impact on
consumers. To the contrary, the Commission would be entitled to look at the “effective
competitive structure” to assess whether consumers are harmed.31 This finding was all
the more striking, as the company found to be engaging in abusive discounting lost
market share during the period at issue.
In contrast to the ECJ’s position in Wanadoo, the linkLine case underscores the U.S.
Supreme Court’s approach. For example, the Supreme Court hinted that, since a
company is under no antitrust duty to deal, it could lawfully engage in a price squeeze
as well. A refusal to deal and predatory pricing would, in the end, achieve the same
result. As the refusal to deal would be legal, it would only make sense for the pricing
conduct to be legal too. This is truly an effects‐based analysis. This statement of the
Supreme Court is all the more interesting, as it was not necessary for the resolution of
the case at hand. This fact, together with the Supreme Court reaching a unanimous
decision in linkLine, point towards a Supreme Court that for the foreseeable future will
continue to be more concerned with “false positives” and will continue to take an
effects‐based approach.
Whether the gap between the Supreme Court and the ECJ will remain also
depends on the latter’s treatment of future cases involving the Commission’s new
approach. It will be interesting to see whether the ECJ will scrutinize future Article 82
EC cases in light of the Commission’s professed effects‐based approach (taking into
account the Commission’s arguments in the specific case, in particular, and the
statements in the Article 82 Guidance, in general), or whether it will simply refer to the
traditional case law with its low burden of proof for a conduct’s actual effects.
V. CONCLUSION
While the enforcement agencies in the EU and United States, respectively, appear
to be converging toward a common approach that is effects‐based and concerned with
30 Wanadoo, ECJ, supra note 1, paragraph 112. 11
31 Case C‐95/04 P British Airways v Commission [2007] ECR I‐2331, paragraphs 106‐107.
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the chilling effects of “false positives,” the substantial divergence between the courts in
the two respective jurisdictions remains. Thus, as a practical matter, companies may
have to continue to take very different approaches to pricing in the EU and United States
if they seek to avoid incurring liability under allegations of predatory pricing.
12
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