MOISTURE - THE "SOUL OF THERMAL"

Version 3.3 new

September 21, 2012

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CONTENT

• Summary

• Thermals, the unknown entity.

• Thermals, which is warm air - or not?

O Temperature of hot air cushions on the floor O trigger
O Temperature of hot air bubbles in the height O Water
vapor, the "soul" of an updraft

• Practicality and a historical mistake

O Stable vs. unstable stratificationO Theory since 1956
O Convective layer is always indifferent

• Strong or weak? - The rising values on the rise.

O Size matters
O Why beards with height sometimes stronger O Blue
thermals vs. cloud thermalsO Off at the cloud base O
Influence of vertical cloud thickness O Cloud lower
limits O Decreasing climb rate with altitude O blue
thermals O thermals O Thermals in high winds

• Thermals duration - making it determined?

O Radiation budget O latent heat O Polar air

• All together - the thermals in the mountains

• The practice test: The World Gliding Championship 2012
O Saturday, 11 August 2012 - 7th competition day O
Friday, 17 August 2012 - 12th place competition day O
comparative evaluation

• Closing remarks

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 Summary

Thermals! - What "works" they really? - The common idea: the sun heats the ground,
and in turn the air above. Warm air rises, so long as it is warmer than the ambient air (and
therefore lighter). -
Now, however, always rising air cools with 1 ° C per 100 m. - This thermal air may
remain warmer than its surroundings, so the decrease in temperature of the ambient air must
in good weather to be equal to or greater than 1 ° C per 100 m outside the thermal tube,
otherwise the temperature lead gradually goes to zero and the thermal stops ... - on a good day
you therefore like to talk in professional circles of "unstable stratification", as can adjust
theoretically no temperature equilibrium between the ascendant and environment in the
atmosphere ... - on bad days, the layering is just to "stable" and the thermals is just weaker...!
These statements are normally comes very well in practice deal ... But it does not
answer many of the questions posed an experienced glider pilot, if he wants to bring his
observations on weather patterns and current theories in line ...
for example, if it can be heated different the air at the bottom, this is indeed a possible
explanation for why there are stronger and weaker updrafts on the same day. - But if the
thermal temperatures are so different but why is the basis of all clouds in the vicinity anyway
always the same? - A hot air bladder, which was initially only 2 degrees warmer than the next
in the neighborhood would produce a 250 m higher cloud base. - (125m / 1 ° C). - Why the
thermal strength sometimes decreases with height even to and is most directly under the base?
- Why the thermals on some days almost yells, but a few days later only weak at the same
exposure? - Why is there days when using the thermals very early and lasts long,
With a little imagination Also consider these phenomena can still reasonably explained
by the above-mentioned layering model, but really satisfactory answers, it does not deliver. -
And for good reason: it is simply wrong! - Because so common these statements may be, in
the literature, they have a serious drawback: they can be in practice, even on days with good
thermals not prove!
Although one can in strong beards and close to the ground yet measure reasonably
significant temperature projections thermals, but these differences are lost with increasing
altitude and disappear eventually all! Never On a good Thermiktag you will be in convection
maximum of an indifferent (that one: - The allegedly unstable or stable stratification in the
convection, which is to explain such well-known phenomena such as different thermal time
with the same radiation or widely varying climb rate, does not happen in practice dry labile
encounter more than a slightly stable) layering with a gradient of <1! Thus, at best, a constant
temperature decrease with the height of nearly 1 ° C / 100m.
Only when one considers that moist air is also lighter than dry (and hence buoyancy
generated), and considering the relative humidity on the rise with the calculus has a model's
hand, with which one can explain obvious and understandable, resulting in an upswing as it
all happens.

The sun is so indisputably the "engine of our weather," but - the humidity is the "soul
of the climb!"

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 Thermals, the unknown nature

Thermals! - Each sailing, hang-gliding or paragliding knows in many variations: Strong

and steady, round or torn. He has come to know as blue thermals or as a bubble, or he has
"ausgekurbelt" as a hammer beard. Time he has laboriously "a dug", sometimes over hyped
4m / sec integrated climbing or simply "parked in a zero lift" his plane only. Yet many pilots
can not predict these variations or explain not conclusive. On the same day a beard can
produce 2.5 m / sec climbing, the next but only a mere 1 m / sec. There are weather
conditions, as "pulling every cloud" on other days is almost the same weather look much and
the disappointed pilot dubbed the cumulus rightly called "water bags" ...
Further questions you rarely arises. Why sometimes the thermals goes to the same
season already at 9.00 am going the next day but only at 11:00 am? - Or why they do not
come with an otherwise identical solar radiation just getting going? - Why are the clouds
bases all the same height in a day (almost), although are very different among them
encountered strong updrafts? - Why drag on days like some beards 3 m / sec, others only with
a meter? - Why climb values sometimes take with altitude even? - Why does thermals on
some days to sunset, on the other, "but she is from the early afternoon"? - Why is cloud
thermals usually stronger than blue thermals?
we find conclusive answers to these questions often. If anything, Temps are trying to
fathom the stratification of the atmosphere and you help out with models that speak of labile,
indifferent or stable stratification. Unstable stratification should be responsible for stable
stratification weak or weakening thermals for strong thermals. - cold air supply in height can
then expect long-lasting thermal and so on ... - It's amazing how little we know about the
glider backgrounds, considering how dependent our sport just from this winding is yet. -
Thermal, the unknown nature!
In the following chapters, we will take the thermals therefore something more closely
and answer some of the questions posed above in more detail. With also some widespread
ideas about the be overturned, which dominate our landläufiges picture of the functioning of
the thermals still!

Thermals, which is warm air - or not?

Each glider pilot knows that the sun drives our weather is. The radiation heats the soil.
This in turn gives the energy absorbed from the surrounding air, the result heats up in turn.
has a sufficiently large hot air cushion formed which is warmer than the surrounding air, it
can rise and form a thermal tube. With a little luck this beard can then wear a glider up to the
cloud base. The common idea here: A parcel of air rises like a hot air balloon while it hotter it
is than its surroundings. If it loses its temperature projection buoyancy and thermal expires
stops ...

Temperature of hot air cushions on the floor

How much the thermal air heats up because on the ground, or how much it is warmer
than the air normally in the immediate area? - Provides you this question a number of gliders,
you already reaping pensive looks! - "Hmm! - I

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guess ... ", comes in response and said values vary from 2 degrees Celsius up to 20 degrees,
sometimes even more!
In fact, the temperature differences are in this range, depending on which level has
been measured. The closer is measured at the bottom, the greater the way the differences.
Even 30 degrees Celsius measured directly on the surface are there not uncommon. The
decisive factor is just the nature of the surface.
However, the air layer that forms as a warm skin above the ground is only a few meters
thick. In about 10 m height, the most serious horizontal temperature differences are largely
compensated. The maximum upper limit of this so-called überadiabatischen layer is about
20m in height. See picture below (Walter Georgii, 1956). In temperatures vary only
minimally, often by less than one degree!

The graph shows the temperature gradient 13:00 to 15:30 MOZ to 80 m in height (by G. Fritsche u. R. rod, 1936).
The überadiabatische layer is delimited by a distinct barrier layer approximately 15 m in height, in which the
horizontal temperature differences are small. Up to its apparently slight overheating is reduced by friction and
turbulent mixing, so that only higher thermal elements (s. 14:00 MOZ) capable of piercing this interface.
Considering the maximum vertical temperature gradient of the lowest 15 m, then there is a pronounced
überadiabatischer temperature gradient of about 4 K per 15 m or extrapolated from about 27 K per 100 m.

42 HENRY BLUM

trigger
How and when so created an over-heated air cushion can be "triggered" and it's there
are countless good descriptions in the literature. Warm air is produced, for example, in the
sun-facing slopes, especially if they are protected from the wind in the lee or quick heating
surfaces, such as dark, finely harrowed fields, etc. - Appropriate thermal trigger may wane,
paragraphs in slope, water borders, a propelled combine harvester, to see a potato fire, or just
a brushwood fire in the forest below. (The associated updraft incidentally brought whopping
2m / sec integrated).

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 They all have their place, experienced pilots are well known and are therefore not
discussed further below.
seems important to me in this context only that a replacement of a thermal bubble
without obstacle, a stretch of woodland, an area edge or a winch launch can take place.
According to Walter Georgii (1956) is sufficient in theory an overheating of the near-
surface layers with a gradient of 3.4 ° C / 100 m with respect to the overlying air, to quasi-
randomly generate thermal, since thus the limit of the mechanical equilibrium is exceeded.
This idea is important when we deal later with thermals in strong winds. Strong wind can be
no isolated hot air blowing on the ground longer, but the thermals then created "by chance" of
a turbulent, overheated ground-level interface, which may well be several hundred feet high
evenly mixed ...

Temperature of hot air bubbles in the height

So if thermals would be nothing more than a hot air balloon that rises because it is
warmer than its surroundings, then temperature differences would be detected even at a
higher altitude. But this is not so: In about 200 m above ground even large temperature
differences on average less than 0.3 ° C have shrunk. In 600m are often only 0.15 ° C
measured. (Maximum values have about twice the value). - From a height of about 1000m
above ground, no significant temperature differences thermals are detectable normally despite
strong climbing! - This recognition goes to Meßflüge back with a motor glider, which Carsten
Lindemann has performed and Detlef Müller and Christoph Kottmeier (1984) commented
very revealing. (D Müller, Kottmeier C. (1984).

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has published. - Very clearly is to see how the thermal bubbles can penetrate the inversion
...

Height
in
meters

The fact that temperature differences between thermal environment and even with
strong beards are relatively small, are so important for the further consideration that the
average values of Carsten Lindemann's test flights are shown in the following chart again.
(The averages are lower than the values in the "Hammer beard" in the picture above!).

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 Despite this low temperature differences, we have a good day not only excellent climb
rate (the higher the base, the way, greater the average climb), it may well happen that the
climb rate with the amount even increase ... How does it work together? - Where does the lift
which can further increase the updrafts and they can still gain strength when let in thermals
itself no longer measure differences in temperature?

Water vapor, the "soul of updraft"

The answer to these questions, if we take the humidity with the calculus, because
depending on the temperature, air can vary save a lot of water vapor. At low temperatures,
only a few grams per cubic meter, at high temperatures much more. The "Relative humidity"
therefore refers to the ratio of actual water vapor present to the maximum possible vapor
content of the air at a given temperature.
Rising thermals air always cools down by about 1 ° C / 100m. (Meteorologists
designate as the dry adiabatic temperature change). If the temperature has fallen so far that
condensation of the water vapor brought occurs, the lower limit of the cloud is formed. By
definition, the relative humidity of the thermal accurately thus achieved on the basis of the
value of 100%! - The further away we are still from the cloud, the lower the relative
humidity on the rise. below the base are directly still 99% and further away only 90%. Near
the ground, however, the example values of only 45% can be. But that also means that the
so-called relative humidity in the beard up towards the base increases continuously from the
bottom until the water vapor eventually condenses into a cloud!

Updraft vs.
Surroundings

Rel.Feuerte difference 10% 20%

Of course, the atmosphere of our beard contains a certain amount of water vapor that
can be measured as relative humidity. The higher up, the more
8th
since the ambient air is enriched by the dissolution or evaporation of the clouds themselves
with water vapor.
But, during the ascent of a beard is the amount of moisture that was initially present at
ground level, very little lost. After all, unlike the temperature differences on the upswing that
approximate very fast, a mass transport of water vapor into the environment would require a
balance of moisture differences. This balance is rather like the evaporation of a cloud also, by
the edges of the thermal tube. That is, where the rise but often more air is drawn in from the
environment. The absolute (actual amount) Moisture in the beard so remains largely intact up
to the top in the core from below. so to speak, it is the "soul of the updraft" and is visible at
the end in the form of a beautiful spring cloud.
But moist air is lighter than dry air! - More specifically, the more moisture vapor is
stored in an air parcel as (invisible), the lower its physical density! - It behaves like a piece of
wood or cork under water and urges upward. And the more humid air is such a package as
compared to its environment, the higher is its buoyancy! - It's the humidity that makes flying
in the "thermals" possible. A surprising for many glider pilots knowledge with which some
can make friends very difficult.
When I got this issue on the occasion of a flight instructor training presented times, I
got massive criticism heard: In particular, a "Doctor of Physics" (as he called himself,
anyway) was almost beside himself: How do I come up with the idea to state moist air is less
dense, so lighter than dry and could rise so ...! - That was yet everything Humbug! - I got
"recommended to him then, but just once pitch his physics book. - There he would find tables
that clearly documented this fact .... - the Internet can find the formula to:

Humid air is lighter as dry ..!

* Formula:

G damp = G dry

* where G damp = Weight moist humid air at a

specific (absolute) humidity X is ...

Even more clearly you can read the weight differences indirectly to the so-called "virtual
temperature", a term used in meteorology, created specifically
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was to illustrate this fact ... - The following more detailed definition comes from a website
with interesting meteorological information, www.top- wetter.de.

virtual temperature
The virtual temperature is the higher temperature, which would have dry air in order to have the same density as
lower humid air at the same pressure. It is a fictitious temperature measurement, which reflects the fact that the
water vapor contained in the air is less dense than dry air (0% relative humidity). Since the water vapor replaces
only the dry air at the same pressure, the mixture of dry air and water vapor is slightly less dense.
(See also top-wetter.de, July 8 2011th http://www.top-wetter.de/lexikon/v/virtuelletemp.htm)

The following table shows real values of the virtual temperature and illustrates once
again that moist air is lighter than dry:

Humid air is lighter than dry ...!

RH. Virtual temperature in "C

Moister Luft 100% 5.9 11.3 16.83 22:55

0.62

50% 12:31 5:45 10.65 15.92 21:29

drier Luft 10%

12:06 5:09 10:13 15.18 20.26

0 5 10 15 20
Air temperature
in C *

Cie virtual Temperaturist that higher temperature, which would have dry air in
order to have the same density as lower humid air at the same pressure.

we take the air with 0 ° C as an example in the above table and we further assume that
we can not measure temperature differences between thermals and environment. - At the zero
degree column can read it that the thermals may be significantly lighter well as equal warm
dry air! -
For already 20% humidity difference between ambient air and thermals (2x10%) would
already represent a real (virtual here) temperature difference in the thermals of 0.12 ° C. (2x
0.06 °).
When measured 10 ° C 20% humidity difference even for a theoretical temperature
margin of 0.26 ° C would be good! - This figure is very close to the otherwise measured, real
average thermal temperature differences of about 0.3 ° C in about 200 m above ground. (See
also explanation and graphic above). - So you can see well that moisture can readily produce a
similar high lift, like the classic warm air near the ground.

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 Practicality and a historical mistake

This gives us a first key to understanding the thermals. So it derives its energy lift only
the first few hundred meters from the temperature difference to her has given the sun. - We
must not throw our current ideas about the formation and release of thermal overboard! -
But with increasing altitude, the increasing relative humidity takes more and more the
original role of warm air, thus ensuring the necessary lift. Crucial for the further rise is the
humidity and density difference between thermals and ambient air, rather than differences in
temperature between thermals and the surrounding area!

RH.of
upwind the ambient
air

Rel. Humidity difference - Aufwird vs. Surroundings

The figure below illustrates the resulting lift distribution is also shown (as approximate,
not exact! Sum of Tempertur- and humidity differences).

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 resulting
buoyancy
distribution

The two charts above apply as an explanatory model, and as shown, only valid for
thermals in the lowlands. In the high mountains, the situation is even more complex. - They
are based there, although on the same basic principles, but in the Alpine region, the ascendant
generation is influenced by other factors. These are explained in subsequent chapters.
Therefore, there is something for the thermals in the high mountains a separate chapter at the
end where all relevant factors are again briefly discussed.
The most important finding, we now hold firm but: humidity and density differences
between the ascendant and environment influence the lift in a significant. - With this insight
can now namely a lot more to explain each glider known phenomena conclusive.
But before we are ready, we still have a widespread, but dispel wrong model concept ...

Stable vs. unstable stratification

In many textbooks is stable or unstable stratification the speech that allegedly
determines the thermal strength. The starting point of this argument is the undisputed fact
that a rising air parcel always cool with about 1 ° C per 100 m. The ambient air, however, as
one can see in a Temp, have very different temperature profiles. Thus, if the temperature
decrease in the ambient air with the height greater than 1 ° C / 100 m is one speaks of (dry)
labile, less than 1 ° C / 100 m of stable stratification ... Man now believes a thermal bubble
rises as long as it is warmer than its surroundings. In an unstable stratification, this projection
would remain or even increase, and thus produce stronger thermals ... With stable
stratification, the thermal strength would decrease accordingly.

Theory since 1956

The origin of this assumption is probably also look at Professor Walter Georgii, who
already in 1956 a groundbreaking book on the meteorology of gliding

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wrote and this theory has described there clearly. Only a small but significant error in an
otherwise highly regarded work! From there, he must have found their way into various
textbooks and has since been written off criticism over again. Anyway, he is now an integral
part in any theory lessons and thus queried in the air driver checks the regional councils.

Convective layer is always indifferent or even slightly stable

But, so plausible explanation of the updraft strength may also be based on the allegedly
unstable or stable stratification. She holds reality not stand! - measurements in the free
atmosphere have shown that any temperature profile, which was measured in the temp for
example during the night, up to the "base" after insertion of the thermals in a gradient (= rate
of change) is converted by almost 1, so a uniform temperature decrease of 1 ° C / 100 m!
This is not surprising: the thermals mixed indeed the convective layer. Thermal rises
and ambient air decreases. Both cool or heat up during ascent and descent at almost exactly 1
° C / 100 m and pass these temperature conditions continue to the environment. -
meteorologists therefore speak of a adiabatic gradient!

Cumulus clouds layer

adiabatic layer

Überadiabatische
layer

Change of the temperature profile in the lowest 2000m the atmosphere on 26/04/74 in
Meppen 5:30 to 13:00. {Data from Beyer, Roth, 1S77- found Müller, Kottmeier, 1984}.

The image above illustrates the impressive. It also comes from the release of Detlef
Müller and Christoph Kottmeier, (Meteorological aspects of distance gliding, 1984) and
shows this development in a very good Thermiktag in April. During the morning there was
still ground frost, there was already at 10 am CET (9:00 DST) 1/8 cumulus clouds at 800 m
above ground in an adiabatic temperature curve. An hour later, the base had increased to
1100m, reaching around 12 pm Summer time as 1500 meters above ground.

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 So there are at thermals days no really stable nor unstable layers below the cloud base
(or the so-called convective condensation level, KKN)! - As long as the convection is
maintained, we always have an indifferent stratification of the ambient air present below the
KKN's (adiabatic layer with a gradient of almost one)! -
A thermal tube (who also cools adiabatic) would, therefore, can maintain (in the
atmosphere) to the base and a possible temperature-edge in its rise, if he existed then! - But
even that can be, seen above, neither prove so, still observed in practice: Different warm
thermals would produce that is otherwise very different cloud bases its associated cumulus
clouds! - Already 0.5 ° Celsius difference would be enough for 60 meters basic difference. -
The opposite is known to be the case. On good days, a uniform base height, maximum
varies according to the terrain profile and then with increasing temperature in the diurnal cycle
can also increase the. Created over long distances Any temperature differences between the
individual thermals compared to the ambient air thus balance out very quickly, including by
the constant addition of ambient air, which leaves the tube with the height are eg thicker ...
However, the relative humidity, and the mixing ratio, (the heist of the water vapor in the
boundary layer air) must be very similar over large distances, because otherwise different
values would produce significantly different cloud bases in individual beards here.
so crucial to the quality of the convection is primarily the large-scale composition of the
air mass (ie primarily its temperature and water vapor content), rather than the small-scale,
thermal generating conditions on the ground. .. - (Note: with small-scale differences in the 500
meters are here meant spacing There are indeed differences in the thermal quality of
individual tracts of land, the Swabian Alb "is" better than the Baar, the Black Forest better
than the Kraichgau And it indicates days. where the Danube valley with its wet meadows
rather clouds produced as the Alpine foothills.
- Only for really good hammer weather conditions these differences blur)!
Bottom line, it can be stated: Different climb values between adjacent winding, that can,
as derived not be explained by temperature or humidity differences among themselves! - So
where are the different climb rates, which are found on the same thermals tag?

Strong or weak? - The rising values on the rise.

Size matters ...

just once take a tall glass with mineral water, beer (eg wheat beer) or a glass of
champagne in hand and watch the rising in carbonated ... The carbon dioxide forms small and
large bubbles, which in turn lined up in a chain of beads to the top. .. the large bubbles while
rising much faster than the small or fine ...- (By the way, they can extend the experiment and
throw a few grains of salt and the like into the glass, for example. you will fall to the ground
and there there defined as clearly "trigger "reliably generate their own bubbles). -

14
 Responsible for the different riser velocities of the different flow resistance which
the fluid opposes the different bubbles. Or put the other way around, the resulting "lift"
of large bubbles is significantly higher than that of the small and therefore rise faster.

Different upswing strengths include

depending on the thermal-diameter

boost

Friction u. Accelerat Accelerat

nigung nigung
end
resistance

HENRY BLUM

With the thermal situation is similar, as is evident in the picture above. It shows two
thermal bubbles with different diameters, but otherwise identical temperature and humidity
conditions. The accelerating force with which a bit is forced upwards dependent on two
factors: First the density difference caused by the

15
Buoyancy of the thermal bubble and secondly the flow resistance which sets out his ambient
air. The buoyancy increases with radius to the third power. The resistance to it grows with the
radius only squared. Result: why the bubble with the 50% larger diameter (300 meters instead
of 200 meters) undergoes an accelerating force which is more than twice as large as that of the
smaller! She has also put a greater mass in motion, but if the beard is triggered once is enough
less "lift" to keep it in motion. - The larger and more extensive so the ascendant, the more it
can therefore be under otherwise identical environmental conditions. And the greater or more
stable hot-air reservoir, which feeds the updraft, the stronger the thermal tube can be. -
Now thermals is rarely as bladder-shaped like the bubbles in beer glass and also does
not behave exactly like that. Unlike between water and air, the density differences are much
too low. - If we have been looking for a vivid image, we can imagine the shape of a beard
more like that of liquid honey dripping from a knife: Only A thick drop gradually detaches
itself under its own weight of the blade and drags a thick thread behind. When the initial stock
up, pulls the thread and out of the inflowing material immediately formed a new drop. This
also creates a "train" before he completely detaches and so on. Go to the store of honey to an
end, then fall only occasionally single, usually smaller droplets from the knife.
The situation is similar with warm air reservoirs on the ground. As long as enough light
there is always a new "material" replenished and, depending on the generated amount of warm
air remains "s either in a continuous flow, or dissolve only" drops "or larger bubbles, until the
reservoir final is exhausted.

Why beards with the height more often?

For this, there's several reasons ... First ever take updrafts during their ascent on ambient
air, which can grow to the height of the perimeter or diameter of the thermal tube. The experts
speak of so-called "entrainment". As the size of the beard and the flow resistance is low and,
as already described in the preceding paragraph, the climb rate increase.
Incidentally, a phenomenon that can be observed also in the beer or champagne glass. A
small bubble takes as it rises in the glass increasingly carbon dioxide from the surrounding
liquid and is in the rise tends to be larger. The larger it is, the faster it bubbled further upward.
-
Another cause may be the merging of several updrafts to a larger one. Also there is
valid, the lift increases with the size to ... -
A third option, which, however, is not related to the size of the beard, but is determined
by the cloud height, we learn in the next chapters to know ....

Blue thermals vs. cloud thermals

know glider pilots from various studies and our own observations that, with blue
thermals rising tends to be weaker, clouds thermal contrast, relatively speaking, provides
better updrafts. Basically, it can be said, with increasingly higher base level include the raising
will be better even. Again, the moisture provides a coherent explanation for these "clouds
Turbo".

16
Off at the cloud base
There are days when pulling the beards directly below the base best. Often it is the
darkest parts of the cloud, where actually more moisture is condensed and larger, and
therefore darker cloud droplets are generated. In extreme cases, the cloud is itself a kind of
beard that hangs down out of the base and signals, here condensed a lot of water vapor. -
The common theory is that the cloud "pulls", that itself generates a vacuum cleaner
effect is very clear, but nonsensical. For this, the vacuum would be incredibly large, which
does not occur in the sail flying practice. (Just try to suck a piece of paper with a vacuum
cleaner from the ground ... - you have to with enormous suction power already within a few
centimeters ran for this to work - even the destructive power of a tornado trunk unfolding on
the ground only to relatively short distances of a few aircraft spans. And these problems are
not so much by the suction of the tornado caused as by the extremely high wind speeds on the
edge of the tube).
The actual angefundenen climb rates are so much better explained by the already so
extensively illustrated humidity differences and cloud height itself.

Influence of vertical cloud thickness

The following figure illustrates the relationship: Once the air condenses on the base, it
rises further feuchtadiabatisch within the cloud. This means the temperature decrease with the
height is only 0.5 ° C / 100 m, until the "Clear Air" (more precisely, the small water droplets
or ice crystals, which form the cloud), evaporated. From this point, the descending again
outside the plume air (ie trockenadiabatisch) is heated at 1 ° C / 100 m, and brings the output
from the humidity level again. And so there's close to the base so as to more significant
differences in relative humidity, the higher reach up the clouds ...

Vertical was
picking the
source clouds

Rel. Humidity in
the cloud

Rel. Humidity of
the ambient
upwind

upwind

17
 In reality, the actual conditions of course depend not only on the level but also the size
and shape of the clouds. But the principle is hopefully clear: clouds are so to speak, the turbo
for the thermals near the base! -

Careful observers realize certain that would theoretically generate temperature differences at the base in
the above image, the ascending and descending adiabatic. But as already stated füher, these differences are
alike, unlike the humidity, extremely rapidly and only lead to a total of some unteradiabatischen gradient of <1,
so a slightly dry stable convective layer!

The greater the vertical extent of the clouds, the more the good climbing toward the
base can be moved (see explanation above ...). The flatter the cumulus, the smoother the
climb rate over the entire height .... Experienced haul travelers know the phenomenon and
choose their flying tactics accordingly (often unconsciously) depending on the cloud height!

Cloud lower limits

rising higher the base, the better: In principle applies here. As a rule of
thumb, one can assume 1.5 m / sec average rise per 1000 m base height. (Strong
beards reach double values!).
but high cloud bases can occur only with correspondingly dry air mass. The drier it is,
the lower the relative humidity of the air near the ground(And the less radiation energy is
used for "" evaporation "used).And the less water vapor (absolute humidity) takes the
thermals from the bottom. Correspondingly high they must rise before the continuous cooling
in Beard (1 ° C / 100m), the temperatures on the rise as far has let fall that brought moisture
must condense out!

Height of the cloud base about

reason
In Abhängigkelt the relative humidity in the lower atmosphere

thumb rule

18
 In bittern, the "Diamond Farm" in Namibia are reached base heights of over 5000m
above sea level. Climb rate of 6 m / sec or more are then normal. No wonder the morning
going to the hygrometer for flight preparation belongs ...
Just based on the thermal conditions at high clouds bases, the influence of moisture can
be demonstrated particularly well: Again, the hot air generated on the ground loses its
temperature ahead with the height and the humidity takes its role as a supplier buoyancy. But,
unlike at low or normal high bases of the upswing started with much lower humidity levels
and these take very gradually up to the required 100% of the convective condensation level
to. are correspondingly low initially the humidity differences between thermal and ambient
air, and the lower the wet-related portion of the buoyancy in the lower altitudes.
The resulting from the sum of hot air content and humidity difference overall buoyancy
therefore shows (but only at very high cloud bases), a sharp kink in altitudes around 1000
meters above ground in which, as already mentioned, only small temperature differences are
measurable in thermals and finally disappear altogether.
At high altitudes for the humidity differences Bart take back significantly and thus
generate a higher lift of thermal air and correspondingly strong rise.

Expected value walkway profiles

at a very high base

Fechte-
differe
nce in
the
beard

resulting
buoyancy
distribution

{valued}

From this "bent" lift distribution is also typical for Hammer weather conditions with
very high base diurnal thermals can be derived and explained.

19
 Expected thermal characteristics at
very high base
With Steinger temperature 4. zone of
at the bottom rising cloud strong or
base strongest rising
to late afternoon
Emergence of
the first clouds
increasingly
starkeres
2. Later
climbing
stronger
blue
thermals
resulting
buoyancy
Red Zone (thermal inversion)
distribution verhindertanfanglich By
climbing

1. Initially, only
blue thermals with
weak ascent rate

After sunrise, the sun heats the surface air layer relatively quickly. Thanks to the low
moisture content results in very good implementation of the radiated energy and there is blue
thermals that is ausfliegbar to heights of 1000-1200 meters above ground. but as long as the
air mass climbing at this altitude, the sink rate of the glider does not significantly exceed the
scope of the pilot is upwards limited for now.
Only with further increasing sun exposure and thus increasing the warm air bubbles
rise high enough to benefit from the moisture differences with the surroundings and so to be
able to continue to rise (even without measurable temperature differences). The air mass
climbing is now much better than the sink rate of the aircraft and the "puncture" upwards, ie
by here as "Red Zone" (or thermal inversion) designated layer is possible.
As soon as the first clouds condense, on top of that uses the lift-enhancing effect of the
"clouds turbos" and the rising values increase rapidly on. The best climb values can be found
from now on throughout the day in the upper third of the convective layer, since there the
moisture differences are particularly pronounced.
In the evening take with decreasing radiation and the thermal strength close to the
ground again. While can be found in the upper altitudes still reasonably good climbing, it is
loaded from underneath increasingly difficult even to find connection. The "Red Zone" is
active again and prohibits deep slide to accept the next beard.
On barogram a 1400 km flight by Guy Bechtold itself can relate to that example.

20
 Guy Bechtold, 14.12.2009, 1412 km,
bittern, Namibia

Quite obviously, Guy trust, very early (at 7.50 am UTC, which corresponds to 8:50
CET) to go on line and fly the first hundred kilometers above the Kalahari in pure blue
thermals. - Two times he is slipped to nearly 200 meters above ground.

Guy Bechtold, 14.12.2009, 1412 km,

bittern, Namibia

Only after reaching the mountain country, the blue thermals was much better and the first
clouds "s then finally went under the best conditions up to 5500 meters MSL!

21
 The following chart shows the various phases of the thermal development are entered
again in barogram's.

Guy Bechtold, 14.12.2009, 1412 km,

bittern, Namibia

resulting
buoyancy 4. zone of
distribution strong and
strongest
3, increasingly climbing until
stronger Only with late afternoon
emergence of the
first climbing
Red Zone (thermal inversion) clouds
verhindertanfänglich By 2. Later
climbing stronger
blue thermals

1. Initially only Bleu

thermals with weak
ascent rate

By the way, the aeronautically interesting "season" in Namibia lasts only from
November to January! - (begins the real rainy season in February) to this "pre-rainy season",
already enriched with some moisture air masses are flown into the country that regularly
glider dreams come true. - In the months before there's no hammer despite good weather
exposure in powder-dry air!

And how decreasing climb rate explained by the amount?

The most famous thermal brake is called inversion. It marks an increase in the ambient
air temperature with height, which is usually caused by Absinkvorgänge in the atmosphere.
On good days, it is the natural boundary (ie the lid on the pot) of the convective layer and
"harmful" over developments reliably prevented. Rapide abtrocknende air layers the way,
have the same effect and prevent the formation of Cb's etc., even without a strong temperature
inversion.

22
 The following picture is from a weather briefing for the World Gliding
Championship 2012 in Uvalde / Texas and shows the formation of an inversion (red circle)
within a day. Very nice to see: Above the inversion temperature to (red arrows), the relative
humidity of the ambient contrast decreases (orange arrows).

• Significant drying over

the tot. rise
• Warmer above 7000 ft

Operating temperature
of 4500 ft working
height at 32.5 ° C

23
 Assumes the ambient temperature in the inversion with the height, then the wet-
induced buoyancy of the thermal air loses its effect and the bubble gradually ceases to rise.
Once the density differences is balanced in the air, the upwind stops.
not so, as sometimes speculated in the literature, with the pace of rising air that
vibrates, so to speak above their equilibrium point in the temperature out before it descends
again - so that even the partial several hundred meters deep penetration of the thermals in the
inversion itself explained. ! - The higher relative humidity of the beard even allows much
lower temperatures than the beard in the area, as long as the resulting density differences are
not balanced in the air.
Conversely act high humidity levels in the ambient air, as they are often at the apex of
an inversion, or even to be found close to the clouds, also strongly braking. Since the
buoyancy of a beard as seen increasingly is caused by moisture differences, this difference
decreased with increasing relative humidity also the ambient air in the high and the rising
values decrease again.
Especially on days with very strong inversion, which is visible to sometimes very
shallow Cumuli, this tendency is particularly pronounced. The following chart shows the
temperature history for two consecutive days, with formation of an inversion and high
relative humidity values in the inversion vertex. The higher these values fail, the more then
tilt the cumulus also to spread.

education one inversion

dew point spread temperature curve

The situation is similar with air masses that are generally wetter. (See the picture above
the dew point spread on Day 1). They show a lot more clouds and thus slow down the
exposure! In addition, the clouds formed dissolve only very slowly again and hold it as
"water pockets" so some thermals viewfinder fool ...

24
blue thermals
Here in our region usually an inversion prevents further rise of the thermals and
prevents the beard before the water vapor can condense; In extreme cases, long before the
relative humidity in the beard may even reach their 100% threshold for cloud formation. The
lower therefore the humidity differences between Bart and ambient air fail, the weaker and
uneven the climb values can be. It lacks also the previously already presented "clouds Turbo"!
-
But also for blue thermals applies: The colder the air mass, the better the convective
implementation of the irradiated energy (why we learn in the last chapters), and the higher the
limiting barrier, the greater may be the blue thermals:

The above photo is from 1 April 2012 received at 8:15 am UTC in Donaueschingen at
the airport. - The day began, as can be seen, with a few fluff, but broke up soon and ushered
in a good blue thermals tag. The air mass was very cold (and dry) and the temperatures were
in the morning only just above 0 ° Celsius.
In Blue (between 1200 m and 1600 m above ground) went in the early afternoon up to
2300 meters of NN before a weak inversion sealed off the beards upwards. The average rise
was between 2.5 and 3.5 m / sec. Individual updrafts delivered up to 5 m / sec in the tip. In the
evening you could still hold up half an hour before sunset top ...

thermals
Who much sail flies also know thermals are not always uniformly round and do not
carry anywhere on a circle equally well. Again, the moisture provides plausible explanations:
from the foregoing is already clear, a certain evenly distributed on the upswing water vapor
content is for training

25
rich, round beards important. If omitted, (or humidity differences are weak, such as often the
case with blue thermals) are updrafts rougher and worse centered.
In a beard no rapid, horizontal mass transport of water vapor can take place.
Differences in moisture content of individual areas of an updraft so can also be compensated
only slowly. Therefore, the associated (Archimedes) buoyancy in these zones vary and can
thus lead to "non-round" beards ... - For these fluctuations and wind shear may be
responsible. - A common case include beards that form on sunlit Leehängen in the mountains
and above flowing mountain ridge to the windward rising air together and intermingled. A
similar picture emerges when several smaller updrafts, while growing in height together, but
at least "wet technically" not yet united. On days with strong wind for example, which can
often be seen ...

Thermals in high winds

Also weather conditions with strong winds can make good or very good thermals.
However, the surface air layer is strongly mixed through the terrain and vegetation that this
can indeed be heated by the sun, but can not occur insulated warm air more. As a rough rule
of thumb, for the thickness of this turbulent layer can multiply the wind speed with the
twentieth The result is the height of the turbulent layer in meters. Wind 20 km / h there
generates up to 400 m high, strong mixed zone ...
Within this (overheated) surface air layer, it is therefore almost impossible to find
ausfliegbare updrafts while earlier comrades still consistently rise can ... Here we have a "red
zone", in which one should not slide better and here the principle accesses humidity: while
individual isolated bubbles that rise from this over-heated base layer are initially too weak or
too "narrow" to be able to "carry" a glider, but they also continuously cool off in the further
advancement. Existing in the bubble water vapor is maintained and that their actual, brought
humidity, which will later form a cloud ...
On further rise so the relative humidity is constantly increasing. As long as this remains
"Wet edge" compared to the ambient air, the bladder or the tube will continue to accelerate.
At some point he will rise faster than the sink rate of the glider, which will circulate in it and
out of the bubble has become a real, of useable beard. And with increasing base height and
the climbing is becoming better and round ...

Thermal Duration - What causes them is determined?

Some days the thermals is very early and last long, partly to sunset. On other days it
starts much later and hears mostly earlier again, although the incident energy is equal to or
even higher in the summer, for example. Nevertheless, the statistical accumulation of good
weather conditions towards the spring is moved. - Why this?

26
 To do this we will return to the origin of the thermals, the formation of hot air at the
bottom. For the answer to this question is given by the Radiation budget, ie the incident solar
energy and how it is implemented at the surface.

radiation balance
As shown in the figure below, a part is dissipated in heat flux, a part is "lost" through
reflection, part is consumed for evaporation, or stored in humidity and only the remainder is
available for heating the air is available. Although these shares correspond always the
irradiated energy in total, but among themselves they can vary significantly.

The Radiation budget

convection

Water
vapor To sunbathe-
(evaporatio exposure

Re radiation

ground
heat flow

The soil heat flux can be neglected, at least to answer the question of the thermal time.
Although he has a serious impact on the differential heating of the respective surfaces and
thus the temperature differences on the ground. In dry soils but it is relatively small and takes
on increasingly abtrocknendem underground (as dark as, feinkrumigem farmland) also
rapidly. It can therefore on the large, observable differences in the thermal power on different
days (with an otherwise identical exposure), have no significant impact. There are only the
reflection, which also increases with increasing temperature and evaporation as "energy
consumer" and "thermals inhibiting" factors remain.

latent heat
Since the absolute humidity (the actual amount of water vapor in the air) is not
negligible at normal temperatures in our latitudes, a significant proportion of the radiated
energy in the water vapor in the air is stored. This provides for the heating of the air, and thus
the convection, correspondingly less energy.

27
 At very low temperatures, however, the proportion drops of latent, in the water vapor
stored energy and the air directly above the ground can warm up much faster. This creates
much faster warm air packages may form the updrafts and thermals already uses much earlier
than normal. The same goes for the evening. At low air temperatures can even at very low sun
train sufficient warm air reservoir, so that the thermal lasts longer. During the day, the yield is
of course also better and the thermals are much more even at low altitudes. The chart below
shows this relationship depending on the air temperature near the ground and its relative
humidity.

Thermal yield at the bottom

in percent of the incident energy

Relative Air temp

humidity in
0o C

191HENRY BLUM

As the bars are calculated in this graph? - They are based on a somewhat simplified energy balance in
which the (relatively small) soil heat flux is neglected, but not the reflection of the Earth's surface into space
(which also increases with increasing surface temperature of the soil, and thus the air). The starting point is the
energy (enthalpy), which is necessary to heat an air packet with a specific relative humidity at an air pressure of
1020 hPa to 1 ° C. - the way The necessary amount of energy increases with increasing temperature at,
computationally, the same (or rising) levels of relative humidity in the air mass! Despite constant exposure so
the ability of the soil to heat the air above it accordingly decreases simultaneously ... - The graph shows,

We can draw some interesting conclusions from this graph: the warmer and more
humid air mass is, the worse the first place, the thermals and so later gehf go! - The drier the
air, or, depending on the other hand, lower their temperatures, the higher the ausfliegbare
"thermal yield" as a percentage of incident energy In sub-zero temperatures, this proportion
may rise to over 70% -.! So If the trigger temperatures below the zero degree mark (and in the
hills and mountains that comes in the spring often enough) the lion's share of solar radiation is
converted into warm air - Better conditions one can not wish for!

28
Polar air
for the average thermal length of the day is therefore critical temperature of the
prevailing air mass. Especially polar air with their generally low temperatures is therefore an
almost certain guarantee of good and long-lasting thermal.
While continental (ie dry) polar air usually allows only blue thermals, their maritime
embossed sister, maritime air polar or arctic origin, thanks to their higher moisture content,
essential "potent"! Mark clouds now clearly visible thermals and make it easier to erfliegen
high cutting speeds.
Although the polar air still produces often initially snow showers, but as soon as they
are only slightly heated, the relative humidity (in absolute terms, low water vapor content due
to the,) decreases dramatically. Rapidly increasing base heights and excellent thermals are
possible if it comes under high pressure influence.
More experienced pilots know and judge accordingly thereafter. The former principal of
the gliding school Homberg, Frank Turner, has stated to me this way: "Boy, you have to
watch out for the puddles at the airport! - If they are in the morning covered with ner ice, then
there's good thermals! "- Indeed, there are at turned-carrying ArktikLuft in the summer in
conjunction with clear nights often nocturnal ground frosts, which then accordingly frost
coatings or just" leave frozen puddles "...
Incidentally, such a cold-air break-ins are more common in winter and spring before
the summer. Therefore Hammer's weather locations are with long-lasting thermal also more
likely in April than in July ...

All together - the thermals in the mountains

The last chapter on the thermal yield and its dependence on temperature and humidity,
we have considered all the important factors. We can now also analyze the best conditions to
find our latitudes, the thermals in the high mountains.
Experience shows that the best climb rates are found in Central Europe actually in the
Alps. Several factors are responsible for this and add up at best to a dynamic of updrafts,
which is usually found in Africa and Australia.
First off is the volume of air that must be heated in total, much smaller than in the
lowlands, as the mountain itself fills a large part of Konvektionsraums. With otherwise
comparable radiation alone resulting already in higher bases than in the lowlands and better
climb values.
Second, oriented to the sun slopes are steep enough to absorb the maximum radiation
per square meter. An example eastern slope gets even at 8:00 am as much energy as a flat
surface around noon.
Third, the lower the ambient temperature of the air at high altitude and ensure (as in one
of the preceding chapter) better thermal yield of the surface of the sun-exposed areas.
And fourth, the near surface heated air further routes up the hill slide as for example in
the highlands. As long as it remains in contact with the slope surface, it is constantly fed more
energy resulting eventually in higher detachment temperatures when the thermals coming off
of a ridge.

29
 The following graphic shows this "standard course". The temperature difference
between the ambient and the hangnah ascending updraft increases continuously, before they
gradually decreases after detachment of the ridge again as in the plains.
The humidity difference in the beard on the other hand is growing while climbing on a
slope not particularly strong. As long as no moisture is supplied (for example, a mountain),
the difference remains smaller than in a "free" rise, since also the air cools with substantially
less than 1 ° C / 100 m. Your yes is continuously supplied energy.
Only when the Bart replaces to a ridge, the normal adiabatic cooling starts again and
the relative humidity increases until the vapor condenses brought water in a cloud.

Thermals in the high mountains

Rel.Feuchte difference
daytime high.

resulting
buoyancy
distribution

exposure

Hidden valley

The resulting solar chimney dynamics in the mountains during the day is so pronounced
that it can generate strong Talwindsysteme. Evening and at night, of course, the slopes cool
too quickly and now cold air flows down the slope, forming in the valleys may veritable pools
of cold air with a strong ground inversion from.

30
 3500 m Thermals in the high mountains
Rel.Feuchte difference
morning, or with valley inversion
3000 m

resulting
buoyancy
2000 m distribution

Valley inversion

Hidden valley

soleada

As long as the associated valley inversion is not baked, comes from the lower part of the
slope but no convective contribution. This has significant implications on the possible
flight tactics in the morning.

Thermals in the high mountains

Rel. Humidity difference

morning, or with valley inversion

resulting
buoyancy
distribution

Climb values> sink rate

Indeed inversion

Hidden
valley

31
 As a glider (or HG or PG) can only rise when the air mass rise exceeds the sink rate of
the aircraft, there is also a "red zone" within or below which a ballooning up is no longer
possible. While the comrades can only 100m climb higher with increasingly better climb
values, are found rarely ausfliegbare conditions below this limit and it remains only the
frustrating slipping into the valley.
Correspondingly high you have to be hauling, for example in a glider to get safely after
the first thermals!
With the heating of the ground inversion not only the thermal fast stronger, the base
will increase rapidly under favorable circumstances continued to rise. Now is also a little
lower down the slope sufficiently strong climbing to be found and the working height
expands rapidly.

Thermals in the high mountains

Rel. Humidity difference

resulting
buoyancy
distribution

Climb values> sink rate

Hidden
valley

Not always is the air mass but so dry that the cloud bases arise far above the summit
ridges. On the contrary! - Often the tops are even with the best conditions even in the clouds.

32
 exposure

Hidden
valley

The quality of the thermals that is not necessarily a disadvantage. - Much more
important is the quality of the air mass, or more precisely its temperature and its humidity
shares. Because the lower the air temperature, the better the implementation of the radiated
energy in hot air on a slope.
They even exceed the threshold can be found above which ausfliegbare updrafts falls
under favorable circumstances. - The only drawback: The slope near the ascendant band is
generally relatively narrow and therefore can not always make the most of. Often hang close
eights are installed to be able to work out height and circling is possible only in favorable
terrain sections.
The following photo is from a 1100 km flight on 14 April 2009 and shows an example
that after a massive polar air-slump, despite apparently low base, long distances are possible.

33
 Of course, the conditions are rarely as good. - Especially on days with "good weather"
and unrestricted exposure, it may be that the sail flying conditions deteriorate. For an
unobstructed exposure is usually associated with high air pressure: Only areas high air
pressure solve by their descending air masses, the high cloudiness and form alongside
inversions from. These barriers also have to stop the pleasant feature about developments for
showers and thunderstorms. but you can extremely limit the convection in the Alps and the
"working level" as in the lowlands also completely prevent the convective cloud and in
extreme cases.

34
 which is again evident in the graph above and below the image.

While in this picture, despite more pronounced inversion, working height is still enough, the
next graph shows also common situation with very low barrier layer.

35
 also when the air mass has yet been strongly heated (ie "rotten" on the plane jargon),
and that happens also faster than in the lowlands in the Alps, then the thermal yield falls out
lean. The narrow flyable altitudes between the start of the "red zone" and the inversion then
often allows only a laborious polishing on a slope.

The practice test: The World Gliding Championship 2012

After we have made us intensely familiar with the theoretical aspects of thermals, we
can again conclusively verify the hypotheses based on the conditions during the gliding
World Cup.
The 2012 World Cup was held from July 28 to August 19 (in the southern United
States) held in Uvalde in the State of Texas. Geographically Uvalde approximately the same
height as the northern Sahara. So accordingly strong the radiation in summer. In addition,
Uvalde benefited from the nearby Gulf of Mexico, pull into the interior with frequent humid
air masses.
The thermals are regularly so good that glider insiders even rave about the "Uvalde
Weather". The 2012 World Cup was no exception. So tasks over 600 km of partially
advertised. The cutting speeds achieved were partly at up to 160 km / h!
Some participating nations had set up their own websites, which made it possible to
follow the competition course. Especially revealing was the site of Team Canada. There the
pilots published even short debriefing after each competition day.
The descriptions of David Spring Ford (F1), Jerzy Szemplinski (XL), so both 18 meter
class and Nick Bonniere (ST) 15 meter class provided valuable information's first hand to
verify the theoretical considerations on the thermals on ...

36
 The intriguing question: How can the hammer thermals behaved in Uvalde during the
day and gave it to observe characteristics? - are striking as the generally high air
temperatures. It was so hot during the contest that to achieve the operating temperatures that
are necessary to a working height of about 800m, were at each competition day at least 30 °
C! Daytime temperatures reached almost daily 40 ° C and crews and helpers were often glad
when they konnten.- be drawn back into air-conditioned rooms after the departure of its pilots
Here are two very typical competition day are documented that reflect these conditions well
and also the theoretical reflections on thermals confirm ...

Saturday, 11 August 2012 - 7th competition day

The air mass is very warm, but relatively dry. The operating temperature is 35 ° C! -
The daily maximum is expected at 39.5 ° C. be predicted initially blue thermals and later
scattered cumulus. The starting readiness is initially set at 13.00. - For 15:00 climb rate of 2
be - predicts 2.5 m / sec. Wind speed 10-15 knots (20-25 km / h). See also below Temp.

37
 The high air temperatures can be in spite of the extreme radiation only at 13.30 to a start
of the field.

The following graphic shows an enlargement of the Temps from above. To illustrate the
influence of moisture on the upswing, I have the respective virtual temperatures of the thermal
at the base and the ambient air is calculated. In memory of:

The virtual temperature is the higher temperature, which would have dry air in order to
have the same density as lower humid air at the same pressure.

Using the virtual temperature, the expected conditions at the base can be compared
directly, although the rise and ambient air have the same air temperature. Because, as
explained in detail in the first chapter, a temperature difference between the ascendant and the
surrounding area is not detectable with standard measuring methods in the highest!

Virtual temperature difference between the base

and around Bartan = + 1.31 ° C

2-

Unlike the "theoretical" temperature-difference, which solely by the humidity

differences between Bart (100% rel. F. at the base) and ambient air (55.3% rel. F., Delta here
about 44% RH) conditionally is. So it is on this day in 2500 m height calculation about + 1.3 °
C! - According easier the thermal air at the base, and thanks to the temperature projection
(and thus the density difference) it is when the air in the diurnal variation is slightly drier still,
even managed to penetrate a bit far into the inversion. (See also red arrow and thin blue line at
about 2900 m, or 9500 ft and the corresponding rise of the base).

After this small digression into the theory back to the actual conditions at the World
Cup. The 15 meter class flying on August 11, a Assigned Area Task

38
max. 587 km. The next picture shows the flight recording of Nick Bonniere (15 meter
class).

Nick was towed at 13.30. but almost all pilots flew only at 14:40 from local, shallow
cumulus than had formed that look promising.

Thermal profile Uvalde (Texas), 11/08/12

(Inversion 2300 m, flat Cumuli, trigger T. 35 ° C, max. Temp. 39 ° C)

251HENRY BLUM

Above the thermal profile of the flight. The strongest beard is marked in red.

39
Here again are the same graphics and comments from Nick Bonniere only in the original and
translated into German.

Thermal profile Uvalde (Texas), 11/08/12

(Inversion 2300 m, flat Cumuli, trigger T. 35 ° C, max. Temp. 39 ° C)

Original comment: The third graph shows the thermal profile. The highlighted best thermal is at the end of
the best glide above, a great run! If only all the runs were that good!
You can therefore see the zigzag in the lift showing dass die thermal is not quite centered. You can
therefore see did the best lift that found between 7500 'and 9800'. It therefore shows the concentration of
lift between 4 and 6 kts. And lower down, you can see the poor lift taken on final glide to get back Onto
glide slope.
Translation: The graph shows the thermal profile. The best bit is marked in red and stood at
the end of the best gliding flight. A great run. If only all would have been so good!
On the basis of the points in the climbing you can also see well that the thermals not quite
round (so ripped) was. The best climbing was between 7500ft and 9800ft. It also shows the
"center of gravity" of the rising 4-6 nodes (2-3m / sec). And below you can see the faint beard
adopted on final approach to get back on glide path.

I "marked with arrows how the climb rate with the height of first increased (orange) and then
(at 2500 m, see Temp) after penetrating the weak inversion until at 2900 meters again
gradually decreased (red).
Matthias Sturm (GER), incidentally, was winner in the 15-meter class with an average
speed of 150.9 km / h over a distance of 502 kilometers.

Friday, 17 August 2012 - 12th place competition day

The air mass is typical of Uvalde again very warm. Cumulus are expected. Ready to
start is set at 12.30. The operating temperature is now at 32 ° C. The daily maximum is
expected at 38.5 ° C. - For 15 o'clock in the afternoon will again climb rate of 2 - / forecast
2.5 m sec. Gusts fresh wind of 15-20 knots (25-35 km / h) from the south.

40
 The 18-meter-class flies a 653 km task. Departure time of the winner: 14:21 local! -
The fastest pilots reach an average speed of nearly 158 km / h!

F1, David Spring Ford, CAN -

ASG 29-18, 17.08.2012)

Here the barogram David Spring Ford's flight and his insightful comments on it ...

41
 We (Jerzy and David) struggled to find good climbing (Initially, at least locally, after the
departure at 14:00) and I was in front of the first turning at 3300 ft down (point 1), I flew the
second leg between 4-5000 ft with course north into the hills (2). Directly in front of the
second turn I could finally climb to 6000 ft. When we vorflogen the hill country, was Jerzy
about 800 ft higher than I (250 m!) And found a beard (3) I'm no longer caught in my height
and he was able to get fly away. -We found the thermals was below very out of round, but above
6000 ft (1800 m), it was better.

resulting
buoyancy
distribution

42
 habich the described situation again displayed graphically for better understanding in
the second graph and drawn the lift distribution described in the chapter on high cloud base ...
The red line marks the approximate boundary between the rather tattered and the
homogeneous becoming thermals (red and green arrow ).

comparative evaluation
Now, if we again compare some of the core statements on the thermals from the
previous chapters with the found in Uvalde conditions, this yields unique matches:

• High air temperatures mean lower irradiance yield on the ground and later onset of
thermals! The radiated energy is consumed on the ground to a large extent for evaporation.
The higher the starting temperature, the more this percentage is missing for the heating of
the boundary layer air. ->The release temperature was at all competition days over 30 ° C!
Therefore, all classes often flew just wide off after 14:00 local time.
• The stronger the wind, the stronger the boundary layer air are mixed, from which form the
thermals. They may only grow to the height (especially wet technical) together. The
increasing relative humidity in the beard then can be homogeneous also rising. ->Even that
was too obviously clearly felt at the World Cup and is clearly visible not only in the
thermal profile. In a final analysis of the World Cup Nick Bonniere reported extensively
from his frustrated attempts to better come up with the sometimes very turbulent thermals
cope. He tried it first with shifts of emphasis, then with different flap settings. Then he
changed the angle at the cranks and the attenuation of its vertical speed - ultimately in
vain. In the end, he had the strong beards if they were torn, simply, as long as its working
height allowed the ...
• The increasing with height differences in the relative humidity ensure a gradually
diminishing air density in the beard. Especially for large base heights thermals are
therefore with the altitude wider and stronger! ->At the World Cup, the climb rate rose
upwards and at cloud base around the 3000 meter's climb rate was up to 5m / sec. - Who
but deep down flew at the World Cup, had to accept very weak rise in part to get home.
Team Canada was no exception. Even with the pilot who landed at the end of podiums,
there was such a "slip, even several times!
• Cloud formation improves the thermal conditions on, since the stored on the ground as
latent heat energy in the cumulus is free again. ->Of the
"Clouds Turbo" made in Uvalde for significantly better climb and it ran under cloud
streets partially fantastic. With otherwise the same air mass's other hand was significantly
weaker conditions in the blue.
• With the penetration in the inversion of the beards be weaker upward again and
listen to all until buoyancy balance. This too is very nice to Nick
Bonniere's thermal profile from 11.8. to see.

Conclusion: All theoretical derivations also hold the "practice test" a World Cup was ©!

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 Closing remarks

With the inclusion of moisture in our theories we have an excellent key to

understanding the thermals. - so gets its buoyancy while 100% of the incident solar energy,
but this is initially stored in two parts, both in the heat of the air cushion on the floor, and in
the form of latent energy in its water vapor content.
Only the first few hundred meters of a thermal hose, the buoyancy supplied mainly
from the temperature difference, the originally given him the sun. After that, the moisture
takes over beard with its ever-growing, relative humidity "more and more the role.
Only understanding of these mechanisms allows a conclusive interpretation of all
phenomena that we know as glider pilot as well and appreciate ... ->

MOISTURE IS NOW TIME THE "SOUL OF THERMAL!"

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 APPENDIX

credentials

Elsner, N. (1980). Basics of Technical Thermodynamics, Akademie Verlag - Berlin Georgii,

W. (1956). Aviation Meteorology, Academic publishing company GmbH - Frankfurt

Georgii, W. (1969). Meteorological navigation of gliding. Vieweg + son - Braunschweig

Müller D, Kottmeier C. (1984). Meteorological aspects of distance gliding,

Selbstverlag - Hanover

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