;.,.

~---- ---_.-._--------=
AUTHORITY

It- is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for

study/ training purposes only.

When canying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you

MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer's handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as-regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

Ear health and safetyin the workplace yOll.&nould follow the __ - - - - - -

regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.

-------------
-------------------
ACKNO~EDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
BAE SYSTEMS

for permission to reproduce drawings.

----------
----------

------

-----------------
CONTENTS

PAGE

General principle 2
Requirements 3
Valve-ram type of PFCU 4
Power assisted controls 5
Power operated controls 6
Manual reversion 8
BAC 1-11 unit 9
Self contained type of PFCU 12
Artificial feel 14
Q feel 14
Hydraulic feel simulator 16
Trimming 17
Autopilot system 18
AlP servos 23
Airbus A300 flying control systems 29
B767 flying control systems 33
Yaw damper 35
B767 yaw damper system 37
Fly-by-wire 42
A320 fly-by-wire flying control system 43
777 fly-by-wire flying control system 48
Fly-by-light 53
Mach trim 57
Stall warning systems 59
 HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book should be read in conjunction with the book in this series entitled
Flying Control Systems. It is written specifically for the B 1 mechanical
technician to level 3 standard. He / she should have a thorough understanding
of the complete flying control system of a large modern airliner, including all
the "peripherals" such as powered flying control units, Pitot/ static inputs,
autopilots, yaw damper systems etc.

The book covers the same syllabus for the A line mechanic but he/she need
only know the subject to level 1 standard.

~~-------

------- - -- ---------~~-
--------._-_._--"""~~-
 POWER FLYING CONTROL UNITS
(PFCUs)

QUESTION: Why are PFCUs fitted to aircraft? (3 mins)

ANSWER: Because of the speed of the aircraft andj or size of the control
surfaces the aerodynamic loads imposed on the control surfaces
are too great for the pilot to overcome using manual force only.

The control surfaces of largejmodem high performance aircraft are subject to

high aerodynamic loads. These loads are related to the formula ~ p~ S, where
p = density (1.2 kgjm 3 at sea level).
v = velocity of aircraft.
s = is related to control surface size / angle of deflection.

As the aircraft have got larger andj or faster so v andj or s in the formula have
got greater with a resultant increase in aerodynamic loading.

These loads are likely to be in excess of those which could be comfortably

accommodated by the pilot. To assist the pilot in overcoming these loads some
form of powered operation of the control surface is essential. With fully power-
operated controls the normal forms of aerodynamic assistance ie, aerodynamic
balance, spring balance etc may not be required.

Where a control system is fully powered the pilot has no feel of the
aerodynamic loads on the control surface. Therefore hej she canr.ot
instinctively position the control surface in relation to the speed, attitude and
altitude of the aircraft. If through the lack of such control, rapid movement is .
applied to a control surface, the surface may be damaged, the airframe may be
over-stressed or the aircraft may become unmanageable. The pilot must
therefore be given some indication of the aerodynamic forces on the control
surface by an artificial feel device incorporated in the control system.

If the system is computer controlled'{fly-by-wire] then the pilot may not be

given any feel at all - either artificial or otherwise. In this case when the pilot
makes a control input the computers judge whether the command can be made
by. that control surface ....the.speed of movem~!ltgnqth~~~ge. If the pilot over
selects - which would normally cause the aircraft to go into a violent- .----
manoeuvre or cause damage to the airfrarne Zcontrol surface - then the
computer simply gives the pilot the maximum movement of the control surface
under those circumstances. Thus the aircraftj control surface will not be over
stressed.
On aircraft such as the Boeing 777 (which is fly-by-wire) the conventional flight
deck controls are provided with artificial feel.

There are two basic types of PFCUs:

(a) Valve Ram Type.

This consists of a valve and ram assembly supplied with hydraulic power
from the aircraft's hydraulic system.

(b) Self Contained Type

This unit consists of a self contained hydraulic system with an electrical
supply from the aircraft's electrical system to operate the hydraulic
pumps.

General Principle

When the pilot moves his controls a sensitive hydraulic valve is selected in the
PFCU and the PFCU output jack starts to move. As soon as the output jack
starts to move it's movement is felt back at the selector valve - and it tries to
de-select the valve. In more technical terms this is called "feedback".

QUESTION: There are two types of feedback - negative and positive. Do you
happen to know what sort this is? (1 min)

ANSWER: This is NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - as indeed it is in all control

systems. The negative feedback is fed back from the output of the
system (in this case a PFCU) to cancel the input.

SUMMATION DEVICE
y
i
l
------

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SIGNAL

Fig. 1 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

-2 -

-~--~------~
The fundamental requirements of a powered control system are:

(a) Sensitivity - The system must respond as rapidly as possible to input

signals initiated by the pilot. To ensure this the servo valve must be
sensitive to small input movements.

(b) Stability - The system must remain stable and uninfluenced by any
signals which do not originate from the pilot. To maintain stability it is
essential to ensure that the linkage is free from backlash, that the
dampers function correctly and that the hydraulic system is free from air.

(c) Rigidity - Flexibility in links and anchorage's must be eliminated.

(d) Irreversibility - Once a control surface has been selected to take up a

particular position it must not be deflected by the airflow.

(e) Pilot's feel - In power operated systems feel must be provided by artificial
feel units. On power assisted systems the arrangement of the linkage
provides feel (proportional feedback - nothing to do with negative or positive
feedback).

(1) Emergency Measures - In the application of PFCUs to aircraft there must

be provision for alternative methods of control so that in the event of a
mechanical failure of the PFCU the pilot will still be able to control the
aircraft. There are:

(1) Manual Reversion. Where the pilots input lever is automatically

connected mechanically to the PFCU output lever, in the event of
hydraulic failure.

(2) Duplication of Components. Where there are more than one PFCU
operating each control surface. Interconnected via spring rods.

(3) Split Surfaces. Where each control surface is divided into two or
more portions. Each having it's own PFCU. Therefore in the event of
failure of one unit the other portion or portions of the control surface
willcontinue-to be operated by their own particular unit and the
portion which is operated by the failed unit will be isolated. Failure
of a PFCU is indicated to the pilot by warning lights or magnetic
jnd.j~ators. Afailed PFCU should go automatically into the trail
position during flight.

(4) Duplication of Hydraulic Supplies. Most large aircraft have three

independent hydraulic systems all connected to the PFCUs.

- 3 -
---
---~---.~
-- --~~ -- -----

.....

-------~----~
 (5) Duplicate control runs with a disconnect mechanism should one
become jammed.

(6) Fly-by-Wire'Systems. For 'Fly-by-Wire' aircraft with computer

controlled PFCUs there is duplication or triplication of the PFCUs and
of the computers. It is also usual to have each computer working
with software that is supplied by a different software house than that
used by the other computer.

Some data buses may also be duplicated.

Manual reversion is also available - albeit in a limited form - should

all the electronics 'go down'.

All the above requirements are, of course, laid down in JAR25.

VALVE RAM TYPE PFCUs

As can be seen in figure 2 the simple PFCU comprises a jack body connected to
the control surface, an equal area jack ram connected to the structure, and an
integral servo valve connected to the pilots control. When the servo valve is
neutral the delivery ports are closed and the fluid is trapped in the jack body so
that the jack is hydraulically locked. When an input signal is applied the servo
valve slide moves to open one port to pressure and one to return, and the jack
body moves along the ram under hydraulic pressure moving the control
surface.

Return

Jack body valve

..
Output to
control surface
" " ..
""
.

Jack ram

Fig. 2 VALVE RAM TYPE PFCU

- 4 -

- ---~--~~~~-
 As soon as the input ceases ie, the pilot's control (and slide) is stationary in it's
new position, the jack body continues to move relative to the servo valve slide
until the slide is in the neutral position. This closes the delivery and return
ports and ensures a hydraulic lock within the jack. The control surface is now
in the correct position as commanded by the pilot.

This 'follow up' of the jack body is the negative feed back part of the system. On
some systems it is a separate linkage and can be called "a negative feedback
system". On this system no separate system is required - but it is there never-
the-less.

So long as the pilot keeps the input going, the selection will be maintained.
But as soon as he/she stops, the jack body will catch the pilot's input servo
slide up and cancel the selection. This amount of movement is small and takes
a fraction of a second.

The same PFCU can be mounted in two ways so as to give either fully powered
operation or power-assisted operation.

Power Assisted Controls. (Figure 3)

In this type of control the input link and the output link are connected in such
a way that some of the loading felt by the control surface is felt by the pilot.
Thus the pilot has feel.

When the pilot's control is moved it causes selection of the servo valve which
causes the PFCU to operate. The loading felt by the control surface is also felt
back through the jack ram onto the pilot's input leve-. The pilot will feel a
proportion of this loading, this proportion to be in the ratio a: b. To enable the
system to work there is usually a lost-motion bush (a bush with a small
amount of play in it) at the connection of the jack ram to the pilot's input lever.

P R

~ t
b
To control Burface

.. T
•

Fig. 3 POWER ASSISTED PFCU

-5-

~ - - ----- ~--- ~---- ~ - - ------~----

~~~ _ .. . ._ - - - ~ . -
_ - --_.. _----~
 As the control surface is linked to the control column in such a way that part
of the control surface load is imposed upon the control column when power is
on, proportional feed back provides feel to the pilot, so there is no need for
artificial feel to be provided.

Power Operated Controls

With controls fully power operated the whole of the force needed to operate the
control surface is provided by the power system (hydraulic). Movement of the
pilot's control column moves the control rod of the servo valve. The servo valve
then allows fluid under pressure to operate the hydraulic jack and so move the
control surface.

As all the effort to move the control surface is supplied by the hydraulic jack,
the pilot has no feel of the loads on the control surface. Feel therefore is
provided artificially eg, a spring or "Q" feel.

---
CONTROL COLUMN

HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE

PFCU

PIVOT
- ELEVATOR

.. FLYING CONTROL SYSTEM

-
Fig. 4 FULLY POWERED PFCU
-'
The systems shown so far use a PFCU where the.body of the PFCU moves the
control surface while the jack ram is attached to the structure. With some
PFCUs this is the other way around, in other words the jack body is attached
~ __ ~ _~C:?_~he st~ctu!"~E~the_jack ram mov_esthe control_surfac~ ~~

When the jack ram moves the PFCU there is a "summing link" between the
pilots input and the PFCU output which is in fact, the negative feed back link.

-6 -
 RETURN
I SUPPLY
SERVO VALVE
. INPUT LINK
C 1i1====::::J ~
PILOT INPUT

STRUCTURE
/ ' SUMMING LINK
, ......... SERVe VALVE \
B

~:>-::::=+----- __..J----:------I .... A P.F.C.U. OUTPUT

P.F.C.U. TOCONTROLS

Fig. 5 PFCU WITH SUMMING LINK

With reference to figure 5. When the pilot puts an input into the PFCU the
summing link will initially pivot above point A on the ram. This will cause the
servo valve to select and the ram to move.

The movement of the ram will be in such a way as to try to de-select the servo-
valve, so as soon as the pilot stops his input the jack ram will de-select the
servo valve via the summing link (which moves about point C).

Example

* Pilot inputs to the left.

* Summing link rotates about A in an anti-clockwise direction.
* Servo valve selects.
* Jack ram moves to the left.
* Pilot ceases input.
* For a fraction of a second jack ram continues to move.
* With pilot holding his control still the summing link rotates clockwise
about point C.
* This movement will de-select the servo valve setting it into the neutral
position and holding the PFCU in a hydraulic lock in its new position.

NOTE: The simple summing link shown here is normally a set of links so
arranged as to allow for the incompatibility of the range of movements
between .thejack ram which can be, say 8 to 12 inches, and the servo
valve which is in the range of 0.030". . ------- ,

-7 -
Some PFCUs have a manual reversion facility. This allows the pilot to operate
the controls manually should the PFCU fail. Manual operation will be heavy
with reduced control authority but it is a reliable emergency standby measure.

PILOT'S INPUT

HYDRAULIC FAILURE
(pilot's input lever
locked, fluid bypass
valve open)

SYSTEM PRESSURISED

SERVO VALVE TO CONTROL

~ SURFACE
~~_ _---IoooO'--_.....I
*'0-
,;--------.....-. ...
~ Fig. 6 MANUAL REVERSION TYPE PFCU

When manual reversion occurs the pilot will move the control surface directly
via the PFCU. In this case the PFCU just acts as another link in the system.
The PFCU goes into the manual mode by:

(a) Disconnecting the jack ram from the structure. This is automatic
and allows the jack ram to slide freely back and forth.

or

(b) Allowing fluid to transfer from either side of the jack ram piston.
Both sides of the jack ram piston are connected together
hydraulically by a transfer valve.

- 8 -
 This is normally closed. When normal supply pressure fails the valve
opens and allows free movement of hydraulic fluid from one side of
the piston to the other - with a warning to the pilot. (Figure 6)

In both cases the pilot's input is via the servo valve input and the PFCU moves
in response to the pilot's force thus moving the control surface. In other words
the PFCU acts as a control link between the control system and the control
surface, and has no other function.

TheBAC 1-11 Unit

QUESTION: Before reading on have a look at Figure 7 and give it 4 or 5 minutes

of study time. Can you see how it works?

ANSWER: Read on.

The unit shown in figure 7 is one of a pair which together operate the rudder of
the BAC 1-11. Each unit is fed by a separate hydraulic supply.

Individual input connections via spring struts permit operation of each unit
even though the other has failed and each unit is capable of operating the
rudder on its own.

Operation

Pressure off. A by-pass valve provides a fluid way across the jack ram via
restrictors which operate as virtual control locks with gust dampers. To
prevent cavitation under such conditions, the suction NRV (non return or
check valve) opens to permit fluid flow from the return line.

Pressure on. Pressure action on the by-pass valve closes it against it's spring,
shutting off the by-pass flow. The supply NRV then opens and delivers fluid to
.. ~ rotary control valve awaiting pilotinput.L>.

Input selection, as shown, opens up one side of the jack to pressure and the
_ _.. . other to_r~y.rI!_l~ndjack body Il1oves.i~_directi~n sho\\T~.. ...

Once input ceases, the body will catch up with input, returning the rotary valve
to the neutral 'off position and a hydraulic lock occurs giving irreversibility.

Cross Leak Restriction provides stability within the unit.

-9 -

------ ---~._~------
 UT
....",
...ou. .

'Il'"
" .•• ~, .'f
_-u,. D
fnu"
~

m
.- ........
......... "'CI"

...." "e.
(I ....... ",)

0 IIUI" UII

·,· ...
, .......
I I

,..----------...:': ,.
• I
• I

i
l
!,
.
o
o
I
I

r." :---~ .._-_.-: .

' ...:.: ---

P FeU with no hydraulic supply pressure

UT
_ tM'l''''U1I'

o .....,.

,.n ...
....""'. If
t ........ 81

·
,,--...
,· ,'
I I

, 0

r-------------;: o •
,
I• I
'
t :

'="9=~~~
i :
..,.....,.....
:.:-------- .
I I

~ ;.~~-.-::~
- \~:...

...... ........"
~..
~-.....;:

P Feu with pilot's input and hydraulic pressure supply

Fig. 7 EXAMPLE VALVE RAM PFCU - BAC 1-11

10 -
Emergency

1. System failure. Failed unit reverts to by-pass condition and is driven by

the remaining operative unit via the control surface.

2. Stuck Valve. Upon input the spring strut will collapse in the appropriate
direction permitting full travel of remaining unit rotary valve.

At the same time the micro switch activated by the spring and roller
bearing in the groove, switches on a cockpit warning light and closes a
pressure shut-off valve in the supply to the failed unit, which then reverts
to the condition of by-pass as in 1. above.

The unit shown in figure 8 is one of the pair of units which operate the
elevators of the BAC 1-11.

It is virtually two rudder units in a common case with two rotary valves and
two input spring struts.

-
_ . ,..._ . "

.1"'f'IIIWiIIt
-=-:It

-=

Fig. 8 DUPLICATE VALVE RAM TYPE PFCU - BAC 1-11

- 11 -

~~ ~~ ~~---- ~-- ------

Operation

It's operation is basically similar to the rudder units described in both normal
and emergency modes. However, the left hand by-pass valve has three
positions.

1. Pressure on - fully closed.

2. Pressure off on ground - fully open.
3. Pressure off failure - manual reversion.

Pressure off - on groynd. Both by-pass valves to by-pass condition - but left
hand flow is via restrictor valve which acts as gust damper.

Two system failure in flight. Controls revert to manual. Left hand by-pass valve
held in intermediate position by undercarriage controlled solenoid, provides
unrestricted by-pass as does right hand one. Input signals continue until the
input connection abuts the input stops and so connects input to output.

SELF CONTAINED TYPE PFCU

These are less common than the valve-ram type. They are self contained in that
they have such things as: pumps; valves; reservoirs; pipelines; jacks, etc built
into the one unit. The only external connections are electrical and the control
rods input and output.

Fig. 9 SELF CONTAINED TYPE PFCU

- 1:2 -
 An electric motor drives a bank of hydraulic pumps.

Movement of the pilot's input causes a servo valve to move the main bank of
pumps, which causes fluid to be pumped to one side of the jack. The other
side of the jack is connected to suction. Movement of the jack moves the
control surface and a feedback link mechanism.

This tries to cancel the pilots input signa1. When pilot's input signal stops, the
feedback mechanism "catches it up" - cancels the input and the control
movement stops.

All the components shown in figure 9, except the linkage and control surface,
are housed in the one unit. Figure 10 shows a general view of the control unit
as fitted to the ve10.

Servo & Main Pumps

Electric Motor
driving servo & main pumps

Structure Attachment

\
Pilot's
Input

I
Feed-back linkage
to pilots input link------
(negative feed-back)
To control surface

Fig. 10 SELF CONTAINED PFCU - GENERAL VIEW

- 13 -

- ---------------'
 ARTIFICIAL FEEL

Since any feel the pilot might have had is taken away with a fully powered
system he/ she may over-control the aircraft and overstress the
airframe/ control system.

Various types of synthetic feel devices are used in modern aircraft to simulate
control surface loadings. They vary in effect and complexity depending upon
the aircraft type, size and control characteristics.

Spring Feel (Figures 11 & 12)

With a spring feel unit the pilot pulls (or pushes on a spring). The spring may
be placed directly in line with the control linkage (as shown in figure 11) or it
may be placed "outside" the control run as shown in figure 12.

The spring feel unit is often used as the trim mechanism as well. The neutral
position of the links to the unit can be changed or the unit itself can be moved
to a new neutral position on the structure.

In figure 11 the whole spring unit can be moved to the left or to the right by the
operation of the screw trim wheel-connected by trim cables from the flight deck
or electrically operated.

As the unit moves so it will move the complete system - via the springs - to a
new neutral setting - thus trimming the aircraft.

SPRING BOX CONTROL SYSTEM

\
......
MOVEMENT

~;;;;:;;:;;;;:;;:;:;~YJ ,.,.-- C~ TRIM

WHEEL MOVEMENT

SCREWTHREAD

Fig. 11 SIMPLE SPRING FEEL UNIT

"Q" Feel (Figure 13)

QUESTION: Can you think of any advantages/disadvantages of the spring feel

system? (5 mins)

- 14 -

- - ---- ----------=-==---
 ANSWER: My listings are:

Advantages: * Cheap
* Light
* Maintenance free - almost.

Disadvantages (I can only think of one)

The force is constant in relation to airspeed and therefore takes no
account of how fast the aircraft is flying, and therefore how much
load is being applied to the control surface. For this reason 'Q' feel
is often used.

Q?LCOLUMN
--
TO FLYING
,. • ~
SPRING FEEL UNIT

CONTROL
SYSTEM

• ~
\
••
•••

Fig. 12 SPRING FEEL SYSTEM WITH TRIM ACTUATOR

QUESTION: Any idea how it got it got the name "Q"? (1 min)

ANSWER: It got it's name "Q" from the formula q=1/2 PV 2 . It is the dynamic
equation and we use capital "Q" for "Q feel".

A device which gives the pilot feel proportional to "Q" is the "Q pot". Used on a
number of aircraft, its popularity arises from its simplicity. A disadvantage it
possesses is [oat-oe-cause of the small pressures involvedrfarge areas of
diaphragm are necessary to extract any useful force from the unit directly.

--Theeomponent consists-of--a--sealed~canister.conta ioin g a diaphragm ~~

m_ _ _

separating two chambers. Attached to the diaphragm is a sliding rod operating

on rollers which is pulled out of the casing (against Pitot pressure) with
movement of the control away from neutral.

A base pressure is usually provided by a spring.

- 15 -
 Static Pitot

Diaphragm
'-------r-----~
- Iq I

... Spring
..
CONTROL
SYSTEM
MOVEMENT
.
BELLCRANK

FIXED PIVOT
IDLING LINK

Fig. 13 "Q" FEEL SYSTEM

Hydraulic Feel Simulator (Figure 14)

This is similar in principle to the Q Pot except that the dynamic pressure is
increased hydraulically which then allows for the construction of a smaller
unit.

PITOT PRESSURE

DIAPHRAGM

,.- ~
STATIC
PRESSURE

SPOOL VALVE

.. ~ ~r-rL---
~ ::;
SIGNAL PRESSURE

.. 11
RETURN (

D CONTROL
BELLCRANK
HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE - - - - -
_.~~._---~~
.... . _. ----
4--

- ..
SYSTEM
MOVEMENT
. -,
.
_
.
_
~
.
"-
I I 1 . •
I I I
IDLING LINK
FIXED~OT
LOADING JACK 77777) . ~

Fig. 14 HYDRAULIC "Q" FEEL UNIT

 Construction

A loading jack, connected to the pilot's control in such a way that it extends
whenever the control system is moved from neutral. The system of links ensure
that when the bellcrank is moved (clockwise or anticlockwise) the loading jack
ram is always pulled against signal pressure. The jack is fed with hydraulic
pressure in direct proportion to dynamic pressure.

Pilot stick force is thus also proportional to "Q".

Operation

The hydraulic spool valve is at all times balanced between a down load from
the diaphragm (Pitot pressure - Static pressure = Dynamic pressure) and an
up-load due to signal pressure, which is trapped between it and the loading
jack. As velocity increases so does dynamic pressure and the spool valve is
biased downwards, admitting supply fluid so that signal pressure increases.

However, an increase in signal pressure also increases the up-load on the spool
valve, until it is returned to the neutral position. Signal pressure is now again
proportional to the new dynamic pressure.

A reduction in velocity unbalances the spool valve upwards so reducing signal

pressure until it is again proportional to dynamic pressure.

A control movement causes an increase in the signal pressure line,

unbalancing the spool valve upwards opening the signal line to return, so that
signal pressure falls until the spool valve is again balanced, at which time it
will close.

Signal pressure, against which the pilot is always having to work to move the
controls, is therefore always precisely proportional to the dynamic pressure
acting on the diaphragm.

Trimming

Since the control surfaces are now made irreversible by the PFCUs, normal
trimming by means of tabs is not effective.
----------- -----------
Trimming is usually achieved by "control system biasing" oftenusTilgthe- feel
simulator as the biasing device.

With a spring feel unit the whole unit can be moved to a new neutral position.
This sets the control system and the control surface to a new neutral thus
trimming the aircraft.

- 17 -

-~--=~------------
 QUESTION: Where abouts is the feel unit located in the flying control system?
(2 mins)

ANSWER: Between the pilots input and the next unit down the system - on
most aircraft on Auto pilot servo - but on some aircraft - the PFCU.

Figures 12 and 15 shows the linkage of a trim actuator to set the whole system
to a new neutral - with reference to the "mid" position of the spring feel unit/ Q
feel unit.

Longitudinal trimming is often carried out by the use of a variable incidence

tailplane, so with these aircraft a trimming system would not be incorporated
in the elevator system. Some aircraft also use the fuel for longitudinal trimming
purposes - pumping it to and from a tailplane tank.

CONTROL COLUMN

--
o o o
I
"Q" FEEL POT / 0 o

STRUCTURE
-,
TRIM ACTUATOR
+
I
,. .
o
P Fie U
Fig. 15 TRIM ACTUATOR WITH Q FEEL UNIT

THE AUTO PILOT.gYSTEM

The auto pilot system is capable of holding the aircraft on any selected heading
_________ and tl1e~iIcraftwill return t01:hatheading ifdisplacedform it. The auto pilot
also keeps the aircraft stabilised about it's longitudinal and lateral axes. - - ~~---~--

The purpose of the auto pilot is to reduce the fatigue of the crew on long flights.
While keeping the aircraft stabilised the pilot can manoeuvre the aircraft using
the auto pilot controls. Auto pilot control can provide for one, two, or three axis
(channel) control.

- 18 -
 The main components of the system are:

(a) Gyros (mechanical or laser) to sense the displacement and rate of

change of the aircraft.
(b) Signal conditioning equipment (amplifiers, A to 0 converters, etc).
(c) Computers.
(d) Servos to move the control surfaces.
(e) Controller, situated on the flightdeck.

Operation (Figure 16 & 17)

The gyros and other sensing equipment develop signals which are processed in
a computer and the resulting signal sent to operate servos. The output from
these servos moves the appropriate flying control system.

Most systems can be described in terms of their major channels - the rudder,
aileron, and elevator channels.

The rudder channel receives two signals which will determine when and how
much the rudder will move. The first signal is a course signal obtained from a
gyro compass system. As long as the aircraft remains on the heading that it
was on when the auto pilot was engaged no signal will be produced. Any
deviation will cause the gyro compass to send a signal to the rudder that is
proportional to the angular displacement of the aircraft.

The second signal received by the rudder channel is the rate signal. This signal
is proportional to the rate of turn. The faster the aircraft is turning the
stronger will be the signal. This information comes from a rate gyro.

These two signals are combined, processed, and amplified (in a computer), and
the resulting output is sent to the rudder servo. This will turn the rudder in
the correct direction to bring the aircraft back to the correct heading.

As the rudder moves a feed-back signal is sent back to the computer. This is a
negative feed back signal and is summed with the input signal (from the gyros).
"When the two signals are equal the rudderhasreached the desired position,
the output to the rudder servo stops and the rudder movement ceases. The
rudder will stay in this selected position until the aircraft is in the new heading
---'w-Jlhenthe.re.verse-will happen; ... ._._ _.....

The aileron channel receives it's signal from a gyro which may be the gyro
horizon indicator (on older aircraft) - a separate back of gyros on many aircraft.
Any lateral movement of the aircraft will cause a signal to be sent (after
processing) to the aileron servos.

- 19 -

------
As the ailerons move, a feed back signal is produced. The two signals are
summed, and when equal the output signal to the servo ceases and the
ailerons stop moving.

The aircraft has stopped rolling but is in the banked position and starting to
move back to being laterally level. The input signal to the servo starts to
become smaller and the feed-back signal begins to move the ailerons back to
the trail position. As the aircraft reaches the lateral position so the ailerons
should reach their trail position.

AUTOPILOT
GYRO COMPUTER SERVO CONTROL SURFACE
PFCU

•
0:
dr----L--'
CONTROL
PANEL
CONTROL SURFACE POSITIONAL FEEDBACK

+
Fig. 16 BASIC AUTO PILOT SYSTEM

The elevator channel works similar to the aileron channel.

Flight Controller (Figure 17)

This is manually operated to set the various parameters and cause the aircraft
to perform manoeuvres. Additional command signals can be sent to the auto
pilot from the navigational equipment (INS). The auto pilot can be engaged and
disengaged electrically or mechanically depending on the system.

While the auto pilot is engagedvoperation of the controls on the autopilot

control panel will cause the aircraft to climb or dive, or carry out a co-ordinated
turn.

The engage switch is used to engage or disengage the auto pilot, and most
aircraft have a disengage switch on the control column as well as the control
panel.

- 20-
 Sensing Elements

The directional gyro, turn and bank gyro, attitude gyro, rate gyro, and altitude
control are sensing elements. Though signals are generated from other gyros on
most modern aircraft. The gyros are usually laser operated, housed within
units in the aircraft and are duplicated or sometimes triplicated.

NOTE: For details of the operation of the mechanical and laser gyro refer to
the book, "Instruments", in this series.

The Computer

Before we have a look at this system lets us consider how, in simple terms, a
computer works.
11" ..'
A digital computer will store data as a series of Is and Os. Each 1 or is
called a BIT. The Is and Os are put together to form a word which the
°
computer will store in it's memory. This information might be data that it will
work on, or it might be a programme it will conform to.

The Is and Os are stored in electronic "switches" (with no moving parts), and
the state of the switch indicates the logic, eg:
ON -1
OFF - °
A modern digital computer will have many millions of these switches eg:

1 MEGABYTE chip of memory (common enough these days) will have in

the order of 8 million switches (8,000,000)

The computer can send this data at high speed to another computer (say
2,000,000,000 bits per second). The computer can also receive data from
another computer. This data transfer is carried out along a data bus. Each
computer takes it in turns to transmit information, and they are all controlled
by a "master computer" .

Data Conversion

Much data is analogue (a continucus.variable - eg, the pressure t[ans=d=u=c=e~-.r_~_ _

giving a continuously variable output on a de ratiometer system as described in
the Instruments Book). For a digital computer to understand this, the signal
must be converted to a digital signal. This is done by a device called an
analogue to digital converter (AID converter). So the computer will then "work"
on the digital information. But for many systems outside the computer system
the digital information is useless.

- 21 -

--------_ .. -_._..
_-----~"""---
 FLIGHT CONTROLLER HEADING
o 0 SELECTOR
PITCH HOG ILS

O["c@R ~~~ @)
o
UP

o ENGAGE

ION~FFI 0

RUDDER AlP SERVO

0 0

~
RETURN

~ I HYD PRESSURE

I POSITIONALFEEDBACK

,, ------ .J
I
SIGNALS

11
,
c::J _..J

D 0
...,
,
I
AILERON AlP SERVO

RETURN
HYD PRESSURE
I

COMPUTER
LL-
I
-- --
I
I

IGYROl I
I
ELEVATOR AlP SERVe

,
I

DATA BUS INPUTS

~----~~

,
ALTITUDE
NAVIGATION SIGNALS
COMMAND SIGNALS

Fig. 17 TYPICAL AUTO PILOT SYSTEM

- 22 -

-- --- - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - -
 So for the digital information to, say, drive a servo motor in a control system
the digital information must be converted back to analogue. This is carried by
a digital to analogue converter (D/ A converter). We then have an ordinary
analogue voltage / current signal that can be used to drive motors, instruments,
relays etc.

The computer can perform any function provided it has installed the
appropriate programme. We have computers on aircraft that perform functions
such as:

* Air Data Storage (ADS)

* Automatic Flight Control (FCS)
* Inertial Navigation (INS)
* Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) etc

That's all very well but how does the computer interface with the control
system?

In general it will be connected to:

* A power supply.
* A data bus - from which it will receive information (from other
computers) - and send information to other computers.
* The pilots control panel/control column buttons - analogue signals to
be converted to digital in the computer.
* Sensor inputs. Gyros and altitude sensors.
* Control surfaces - monitoring their position.
* Control system servos - analogue electrical signal to solenoid
operated hydraulic valves - usually.

Servos

QUESTION:Where abouts is the A/P servo located in the flying control system?
(2 mins)

ANSWER: It is fitted beforethe PFCU.

- - - The AjP-.servo-js usually connected mto.rhe control system and is electric or

electro hydraulic in operation.

In the electric type the motor of the servo is connected to the output shaft
through reduction gears. The motor starts, stops, and reverses in response to
command signals from the computer.

- 23 -
bK. .:
¥-... _-
~~-~
~~-
~---
 ARTIFICIALFEEL AUTOPILOT SERVO PFC IJ

--.::::===
pilot input
==='--__ ===='--_.. . . 1==::_-..
control system output

Fig. 18 BASIC POWERED FLYING CONTROL SYSTEM LAYOUT

In the electro hydraulic type a valve is caused to operate by signals from the
computer. This will cause fluid under pressure to pass to a jack (part of the
servo) which will cause the controls to move.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
SERVO VALVE (EHSV)
HYDRAULIC
RETURN PORT
SOLENOID
VALVE NO.2

PRESSURE
REGULATOR 1~~~~~lii~~i~~!!~IJ.
U
CAVITY
~SERV~
~
ORIFICE PISTON
RELIEf
VALVE ~~~------~;--AUTOPIlOT SERVO
SERVO PISTON ~~~~~~i}~~~~~~t POSITION LVDT
CENTERING SPRING
DETENT PISTOHCAVITY
DEl ENT PISTON
OUTPUT POSITION LVDT
SOLENOID VALVE Z
(RUDDER DETENT ENGAGE) INTERNAL
CRANK
SERVO VALVE
SOLENOID VALve ,
(RUDDER HYDR ARM)

fILTER COVER AUTOPILOT

SERVO POSITION
[VDT

OUTPUT CRANK TO
PARRALLEL RUDDER
CONTROL LINKAGE

Fig. 19 HYDRAULIC AlP SERVO

- 24 -

- --~-~---------'-
A Typical System

Figure 17 shows a complete system, and it is usual for most of the components
to be duplicated or triplicated. Figure 19 shows in more detail the operation of
a modern hydraulic servo.

Servo Operation (Figure 19)

Auto pilot OFF. The pilot's input goes in at the internal crank which pivots
about the fixed pivot and moves the output crank to the PFCU. The roller is
allowed to move freely.

Auto pilot ON. With auto pilot on, pressure causes the detent pistons to
move inwards and engage the roller. When the autopilot calls for control
surface movement an analogue signal to the Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve will
cause fluid pressure to be supplied to one side of the control actuator piston
while the other side is connected to return. This fluid pressure will cause the
control actuator piston to move, thus moving the roller and the control linkage,
and the controls.

Pilot Override. The pilot can switch the auto pilot out at any time, but should
he operate the controls when it is engaged it will disconnect immediately.

Combined AlP Servo and PFCU

Figure 20 shows a combined AlP servo and PFCU.

Both units are housed in the same body along with the summing links and
PFCU servo.

When the pilot puts an input in via the summing links the link pivots about A
and causes the main servo to select (the summing links - a complex
arrangement of links - allows this to happen without movement of the
autoflight control jack).

The main jack will move and in so doing will cause the link to pivot about B
and de-select the main servo (negative feed back).

With the auto pilot engaged an electrical signal from the computer will operate
a solenoid in the auto pilot servo. This will cause fluid pressure to go to one
side (or the other) of the auto flight control jack.

- 25 -

- .._-----------"
 RETURN HYD.SUPPLY

..... -........ ..... -.......... _. _........ - _... _...... ....... _. _...... -..... ..........

,
....... - .... _ .... _ ......... _. _ .... _. _ .... _ ... __ . . . . . . __ . . . . _ ........... _ ... 0 ...... _ .... _ • ___ ' ,
~-- " - '

AlJTo-FUGHT

....- ... -..

/
SERv'O

1:--·-····-·····-·--·-·-····-·-··-·-·-·-·-·-·:······-·-.
'
-._.-....-....--.-.-.-.-.-....-..-._-.-.-..;....--.- F
ANALOG
ELECT.
. SIGNAL

OPERATING
,., PUSH/PULL UNK
• C ROM
COMPUlER
LEVER
~~ PIVOT
r-,
UNK ,J
L ;

.... V ~ ~

MAIN
n -411I---,-,"
SERv'O
[U~ I

I
nt

UI <,

AlJTo-FUGHT

..
SUMMING UNKS
CONTROL JACK

B
~ --411I--.-.---.-.----. . , PILOTS
INPUT
I ( J A

... \
OUTPUT TO
~
MAIN JACK
'" FEEDBACK UNK
,...... '"
.

CONTROLS P. F. C. U. HOUSING

Note. The drawing does not show a by-pass valve - this has been omitted for clarity. In the event of
hydraulic system failure the by-pass valve will open and connect one side of the main jack to the
other, at the sametime It will lock the summing links. This will allow the pilot to move the controls
direct- with some difficulty. The P. F. C. U. main jack will then be moved directly by the pilot - which
will move the controls - the fluid in the jack being allowed to pass freely from one side to the other.

Fig. 20 COMBINED AlP SERVO AND PFCU

Movement of the auto flight control jack will move the link (via the summing
links) to cause the link to pivot about pivot A. Thus the main servo will be
selected and the PFCU will operate.

Normal fe~ back will occur with the PFCU ram-moving- the link to pivot about
the summing links and thus cancelling the selection to the main servo.

- --QUES-i'ION:Whentlieauto flight controljack moveswnat happensto-lhe pilot's

input? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The pilot's controls will move as well. So when the auto pilot is in
operation the cockpit controls will move when the AI P makes a
selection.

- 26 -
 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

The following is general information and reference must always be made to the
AMM.

At specified times the system will require a visual inspection; cleaning;

lubrication; and functional checks. It will also require component replacement
and modifications.

System Functioning

Auto pilot OFF. Check the control system for correct functioning
le, A normal flying control system rigging check. (refer to the book in this series
on Flying Control Systems).

Auto pilot ON.

(a) Switch electrical and hydraulic power ON (ensure FMS - Flight

Management System is on).

(b) Configure aircraft for test to run (AMM).

(c) Check flightdeck indications and allow gyros to warm up if necessary

(con figure aircraft to test mode).

(d) With controls central engage auto pilot (ensure it engages smoothly).

(e) Move the controls of the auto pilot controller and check:

(i) That the control surfaces move in the correct sense.

(ii) That the pilot's controls move instinctively.

(iii) That all the controls are co-ordinated in a turn.

(1) Check other computer inputs.

~ -----~----

(h) Check emergency disconnect switch on control column.

(i) Check pitch trim system.

- 27 -

- - -~ - - - ~ - ~~~ ------ -~-----~

 (j) Check duplicate or standby systems.

(k) Check any BITE systems.

(1) Check that any visual and aural warning systems work correctly.

(m) Switch off system, check freedom of controls, and check for leaks.

(n) Reconfigure aircraft, record and sign for work done.

Note

Most large aircraft also have Flight Director Systems (FDS) and Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS). These are compatible with the auto pilot system and
may control:

Altitude hold
Vertical speed
Airspeed hold
Glideslope
Autoland
Heading and Tracking on VOR, ILS, INS.

YAW RATE
GYRO
PITCH RATE
GYRO

ROLL RA.TE
GYRO

DAMPER
ASSEMBLIES

Fig. 21 EXAMPLE OF A THREE AXIS RATE

GYRO TRANSMITTER

- 28 -

- ------------
 EXAMPLE - AIRBUS A300 AILERON SYSTEM

Figure 22 shows a schematic of the Airbus A300 aileron and roll control spoiler
operating system. While there is no need to memorise the system you should
have a good understanding of it's operation, and should be able to relate the
principles to your own aircraft/ aircraft experience.

Note the following:

* The selection (on the down going wing) of the roll control spoilers by the
operation of the pilot's handwheel via the EFCU (Electronic Flight Control
Unit). The handwheel also operates the ailerons of course.

* The inputs and outputs to the EFCU - in particular the input from the
ADC (Air Data Computer) and the output to the ECAM (Electronic
Centralised Aircraft Monitor - for the flight deck displays).

* The spring feel artificial feel unit (2).

* The Droop Actuator (2). Sets the ailerons to the droop position for take-off
and landing. Gives extra lift similar to a trailing edge flap. Automatically
set when the leading edge slats are selected. Does not prevent the ailerons
from working in the normal manner, but biases the whole system so the
ailerons on both wings are set lower that the trailing edge of the
mainplane. It does this by changing the position of the pivot at the trim
screw jack position.

* The Differential and Droop Unit (2) which sums the inputs from the flight
deck handwheel and Droop Actuator.

* Three servo control actuators or PFCUs per aileron - each with its own
hydraulic supply.

* Five roll control spoilers sharing 3 hydraulic systems.

* Aileron Position Transmitter to ECAM.

Autopilot Roll Actuator (A/P servo). One unit with two hydraulic supplies
*
(Green and Yellow). When engaged the righthand side of the system is
~~~~__ __l!!ove9 via the righthand Differential and Droop Unit and the lefthand side
- is move~:Cvia the flight deck controls and the lefthancrside Differential and-------
Droop Unit.

* Operation of the trim system. Operation of the switch in the flightdeck

causes the motor to operate screw jacks via a cable system to set the
whole system to a new neutral.

- 29 -

--- - - - ~ - ~ - ~ - - -
 SPlR & 3.PO BRI( ut
:.., , "1 , &, , t 2. .'1

~
~llra

""Clt =reA" ua

'_I ._._._. _.__ .l. ~:

. .dLL
l-r'
ADC
S" CC

I .. I tI E"CU~ . :,
IEFCU I . ' . .: -

t--ADC 2
J-
-.J
'

.. _..~lO""
11'r--' G i ~2
i · ' ",t
r--SFCC 2

y" I CONT"OL_Ul i"

_ _ _' I FlEel'OH
L._._._._ .••_._ _ .•_..:~
...._.....
8
SERVO CTt PRESSURe
SWITCHES TRIM
SCREW .. I
JACK

ARTIFICIAL
...o
HEl ell
UNIT o
Z
cc
J:
~
~
ACTUATOR W

y y 8 ...:r
..I

~
J:
~

i
...J
c(
u
er
...
~

I
~
ROLL SPOILERS I 2
I
"Il SHWO CONTROL ~
AUTO PILOT
I ROll ACTUATOR

Fig. 22 A300 AILERON SYSTEM

( (
 .'1"....,,"

C~~~~L--~ ~. .-. . . ,:.,.,.,- ,;, . ;. ~

1
...
~p F.e u
iEl Eli-OAOCI
r·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·~

. . .c... ,
i
.
"Cul

~._._._._._._._.~
I
j-:lADC 2
.
POSITION
TIIANSN,TT( 11

Fig. 23 EXAMPLE OF A POWERED FLYING CONTROL

ELEVATOR SYSTEM - A300

With reference to figure 23 note the following:

1. -u'Fhe-re-lat4ve positions of the major-eornponents Pilnts.inputv.Artificial fee=l_ _

unit - Auto pilot servo - PFCU - Control surface- power supplies - position
transmitter.

2. The forward detent bellcrank and the pitch uncoupling unit - allowing
"one side" operation should a "single side" jam occur.
 STUCK VALVE DETECTOR

\- SERVO VALVE

--
--
RuqDER PEDALS
CABLE TENSION

-
I
TRIM WHEEL
REGULATOR

\
»: ~
J RUDDER
CENTRING SPRING
STRUT

~
- I
<,
DIFFERENTIAL LEVER

L1MIT:ING SPRING
!STRUT
w
[0
AUTO PILOT & YAW
DAMPER ACTUATORS

t t

TENSION REGULATOR
& SPRING DAMPER
"Q"POT

Fig. 24 RUDDER SYSTEM

( (
 Rudder System (figure 24)

Figure 24 shows a schematic of a rudder system. Note the:

* Q feel.
* Trim input into the system.
* Autopilot and yaw damper actuators. When operated will move the
system "down stream" to the rudder but not the rest of the system
* Single PFCU - for clarity - normally there would be 3.

8767 SYSTEM

Figure 26 shows the general arrangement of the 767 rudder system and figure
25 shows a simplified schematic arrangement based on the same system.

It is a fully powered system using 3 PFCUs each with it's own hydraulic supply.

Input is via the pilot's and co-pilot's rudder pedals. A cross linking system
ensures that the righthand side and lefthand side move together, but should
one side become jammed, then a detent link or crushable link will allow
operation of the other side of the system.

Most units throughout the system are either duplicated or triplicated (on some
aircraft there are two rudders - which move together normally, but one will
move on its own should the other one become jammed or inoperative for any
reason).

Artificial Feel

Provided by a spring unit. (On some aircraft provided by a Q feel unit with
inputs from the DADC or Pitot static pressures and hydraulic amplifiers).

With reference to figure 25, when the pilot moves the rudder pedals the cables
will move and cause the push/ pull rod to move link 1 about pivot B to cause
the rod to move into or out-of-the-feel unit - pushing against a spring- and-~~
providing feel for the pilot.

__ ~_~MuyementQf th~Lod will also mov_e link~~bout pivot D. This will cause
push/ pull rod EF to move link 4 about H. This will put an input into the servo
valve of the PFCU causing it to move.

- 33 -
 ELECTRICAL COMMAND
([J) = PIVOTS FIXED TO AIRFRAME AND FEED-BACK SIGNALS

• = PIVOrSlllNK CONNECTIONS
i • HYDRAULIC SUPPLY/RETURN
i , ~ = PUSH/PUll RODS
BELL CRANKS

ELECTRICAL COMMAND H
SIGNALS

G~ .".~
RUDDER

E -4
HYDRAULIC
F SUPPLY/RETURN

RUDDER PEDALS
3-
0J
+0
1 _. 1'//:1,\\\'t==M - 2
B
ARTIFICIAL FEEL AND D AUTOPILOT
CENTRING UNIT SERVO

CABLE TENSION
.. .. c
STRUCTURE

REGULATOR

HYDRAULIC SUPPLY/RETURN

;
ELECTRICAL COMMAND AND
FEED-BACK SIGNALS

Fig. 25 SCHEMATIC SIMPLIFIED RUDDER SYSTEM OF THE 767

( (
Trim

This is provided by an electric actuator attached between the structure and the
artificial feel unit. (On some aircraft it is a cable operated screwjack).
Movement of the actuator will cause link 2 to pivot about A moving the feel unit
to the left or to the right. This will set the whole of the system to a new neutral,
change the position of the control surface and hence put a trim input to the
aircraft.

Autopilot Servo

When engaged (using an analogue signal) detent pistons move to "lock onto"
the main servo piston using hydraulic pressure. Signal commands (analogue)
from the A/P computer selects hydraulic fluid to one side or the other of the
main servo piston and it will move. This will move the push/pull rod and cause
link 3 to pivot about D and cause the whole of the system to move. This
movement will put an input into the PFCU servo causing the rudder to move at
the same time.

Yaw Damper

To try to combat an adverse yaw condition associated with Dutch Roll, Yaw
Dampers are fitted. When Dutch Roll occurs sensors (gyros etc) will send
signals to a computer which will send an analogue signal to the yaw damper
servo. This is powered hydraulically and will put a small corrective input into
the rudder system. It causes link 4 to pivot about F and put an input into the
PFCU servo. Thus during Dutch Roll conditions the rudder will be gentle
moved continuously from side to side by a small amount. This action will
significantly reduce the effects of Dutch Roll.

QUESTION: Can you describe Dutch Roll? (15 mins)

ANSWER: It starts from an aerodynamic disturbance causing the aircraft to

yaw.iThis 'causes the wing on the outside of the yawtttrrn] to speed
up and hence gain more lift. Thus the aircraft is both in a yaw and
a bank.

If the aircraft is passively stable enough the combined directional

and lateral stability's will cause the aircraft to move back to its
original position about the vertical and longitudinal axes. If the
aircraft is dynamically unstable then it will overshoot the middle
position and end up in the same attitude but on the opposite side
of the flight path.

- 35 -
 POWER CONTROL
ACTUATOR (3 PLACES)

RUDDER . .R.
RUll

+t+
All (lE" All

EICAS LOWER DISPLAY

1---------------
I ·t -.--
( LEFT YAW DAMPER MODULE ___ YAW DAMPER ACTUATORS

W
I RIGHT 'A" A"PER "ODULE
<UPPER & LOWER)

0\ ___ RATIO CHANGER

FEEDBACK TRANSMITTER
RUDDER RAT~O CHANGER MODULE

MANUAL RUDqER TRIM

RIGIIT FU ONTROL C~MPUTER I ELECTRIC TRIM ACTUATOR &

TRIM POSITION TRANSMITTER
CENl EH FLT !CONTROL (OMPUTER I L-_ _ ~

I LEFT FLT CONTROL COMPUTER I T~J.1 FEEL & CENTERING

DEVICE
1
I
I
DIRECTiONAL AUTOPILOT
SERVOS CLEFT, CENTER, RIGIIT)
RUDDER
PEDALS

Fig. 26 THE 767 RUDDER SYSTEM

( l
 The cycle will now repeat itself with the aircraft gently rolling and
yawing from side to side. This "falling leaf' type of motion has a
frequency of about 1 to % Hz. There is generally no loss of altitude
during this condition.

So Yaw Dampers are fitted to some aircraft as a form of active

stability - using sensors, computers and powered servos.

Ratio Changer

This devise progressively reduces the range of the rudder with increasing
airspeed. Some aircraft have variable stops for the rudder that are related to
airspeed. Many aircraft have fixed stops that are adjustable on the ground
only.

Control Surface Position Indicator

Shows the position of the rudder on a CRT screen EICAS display (Engine
Indicating and Crew Alerting System. Most large aircraft have a system to show
the position of the control surfaces.

767 YAW DAMPER SERVO

The yaw damper system connected to the rudder powered flying control system
provides commands to damp any undesired yaw and to provide turn
co-ordination. With most aircraft two yaw damper servos are provided and they
work in parallel, each with it's own independent input using data from it's own
yaw damper module. When working together their inputs are summed, and if
one works on it's own then the range of movement is usually halved.

Control Panel

Situatedonfheflight deck, it provides for system disengagement and inop

status indication.

--------- -- ~--------

Press To Test Switch

Provides for press-to-test facility for ground testing of the system.

- 37 -
 PRESS TO TEST SIW

FLIGHT DECK
CONTROL PANEL

28V de WEIGHT SWITCH

115Vae

POWER SUPPLY MODULE

SIGNAlS TO & FROM

TAS YAW DAMPER MODULE YAW DAMPER SERVO
PITOTPRESS
AOFA

AIR DATA COMPUTER

FILTER SOLENOID ELECTRO HYDRAULIC

GJ GYRO ROLl RATE &
VALVE SERVOVALVE
C1J ATTITUDE. YAW RATE
LATERAl ACCEl.
11 GROUND SPEED
IP Cl C2 R I
HYDRAULIC

IINERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT SUPPlY-

REnJRN _ _ I ' I I

DETENT CENTRING SERVO PISTON OUTPUT TO PFCU

YAW DAMPER SERVO

Fig. 27 767 YAW DAMPER SYSTEM

( (
 Yaw Damper Module (Figure 27)

This is usually duplicated and takes data from the air data computer (ADC)
and the inertial reference unit to derive rudder commands. Signals are sent as
analogue electrical signals to the yaw damper servo.

The module monitors system performance, provides for manual selection, and
allows for automatic system testing. Displays on the front of this module, in
addition to the control panel, show test results.

Yaw Damper Servo

Analogue electrical commands from the yaw damper modules controls

hydraulic pressure to the servo piston (ports Cl and C2). Movement of this
piston, which is in series with the rudder system, will move the input control to
the PFCU. (see simplified system of 767 rudder system figure 25).

SOLENOID
VALVE ----~"-UJt\lH

-,
POSITION
LVOT

Fig. 28 GENERAL VIEW OF THE 767 YAW DAMPER SERVO

FLIGHT CONTROLS - CENTRALISED WARNING

(an example)---------

Remember - you should be able to read through this example of a centralised

___w.:. :..· =ar==..n=ir:!Ksystem and relate it to your own aircraft/experience. You will not be
asked questio~s~~ it specifically but you should knowinge-neral how a
warning system works and be able to describe its operation.

The centralised warning system provides warning, by means of a red warning

lamp in the flight deck, in the event of a PFCU failure.

- 39 -

-----~---
Warning of individual PFCU failure is simultaneously presented on the flight
engineer's panel. A warning horn is brought into the centralised warning
system when the aircraft is on the ground under take-off conditions. This
warning horn, which is intermittently operated, provides warning on selection
of take-off rpm if:

1. Any PFCU hydraulic pump, or the No 1 or No 2 feel simulator hydraulic

pump is in a failed condition and,

2. Certain surfaces are incorrectly positioned.

The warning horn is also interconnected with the weight switch circuit and the
oxygen altitude switch circuit.

Description

A failure warning lamp on the flight engineer's panel is associated with each
PFCU and is operated by a pressure switch within each unit. These lamps are
parallel-connected to the centralised warning lamp and the warning horn
circuits.

A failure warning lamp is also associated with each of the two feel simulator
hydraulic pumps. These lamps are parallel- connected to the warning horn
circuit.

The centralised warning lamp contains a double-pole switch which is operated

by depressing the lamp unit cap. The switch provides the means of cancelling
the centralised warning.

A micro-switch is operated when take-off rpm is selected, and connects the

warning horn to the centralised warning system and to certain surface position
switches.

Micro-switches are operated by the following surfaces or their associated

controls, as follows:

1. Landing flaps - one micro-switch.

2. Slats - one micro-switch.
3L __ Stmiler§ - 0Ile _micro-~~itch~~__~_
4. Tailplane - two micro-switches.

The micro-switches, which are connected in parallel, are part of the horn
warning circuit and thus provide warning if any of the associated control
surfaces are incorrectly positioned when take-off rpm is selected.

- 40 -
 The warning horn is isolated from the centralised warning system under flight
conditions by the action of shock-absorber strut controlled relays.

Operation

In each warning centralising unit there are three separate channels, each
channel comprising relays, and rectifiers. Two PFCU low-pressure switches
connect to each channel and as all channels are similar only one is described
here.

When the low-pressure switch within a PFCU closes, a supply is passed to its
associated PFCU warning lamp. The same supply is paralleled:

1. To the appropriate channel within the associated warning centralised unit.

The light remaining on until cancelled by the lamp cap being depressed or
the fault is rectified. The centralised warning lamp goes out but the
individual PFCU lamp stays on.

2. To the relay unit. This allows a supply to the throttle operated micro
switch. If take-off rpm is selected the supply is then sent to the weight
switch operated relay - and if the aircraft is on the ground the horn and
lamps are operated.

The circuit operation for the PFCU low pressure switch which shares the same
channel, is similar to that already described.

Control Surface Position Switches

As the micro-switches are connected in parallel, only one circuit description is -

given.

If the control surfaces are incorrectly positioned for the take-off configuration,
when take-off rpm is selected, micro-switches operated by the control surfaces,
or their associated controls, operate the warning horn.

If the micro-switch is operated, a supply energises a relay. The relay contacts,

on closing, close a circuit to the throttle-operated micro-switch which, if take-
££ rpm.is.selected, connectsthesupply to the contacts of w~ight s~jtch relays.
_ _--\,0....
---
If the aircraft is on the ground the supply is connected to warning horn. Thus
the warning horn can only operate from a control surface position switch if
take-off rpm is selected whilst the aircraft is on the ground.

- 41 -
_.;....;i
.-=is~

--~

::~
~"fl
_. . . . _ - - _ . _ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
 FLY-BY-WIRE

The flying control system, like any system, has an input and an output. In fact
it can have several inputs. The pilot is one of then - and normally the main
one - and another is the auto pilot. The output of the system is the movement
of the control surface - and hence the movement of the aircraft.

For the majority of aircraft the input is transmitted to the control surface via a
mechanical linkage - push/pull rods, cables, chains etc. It is a simple system
using technology that is easily understood. However it has its disadvantages.

The disadvantages of a mechanical system over an electrical/ electronic system

are:

* Heavy.
* Requires more maintenance.
* Complex - many different parts.
* Non self testing.
* Not so precise - play - backlash etc.
* Difficult to interface with other electronic equipment e.g. auto pilot.
* Less responsive to actual aircraft needs.
* Less safe - a computerised system can have built-in safety re: stall,
windshear, overspeed, and overload.

The advantages of a Fly-by-Wire system are the reverse of all the disadvantages
listed above, with one additional advantage. An electron system allows the
introduction of active controls and active stability.

NOTE: Active controls are controls that operate automatically to alleviate

usually gust loads -load alleviation spoilers for example. Active
stability is stability achieved by the use of powered control surfaces,
computers and gyros, and not by the design of the airframe. Some ....-'
modern aircraft have no inherent stability and are kept stable only by
computer control via the flying control surfaces - these are mostly
military aircraft at the moment (note the design of some American
figh ters / bornbers) .

Operation - General

With a Fly-by-Wire system the pilot's input is transduced into an analogue or

digital electrical signal at the flight deck end of the system. This signal is sent
to a computer. Mostcomputers are digital in operation so the signal processing
within the computer will be digital - so if the signal arrives as an analogue
signal it will be converted into a digital signal before the computer starts to
work on it.

- 42 -
 This will compare the signal to other parameters to check that it is satisfied
that the aircraft's response will be within its limitations and any other pre-
existing conditions.

If the computer is satisfied then it will send a signal to operate the PFCU.

The aircraft will only do what the computer allows - what is safe - what the
aircraft is configured to do, eg the aircraft cannot be stalled.

Signal Transmission

In a Fly-by-Wire system the signal may be analogue or more usually digital- at

least between the computers in the system. The signal being sent down a
conductor which might be part of a data bus (two wire or several parallel
"'" wires).

In a Fly-by-Light system the signal is converted from an electronic digital signal

to light pulses which are sent down an optical cable. More of this later.

Safety

Most systems will have a level of integrity to make then at least as safe, or
safer, than a mechanical system. This will usually include more than one
power supply; more than one signal transmission path; more than one
computer per signal path; and more than one software supplier for the
(duplicate or triplicate) computers.

AN EXAMPLE - THE AIRBUS INDUSTRIE A320

There is no need to remember the details of this system (or the 777 system that
follows), but you will be expected to have a knowledge of how a Fly-By-Wire
works.

The A320 uses the followingcomputers:

* Elevator and aileron computer (ELAC) - 2.

-----------'*-- - Spoiler and elevator computer (SEC) - 3 --- ----
* Flight augmentation computer (FAC) - 1.

The ELAC and SEC control elevators, ailerons, spoilers, and trimmable
tailplane. The FAC controls stability, has limiting and protection functions and
is as much a part of the EFCS as it is a part of the auto flight system.

- 43 -
The number of computing lanes for a particular function is determined by the
integrity requirements to achieve equivalent safety and response functions to a
mechanical system.

Dissimilar hardware and software is used between control and monitor

functions within each computer to ensure maximum integrity of the system.

Safety Features of the System

The A320 has:

* A high level of redundancy, ie 2 ELACs and 3 SECs.

* Dissimilar redundancy - different computer types, different
microprocessors, and different software suppliers.
* Each computer is in two separate units.
* Separate power supplies.
* Maximum segregation of signalling lanes.
* Mechanical standby for rudder and trimmable tailplane.

Hydraulic actuators
TAILPLANE
ACTUATOR
RH
Mechanical trim elevator
Trim

LH
elevator

Autotrim
Autopilot _
commands
Normal

A1temate
THS - Trimmable horizontal -Wdraulic
Sidestick control
commands stabiliser
ELAC-Elevator and aileron B - Blue system
---------- - computer-~~---- li.:-~en§ysJ~!'D_

SEC - Spoiler and elevator Y - Yellow system

computer

Fig. 29 PITCH CONTROL SYSTEM - A320

- 44 -

- - - --------------'-' -----------------==----
Pitch Control

This is provided by the elevators and the trimmable tailplane. Each elevator is
actuated by two independently supplied, electrical signalled, hydraulic
servojacks (PFCUs).

Surface position indication is displayed on the ECAM display unit - a CRT

screen controlled by the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor. (ECAM)
controls all the CRTs (6 on on the flight deck. The pilot selecting the
information page that he wants onto a particular screen.

Pitch trim is provided by adjustment of the trimmable tailplane. The pitch trim
is signalled automatically in normal operating mode, ie the electrical mode.

Mechanical operation of the tailplane is achieved using either of the two

interconnecting handwheels on the centre pedestal. The mechanical control
will override the electrical control.

Hydraulic
actuators

RH aileron

Autopilot ~~------------~
commands ~ LH aileron

I
I LAF
1
!1
t
( 1 } B - - - -..~SPoilers 2,3,4 & 5
I

Sidestick
commands

LAF - Load alleviation function Hydraulic

I ELAC-Elevator and aileron B - Blue system
,",VIIII-'uter - - - - - - - G-Gfeen-system-- - - - -_ _
SEC - Spoiler and elevator Y - Yellow system
computer

Fig. 30 ROLL CONTROL SYSTEM - A320

- 45 -

-- ---- -----_. ._ - - - - - - - - - - - ' .

Roll Control

This is achieved on each wing by using one all-speed aileron assisted by four
roll control spoilers. The surfaces are actuated by independently supplied,
electrically signalled, hydraulic servojacks (PFCUs). Each spoiler is powered by
one servojack and each aileron by two.

Position indication is given on the ECAM display unit.

Automatic gust alleviation is achieved by the deflection of the aileron and the
two outboard spoilers.

Yaw Control

This is provided by a single piece rudder actuated by three independently

supplied hydraulic servojacks (PFCUs) signalled by means of interconnecting
rudder pedals.

Autopilot
yaw commands Yaw damper
FACs

Rudder trim
..

M - Motor actuator Hydraulic

B - Blue system
-F AC - Flight augmentation G - Green system
computer Y - Yellow system

Yaw damping is operative throughout the flight and rudder and rudder trim
positions are shown in the ECAM CRT. Figure 32 shows a general view of the
control surfaces and figure 33 shows the location of the main components.

- 46 .-
• Electrical signalling control of • Hydraulic actuation of all surfaces
• elevator
• aileron
• ~poilers
• horizontal stabiliser
• flaps and slats
• speed brakes/lift dumpers
• trims

~--Aileron

Flaps
(2 per side)
Slats
(5 per side)

Roll spoilers
.............. Speed brakes

LAF
(Load alleviation function)

Fig. 32 CONTROL SURFACES 85 HIGH LIFT DEVICES - A320

Spoiler actuator
(5 per side)
Electrical rudder deflection
limitation
system Yawdamper
Trimmable horizontal
Rudder stabiliser actuator
actuator (3)
Elevator
actuator (2)

Aileron
actuator (2)~

Flap power
control unit
Fig. 33 LOCATION OF MAIN COMPONENTS - A320

- 47 -
 ANOTHER EXAMPLE - THE BOEING 777

The Boeing 777, like the A320, has a highly integrated flying control system.
Unlike the A320 it uses conventional flight-deck controls. Signalling is via
ARlNC 629 data bus, and various computers and control units. The control
surfaces are hydraulically powered via PCUs.

The flight deck controls consist of a control column for control of the elevators
with a hand wheel for control of the ailerons, flaperons, and roll spoilers. The
rudder bar controls the rudder. These controls are provided with artificial feel
and back-drive motors to move them in the correct sense when the system is
in auto-pilot mode. An aileron trim actuator is also fitted in the system.

LEFT RIGHT LEFT CENTER RIGHT

AIMS AlMS ADIRU SAARU ADI'! (6)
MDC AFDC AFDC
CABINET CABINET
• .. • •• •
FLIGHT
CONTROLS
ARINC 629
.
LEFT
BUSES
- ~::..: l: f=~ loo ==- ~
-:."::: : ~ - l: f=~::
~.:,.: J

CEHTERC
RIGHT c ~
l:: :.1.0::
loo
~ ..
~
~':...
I- ~~::
l: ~ l:: :.~;:
~ :'~:J
J

loo· loo·

~ ~ ~ [:]
D ~ 0 ~ ~
~ r------i [:J ~ r------i D ~ r------l [:J
c )
LEFT PFC, 1'127106 }e=~I· CENTER PFC, "27306 .~t=n. RIGHT PFC, 1'127206
·=n=-,
CENTER ACE, _ RIGHT ACE
LEFT-1 ACE, "27121 1'127221
LEFT-2 ACE, K27122 1'127321

ACE - ACTUATOR COItTROL ,ELECTRONICS AOM - AIR DATA I'!ODULE

-- -----';OlRU - AIR DATAINERTlAL. REFERENCE UNIT --------prc----;. PRIMAlIT,CIGltrt1lfllPUTER
AIMS - AIRPLAHE INfORMAnON MANAGEI'!ENT SYSTEM SAARU - SECONDARY ATTITUDE AND
AFDC - AUTOPILDT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER AIR DATA REFERENCE UNIT

Fig. 34 ARINC 629 DATA BUS SYSTEM

FLIGHT CONTROLS - BOEING 777

- 48 -
 The ARINC 629 data bus is a twisted pair of wires transmitting data in both
directions to all computersjLRUs (Line Replaceable Units). Each
computerjLRU is connected to the bus by untwisting the twisted pair locally
and clamping on an Inductive Couple Unit (which does not cut the insulation
of the bus). In operation each computer listens to the bus and waits for a
quiet period before it transmits. It then waits its turn until all the other
computersjLRUs have transmitted before transmitting again (the system of
listening and transmitting is called "protocol").

Transmitting and receiving is carried out on the same bus. Any

computerjLRU can listen to any data on the bus and receive the data
according to how its personality PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) is
programmed. In other words the computer's permanent memory knows what
information on the data bus is for its use.

....- VHEEl PtSlTUH UU'S

(LI, L2, L3 )

----------

rEELICENTERIN6 ASSY

Note the TRIM ACTUATOR, FEEL UNIT, BACKDRIVE ACTUATOR and TRANSDUCERS (XDCRs)

Fig. 35 AILERON / FLAPERON FLIGHT DECK CONTROLS - B777

-------~ 4-9--= __--

---------- ----------------------~~------'"
Having recognised that the information on the bus at that instant is to be
"read", it will take it in, put it in temporary store (RAM) and act on it
according to its pre-programmed instructions.

The flight control system uses 3 buses (LEFr, CENTRE and RIGHT).

Flight deck control movement is converted into an electrical analogue signal

by transducers (XDCRs) fitted to the flying control system under the flight
deck floor. This signal is then sent to the Actuator Control Electronics LRU
(ACE).

The pilot's controls are connected via the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE)
unit to the PCU. Other units such as the Primary Flight Computer (PFC) are
connected into the system by the ARINe 629 bus. The drawing below shows a
block schematic for the ailerons but the rudder and elevators are similar in
principle.

SPEEDBRAKE
LEVER

ANALOG

=__-
--c
CONTROL
PCU SURFACES

-,.
I I '------'
____.JI__ ..1I
~ Cl
I
t--- l___ BACKDRIVE
ACTUATORS
~ C~~~~~~] D
PFC (3)

c::::=r=====;;:::::===:;:::===::;:=:::I CONTROLS
FLIGHT
---- MECHANICAL
CONNECTION ARINC 629
BUSES (3)

AFOC (3)

Note the analogue signals with all the other signals being digital.

Fig. 36 777 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

- 50 -
 The hand-wheels are connected electronically to the ailerons and flaperons,
and mechanically by cable to some of the spoilers.

The flight deck control is connected to position and force transducers which
signals the pilot's intention by an analogue signal to the ACE. This is in two
way communication via the data bus with the PFC. An analogue command
signal is sent to the PCU to move the ailerons in the desired direction.
Positional feed-back is sent to the ACE which controls the range and speed of
movement of the PCU - and hence the control surface.

The controls have artificial feel to simulate air loads on the control surfaces,
and trimming is achieved by biasing the system neutral by a trim unit
actuator.

Should one side jam then the other side can be operated independently by
overcoming the force limiters. Should the spoiler control cables become
jammed then system operation is assured by the shear-out action of the cable
pulley.

The flight control system can operate in three modes (1) Normal Mode
(2) Secondary Mode- the same as Normal but some of the protection devices
such as bank angle protection do not work. (3) Direct Mode where some of the
computers are not used. Direct Mode is selectable by the pilot or
automatically selected by the system.

Autopilot

When auto-pilot is engaged the back-drive actuator will move the pilots
controls in response to auto-pilot commands. When-ever the auto-pilot is
engaged the back-drive actuators are active. This system gives the same effect
as some mechanical systems, i.e. when auto-pilot commands a control
"... surface movement the flight deck controls move in the same sense (correct
direction) .

This simulates a conventional mechanical system - which most pilots are

conversant with, thus being more reassuring to the flight crew.

When auto-pilot is selected the PCU is controlled by the ACE, PFC and
Auto-pilot Flight Director Computer (AFDC) via the bus. The AFDC will also
send an analogue signal to the back-drive actuator to move the flight deck
-_.-.--- -eentrols-te-eorrespond to-control surface movement. Thus the system-- --------
simulates closely the characteristics ora conventional mechanical flying
control system.

- 51 -
Fault Finding

Besides checking the maintenance manual fault finding section there is an on

board fault finding computer which is accessed via the Maintenance Access
Terminal (MAT) on the flight deck.

The MAT comprises:

* A display screen
* Keyboard
* Trackball - similar to a mouse - controls the cursor
* Selection switch

A Portable MAT (PMAT) can be used which is plugged into the system at
various points on the aircraft.

To use the MAT proceed as follows:

1. * Check the log book for any recorded defects.

* Check any warning flags and/or displays in the flight deck (elect
power on). These are called Flight Deck Effects (FDEs).
* Check for any displays on the EICAS CRTs. (EICAS = Engine
Indicating and Crew Alerting System) (elect power on).

2. * At the MAT in the flight deck you can select:

* INBOUND FDEs
* LINE MAINTENANCE FDEs
* FAULT HISTORY

3. * Under each FDE there will be a maintenance message. Select

MAINTENANCE MESSAGE DATA and the recommended maintenance
action will be displayed.

Some tests can be carried out using the MAT. These can cause the control
surfaces to move as well as the flight deck controls, so it is important to
ensure that they are free to move with no obstructions, and warning notices
displayed.

""""""""""""""""""""""""

- 52-
Fly-By-Light

This system is similar to the fly-by-wire system except that the digital signals
are transmitted down a fibre optic cable instead of an electronic signal down a
data bus or electrical cable. Parts of the 777 fly-by-wire system uses fly-by-
light data transmission technology.

The pilot's input is sensed by an analogue transducer near the flight deck. This
analogue signal is then converted to a digital electronic signal and worked on
by a computer or computers. The signal is converted to digital light pulses for
transmission down a fibre optic cable. At the end of the transmission line the
signal is converted back to an electronic digital signal then converted back to
an analogue signal to operate a solenoid in the powered flying control unit
(PFCU).

The advantages of light transmission of data over electronic digital

transmission are:

* Not affected by electric or magnetic fields.

* Less prone to data corruption due to lightning strikes.
* Lighter.
* Smaller.
* Faster transmission rates.
* More reliable.

The electronic digital data is converted into light pulses by a light emitting
diode and the pulses are carried in a covered glass fibre to the receiver. The
receiver is a light sensitive photo transistor which converts each light pulse
into an electric signal.

ENERGY ABSORBING LOW REFRACTIVE

+V
LIGHT INDEX GLASS COVERING
EMITIlNG
DIODE

.~
.
.....,
..
, , .
l H - -_ _ PHOTO TRANSISTOR

OPTIC FIBRE OF LOW LOSS HIGH

REFRACTIVE INDEX GLASS RECEIVER
TRANSMITIER

Fig. 37 LIGHT TRANSMISSION

--------

---------------------
 OUTER JACKET

STRENGTH
MEMBERS
BUFFER JACKET
SILICONE COATING

I
CLADDING (SILICA) OPTICAL FIBRE
CORE (SILICA) (

Fig. 38 FIBRE OPTIC STRAND

Fibre optic cables usually have several fibre optic strands. Each strand has a
silica fibre optic core with a high refractive index covered by material that
keeps the light in (low refractive index), and adds strength and bulk.

Several strands are put together to make up a fibre optic cable. Dummy filler
strands might be included to keep the bundle cylindrical. The cable is
protected and strengthened by additional material such as tape and aramid
yarn.

Each fibre optic core element is very small - about 0.0055in (0. 14mm) in
diameter, with the fibre optic strand being about 0.035in (0.89mm) in
diameter. The fibre optic cable is about 0.2in (5.1mm) in diameter.

ARAMIDYARN OUTER JACKET

FIUER STRANDS
(2 PLACES) OPTICAl FIBRE
STRANDS (5)
SEPARATOR TAPE

FILLER STRANDS

OPTICAL FIBRE STRANDS

Fig. 39 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

- 54 --
 Fibre optic cables are easily damaged, so should be handled with care. Damage
can be caused by:

* Twisting and pulling - as when pulling through a loom/bulkhead.

* Compression - as when standing on it.
* Routing through too tight a bend (maximum radius 11/2 in .)

NOTE. If damaged the cable may not show any external signs, so a visual
inspection must be accompanied by a functional test/BIT.

Fibre Optic Connectors

There are several different types of connectors. The ends of the connectors are
fitted with a small protective piece of glass which should not be touched, and
""" only cleaned using the approved materials as laid down in the AMM. Always fit
protective caps when connectors are disconnected.

Connectors should only be tightened by hand.

Some connectors are designed to be used in locations that will not warrant
their frequent disconnection. These are sometimes called a Butt Type and have
good light transmission qualities. Those that require more frequent
disconnection are less efficient at light transmission.

FIBRE LENS

PROTECTIVE
GLASS

Fig. 40 DETAIL OF SINGLE FIBRE OPTIC BALL

--LENS TYPE CONNECTION----

The dr-awing below shows..the connector assembly_9QntaiI1i~~!ldividual

single fibre core element connectors. The connector assemblies are large
compared to the cable, but it is necessary to make sure that the two parts mate
precisely so there is minimal light loss.

- 55 -

.. _-_ .. --~ .. _ ~ - - - -

. . . . . _... _-----
 \ OlITER JACKET CRIMP
FERRULE
PROTECTIVE COUPLING OPTICAL FIBRE
WINDOWS NlIT

PLUG BARREL
-
PROTECTIVE BALL LENS (5)
WINDOW

START ---=:S::::::~P'
THREADS (3) GUIDE PINSI ALIGNMENT KEYS
CAVITIES (2)

Fig. 41 CONNECTOR - GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

Currently the Boeing 777 uses fibre optic cables in it's flying control system,
and fibre optics are likely to be fitted to more aircraft types in the future.

WARNING

When disconnecting connectors it is important to make suretfiat the system is

off, made safe and tagged. This applies in particular when the lenses are to be
inspected/ cleaned. Although the light from the fibre optic is of low power it can
be intense enoaghtocause damage to the-eyes. -------------- -----------

""",,",,"",,

- - - ---- ----- -56--~--- -----

-----------'--'=- - ---------------------~
 MACH TRIM

As the aircraft. speed increases towards MeRIT so the Mach effects start to
influence the aircraft's stability and performance. These effects vary widely
between aircraft. On some aircraft the effects can be pronounced and start as
low as MO.7, on others the effects can be very mild and start at around MO.9.
However one general symptom that effects most high subsonic aircraft is the
rearward movement of the centre of pressure [C of P) of the wing. This effect
increases as the aircraft moves through the transonic speed range.

This rearward movement of the C of P produces a nose down tendency which

requires a downward correction on the tail to overcome the instability.

As this instability is a function of the Mach number a system sensitive to Mach

change, which will automatically put an input into longitudinal trim, is
required. The drawing on the next page shows such a system.
)

As the system is sensitive to Mach number and Mach number is a function of

temperature (which is related to altitude), it follows that the system need only
be activated at altitude - hence the use of a height switch. As the system is
only required at high Mach numbers a Mach switch is also included.

An autopilot system would obviously take care of this kind of instability so

when it is operative the Mach trim system is clutched out, but the autopilot
may not always be switched on.

The pilot can carry out manual trim if necessary without upsetting the
operation of the system.

The Mach trim input is via the Mach Transducer and the Summing
Mechanism. When the Mach Transducer puts an input in, an output signal is
sent ( + or -) to the amplifier to operate one of the relays that will motor the
Mach Trim Servo. This will move the cable system and summing gears to select
the servo valve.

As the Mach Trim Servo moves so it puts a negative feed-back signal into the
Summing Mechanism - thus trying to cancel the original input signal. When
the negative reed-back signal equals the Mach Transducer signal the output to
the amplifier ceases, the relay opens and the Mach Trim Serve stops.
Meanwhile the servo valve has been selected and the V.I. tailplane is moving.

The-tailplane Will contmuelo move until theleed:':bactrun1r*catctres up#--with

the position of the Summing Gears (also negative feed-back) when the selector
rod into the servo valve is returned to neutral.

The two feed-back systems work together so that the differences in their timing
is not noticeable.

- 57 -

... _._._------~--~=--
 Examples

Boeing 737 Mach trim is connected to the elevators through the autopilot
system.

On the Boeing 747 it is connected to the tailplane actuator.

ELECT
VARIABLEINCIDENCETAILPlANE
PITOT STATIC SUPPLY

HEIGHT
SWITCH
AUTOPILOT o o
SERVO
~ SCREW JACK

MACH GEARBOX
SWITCH FEEDBACK
.-L-JI-r'--r--,_ HYDRAULIC
t--I~~ LINK <,,; MOTOR
MANUAL
TRIM WHEEL
SERVOVALVE

HYDRAULIC
/ SUPPLY &
/ SUMMING RETURN
GEARS
MACH MACH TRIM
TRANSDUCER SERVO
SUMMING CLUTCH I--_ _ ELECT
MECHANISM
SUPPLY
'---_ ......1----+----....,.-:-----
+

AMPLIFIER

Fig. 42 MACH TRIM SYSTEM

- 58 -
 STALL WARNING/ ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION

These systems are fitted to give warning of an impending stall; to provide for
stick shaker I stick push systems; to initiate engine auto-ignition; to provide
indications on the flight deck, and data to DADC etc.

Stick Shaker

This may be initiated by a stall warning device or an angle of attack

transducer.

The stall warning device may connect the stick shaker/stick push directly via a
micro switch to a de supply. The angle of attack transducers will normally send
angle of attack data to a computer and signals to the stick shaker/stick push
"..... will come from the computer when stalling angle is approached. The computer
will also get data on the configuration of the aircraft, eg flap and slat position.

The stick shaker is a small electric motor attached to the control system close
to the control column (actually on the column on some aircraft). When
switched on it turns an out-of-balance wheel which causes the control column
to shake (also with an aural warning) - warning the pilot of an impending stall.

Stick Push

This system operates a pneumatic jack/ actuator connected to the elevator

control system. When operated it gives a push to the control column to pitch
the aircraft dose down. The pilot can override it by the operation of a switch -
this releases the pressure in the jack. The force provided by the jack is such
""'. that the pilot can overcome it if necessary. When not supplied with pressure
the jack moves freely with the control system.

Pneumatic supply pressure can come from a tapping from the j et engine -
typically about 40 psi.

The system may have the following inputs:

* Airspeed switch - increases the speed of operation of the system

' - - ' - - - - , with reduced airspeed.
* Stick shaker relay, which receives the signal from the angle of
attack transducer.
* Flap, slat and aileron droop position. When deployed increases the
stalling angle.
* Weight switch - activated only in the air.

- 59 -
 Pneumatic Stall Warning

Consists of a slot cut in the leading edge of the wing and connected by a
plenum chamber and small diameter pipe to an air operated sound reed
situated in the cockpit. Fitted to some small aircraft.

As the angle of attack increases so the stagnation point gets lower, this causes
a negative pressure to be felt in the plenum chamber and pipe line which
causes air to be drawn in through the sound reed. This causes the reed to give
out a warning sound.

Fig. 43 PNEUMATIC STALL WARNING

Leading Edge Stall Warning Vane

---Pitted close to the stagnation point on the leading edge of the wing on some
smaller aircraft so that as the angle of attack is increased the upward airflow of
the air at the leading edge will cause the vane to move up [normal angles of
._.. ·_--~-~-attac-k will keep it pusheddownt.-As--it-does-so a microswitchis operated --_..._. ----
causing, usually, a warning lamp to come on in the cockpit. In some aircraft
the output is sent to an electrical summing unit.
 LEADING EDGEVANE
ELBc:TRICAL SUPPLY PLUG

TRANSDOCER
OPERATING
VANE

Fig. 44 LEADING EDGE STALL WARNING VANE

Rotating Angle of Attack Probe

Consists of a moveable probe, with two slots in it, connected to a paddle.

The two slots in the probe are open to dynamic pressure (airflow pressure)
which are connected to tw-: chambers separa.ed by the moveabie paddle. The
paddle is connected to the probe so that as it moves so does the probe.

As the angle of attack increases so the airflow moves towards the bottom slot,
increasing the dynamic pressure in this slot and under the paddle. This causes
it to move up and rotates the probe to move the slots down. This action will
reduce the dynamic pressure in the bottom slot and increase it in the top slot
and cause the slots to take up a position wherethe pressures are equal in
both. Thus the paddle will take up a position that is related to the angle of
attack.

The paddle position is transduced into an analogue voltage signal by being

connected to a variable resistor (potentiometer). This signal can be sent to a
computer (DADC) where it is converted to a digital signal and stored/sent to all
those systems that require alpha (a) (angle of attack) information. These
include:

- 61 -

---------------
 '* Stall warning -lights - horn - stick shaker - stick push.
'* Engine auto-ignition - prevents engine flame-out with
turbulent conditions in intakes.
'* Instrument systems.

SWTS If
AIRFLOW

Fig. 45 ROTATING ANGLE OF ATTACK PROBE

Trailing Angle of Attack Vane

This is a trailing wedge type aerofoil that 'trails' in the air flowing passed the
aircraft and therefore is always at the same angle as the airflow. Like the
Rotating Angle of Attack Probe it is mounted on the side of the fuselage and
may be fitted to both port and starboard sides of the aircraft to allow for errors
due to side slip etc.

It's position can be transduced into an electrical voltage signal (analogue) by

the use of a potentiometer and this signal can be sent to summing units or
computers similar to the Moving Probe type.

Both Trailing Vane and Moving Probe type units are electrically heated to
prevent ice formation.

Fig. 46 TRAILING ANGLE OF ATTACK VANE

Figure 18 shows the a circuit for the BAe 146. Note the following
inputs/outputs:

* Weight on wheels (squat).

* Flap position.
* Test.
* Power supplies.
Airspeed.
* Fail.

DE-ICE

AIRFlOW
SENSOR
VANE

SQUAT
TEST

1~ FLAP INPUT

AtJA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE POSH

IDENTIFICATION
SIGNAL -v.~E EXCITATION
IDENT SUMMING - ACA SIGNAL ----~
FAIL UNIT

AC POWER
f• DC POWER
RATE INHIBIT
AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER
ONE CHANNEL SHOWN
TWO CHANNELS PER sYSTEM

AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER
DC POWER

1~
WARNING
AC POWER

ACA AIRFlOW SENSOR VANE POSH

SIGNAL 10- VANE EXCITATION ----...I
WARN
FAlL
SUMMING
UNIT ...... 'AeA SIGNAL --------1

r flAP INPUT
TEST
SQUAT

Fig. 47 ANGLE OF ATTACK/WARNING CIRCUIT - BAe 146

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