Table of Contents:

Chapter1: introduction
1.1 Project Overview
1.2 Project Objective
1.3 Project Flow

Chapter2: Wireless sensor networks

2.1 wireless sensor networks

2.2 Key definitions of sensor networks

2.3 applications on wireless sensor networks

2.4 Network topologies

2.4.1 star network (Single Point-to- Multipoint)

2.4.2 Mesh network
2.4.3 Hybrid star – Mesh network

2.5 power consideration in wireless sensor networks

Chapter3: Sensors
3.1 control sensors
3.2 classification of measurement errors
3.3 type of sensors
3.4 application

Chapter4: Related work

Chapter5: Design and implementation

4.1 introduction
4.2 theory of operation
4.3 model

Chapter6: Conclusion and feature work

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Appendices
1
CHAPTER-1 Introduction

Modern wireless sensor networks are made up of a large number of inexpensive

devices that are networked via low power wireless communications.
It is the networking capability that fundamentally differentiates a sensor network from
a mere collection of sensors by enabling cooperation, coordination, and collaboration
among sensor assets. Harvesting advances in the past decade in microelectronics,
sensing, analog and digital signal processing, wireless communications, and
networking, wireless sensor network technology is expected to have a significant
impact on our lives in the twenty-first century. Proposed applications of sensor
networks include environmental monitoring, natural disaster prediction and relief,
homeland security, healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and home appliances and
entertainment. Sensor networks are expected to be a crucial part in future military
mission, for example, as embodied in the concepts of network centric warfare and
network-enabled capability.

Wireless sensor networks differ fundamentally from general data networks such as the
internet, and as such they require the adoption of a different design paradigm. Often
sensor networks are application specific; they are designed and deployed for special
purposes. Thus the network design must take into account the specific intended
applications. More fundamentally, in the context of wireless sensor networks, the
broadcast nature of the medium must be taken into account. For battery-operated
sensors, energy conservation is one of the most important design parameters, since
replacing batteries may be difficult or impossible in many applications. Thus sensor
network designs must be optimized to extend the network lifetime. The energy and
bandwidth constraints and the potential large-scale deployment pose challenges to
efficient resource allocation and sensor management. A general class of approaches –
cross-layer designs – has emerged to address these challenges. In addition, a rethinking
of the protocol stack itself is necessary so as to overcome some of the complexities and
unwanted consequences associated with cross-layer designs.

This edited book focuses on theoretical aspects of wireless sensor networks, aiming to
provide signal processing and communication perspectives on the design of large-scale
sensor networks. Emphasis is on the fundamental properties of large-scale sensor
networks, distributed signal processing and communication algorithms, and novel
cross-layer design paradigms for sensor networking. The design of a sensor network
requires the fusion of ideas from several disciplines. Of particular importance are the
2
theories and techniques of distributed signal processing, recent advances in
collaborative communications, and methodologies of cross-layer design.

This book elucidates key issues and challenges, and the state-of-the-art theories and
techniques for the design of large-scale wireless sensor networks. For the signal
processing and communications research community, the book provides ideas and
illustrations of the application of classical theories and methods in an emerging field of
applications. For researchers and practitioners in wireless sensor networks, this book
complements existing texts with the infusion of analytical tools that will play important
roles in the design of future application-specific wireless sensor networks. For students
at senior and the graduate levels, this book identifies research directions and provides
tutorials and bibliographies to facilitate further investigations [1].
The book is divided into 4 chapters :

3
Chapter-2 Wireless sensor networks

2.1 Wireless sensor networks

Recent technological advances allow us to envision a future where large numbers of
low-power, inexpensive sensor devices are densely embedded in the physical
environment, operating together in a wireless network. The envisioned applications
of these wireless sensor networks range widely: ecological habitat monitoring,
structure health monitoring , environmental contaminant detection industrial process
control , and military target tracking , among others.
A US National Research Council report titled Embedded Everywhere notes that the
use of such networks throughout society “could well dwarf previous milestones in
the information revolution”. Wireless sensor networks provides bridges between the
virtual world of information technology and the real physical world. They present a
fundamental paradigm shift from traditional inter-human personal communications to
autonomous inter-device communications. They promise unprecedented new abilities
to observe and understand large-scale . real-world phenomena at a fine spatio-
temporal resolution. As a result , wireless sensor networks also have the potential to
engender a new breakthrough scientific advances .
While the notion of networking distributed sensors and their use in military and
industrial applications dates back at least to the 1970s , the early systems where
primarily wired and small in scale . it was only in the 1990s – when wireless
technologies and low-power VLSI design became feasible – that researchers began
envisioning and investigating large-scale embedded wireless sensor networks for
dense sensing applications.

Figure 1 : A Berkeley mote (MICAz MPR2400 series)

4
Perhaps one of the earliest research efforts in the direction was the low-power
wireless integrated micro sensors (LWIM) project at UCLA funded by DARPA . the
LWIM project focused on developing devices with low-power electronics in order to
enable large, dense wireless sensor networks. This project were succeeded by the
Wireless Integrated Networked Sensors (WINS) project a few years later , in which
researchers at UCLA collaborated with Rockwell science center to develop some of
the first wireless sensor devices. Other early project in this area, starting around
1999-2000. Were also primarily in academia, at several places included MIT,
Berkeley and USC [2].
Researchers at Berkeley developed embedded wireless sensor networking devices
called motes which were made publicly available commercially, along with TinyOS,
an associated embedded operating system that facilitates the uses of these devices
figure (1) shows the image of Berkeley mote devices the availability of these devices
as an easily programmable , fully functional , relatively inexpensive platform for
experimentation and real deployment has played a significant role in the ongoing
wireless sensor networks revolution

2.2 key definitions of sensor networks

Sensor networks is an interdisciplinary research area that draws on Contributions
from signal processing, networking and protocols, databases and information
management, distributed algorithms, and embedded systems and architecture. In the
following, we define a number of key terms and concepts that will be used
throughout the report as we develop techniques and examples for sensor networks.
• Sensor: A transducer that converts a physical phenomenon such as heat, light,
sound, or motion into electrical or other signals that may be further manipulated by
other apparatus.
• Sensor node: A basic unit in a sensor network, with on-board sensors, processor,
memory, wireless modem, and power supply. It is often abbreviated as node. When a
node has only a single sensor on board, the node is sometimes also referred to as a
sensor, creating some confusion.
• Network topology: A connectivity graph where nodes are sensor nodes and edges
are communication links. In a wireless network, the link represents a one-hop
connection, and the neighbors of a node are those within the radio range of the node.

5
• Detection: The process of discovering the existence of a physical phenomenon. A
threshold-based detector may flag a detection whenever the signature of a physical
phenomenon is determined to be significant enough compared with the threshold.
• Classification: The assignment of class labels to a set of physical phenomena being
observed.
• Resource: Resources include sensors, communication links, processors, on-board
memory, and node energy reserves. Resource allocation assigns resources to tasks,
typically optimizing some performance objective.
• Sensor tasking: The assignment of sensors to a particular task and the control of
sensor state (e.g., on/off, pan/tilt) for accomplishing the task.
• Node services: Services such as time synchronization and node localization that
enable applications to discover properties of a node and the nodes to organize
themselves into a useful network.
• Data storage: Sensor information is stored, indexed, and accessed by applications.
Storage may be local to the node where the data is generated, load-balanced across a
network, or anchored at a few points (warehouses).
• Embedded operating system (OS): The run-time system support for sensor network
applications. An embedded OS typically provides an abstraction of system resources
and a set of utilities [3].

2.3 applications on wireless sensor network

A sensor network is designed to perform a set of high-level information processing

tasks[3] such as industrial control and monitoring; home automation and consumer
electronics; security and military sensing; asset tracking and supply chain
management; intelligent agriculture; and health monitoring
2.3.1 Industrial Control and Monitoring

A large, industrial facility typically has a relatively small control room, surrounded
by a relatively large physical plant. The control room has indicators and displays that
describe the state of the plant (the state of valves, the condition of equipment, the
temperature and pressure of stored materials, etc.), as well as input devices that
control actuators in the physical plant (valves, heaters, etc.) that affect the observed
state of the plant. The sensors describing the state of the physical plant, their displays
in the control room, the control input devices, and the actuators in the plant are often
all relatively inexpensive when compared with the cost of the armored cable that
must be used to communicate between them in a wired installation. Significant cost
6
savings may be achieved if an inexpensive wireless means were available to provide
this communication. Because the information being communicated is state
information, it often changes slowly. Thus, in normal operation, the required data
throughput of the network is relatively low, but the required reliability of the network
is very high. A wireless sensor network of many nodes, providing multiple message
routing paths of multihop communication, can meet these requirements[4].

An example of wireless industrial control is the control of commercial lighting. Much

of the expense in the installation of lights in a large building concerns the control of
the lights — where the wired switches will be, which lights will be turned on and off
together, dimming of the lights, etc. A flexible wireless system can employ a
handheld controller that can be programmed to control a large number of lights in a
nearly infinite variety of ways, while still providing the security needed by a
commercial installation.

A further example is the use of wireless sensor networks for industrial safety
applications. Wireless sensor networks may employ sensors to detect the presence of
noxious, poisonous, or otherwise dangerous materials, providing early detection and
identification of leaks or spills of chemicals or biological agents before serious
damage can result (and before the material can reach the public). Because the
wireless networks may employ distributed routing algorithms, have multiple routing
paths, and can be self-healing and self-maintaining, they can be resilient in the face
of an explosion or other damage to the industrial plant, providing officials with
critical plant status information under very difficult conditions.

The monitoring and control of rotating or otherwise moving machinery is another

area suitable for wireless sensor networks. In such applications, wired sensor and
actuators are often impractical, yet it may be important to monitor the temperature,
vibration, lubrication flow, etc. of the rotating components of the machine to
optimize the time between maintenance periods, when the machine must be taken
off-line. To do this, it is important that the wireless sensor system be capable of
operating for the full interval between maintenance periods; to do otherwise defeats
the purpose of the sensors. This, in turn, requires the use of a wireless sensor network
with very low energy requirements. The sensor node often must be physically small
and inexpensive as well. Wireless sensor networks may be of particular use in the
prediction of component failure for aircraft, where these attributes may be used to
particular advantage.[12]

7
Still another application in this area for wireless sensor networks is the heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) of buildings. HVAC systems are typically
controlled by a small number of strategically located thermostats and humidistats.
The number of these thermostats and humidistats is limited, however, by the costs
associated with their wired connection to the rest of the HVAC system. In addition,
the air handlers and dampers that directly control the room environment are also
wired; for the same reasons, their numbers are also limited.

The heat load generated by people in a building is quite dynamic, however. Diurnal,
hebdomadal, seasonal, and annual variations occur. These variations are associated
with the distribution of people in the building throughout the day, week, season, and
year; important changes also affect the heat load of the building at more irregular
intervals. For example, when organizations reorganize and remodel, space previously
used for offices may be used by heat-generating laboratory or manufacturing
equipment. Changes to the building itself must also be considered: interior walls may
be inserted, moved, or removed; windows, curtains, and awnings may be added or
removed, etc. Due to all these possible variations and, as nearly anyone who works in
an office building can attest, improvement is needed.

The root cause of such unsatisfactory HVAC function is that the control system lacks
sufficient information about the environment in the building to maintain a
comfortable environment for all. Because they do not require the expense of wired
sensors and actuators, wireless sensor networks may be employed to greatly increase
the information about the building environment available to the HVAC control
system, and to greatly decrease the granularity of its response. Wireless thermostats
and humidistats may be placed in several places around each room to provide
detailed information to the control system. Similarly, wireless bypass dampers and
volume dampers can be used in great number to fine-tune the response of the HVAC
system to any situation. Should everyone in an office area move to the conference
room for a meeting, for example, the system can respond by closing the volume
dampers in the office area, while opening the volume dampers in the conference
room. Should the group leave the building, the HVAC system may instruct the
wireless bypass dampers to respond to the change in total building heat load. Should
the group return during a driving rainstorm, the humidistat in the umbrella and coat
closet could detect the increased humidity in that closet. The HVAC system could
then place especially dry air there, without affecting the occupants elsewhere in the
building.

8
The wireless HVAC system can also solve one of the great problems facing the
HVAC engineer: balancing heating and air conditioning. It is often the case that heat
sources are not uniformly distributed throughout a building. In the home, for
example, kitchens tend to be warm, due to the heat of cooking, while bedrooms tend
to be cool. In winter, more heated air needs to be sent to the bedroom, where it is
cooler, and less heated air needs to be sent to the kitchen, where it is warmer. In
summer, however, just the opposite is true — more cooled air needs to be sent to the
kitchen, where it is warmer, and less cooled air needs to be sent to the bedroom,
where it is cooler. This difference between the air distribution of heating and air
conditioning is a difficult and expensive problem to solve with wired control
systems, because a volume damper to each room in the house must be independently
controlled. Often, the dampers are placed in a single, fixed position, leaving some
areas perpetually cold and others perpetually warm. With wireless sensors and
actuators in the HVAC system, however, the problem becomes trivial; the damper(s)
to each room can be controlled by the sensor(s) in each room, leading to perfect
system balance at any time of the year.

Such a wireless HVAC system has other advantages. Close monitoring of system
performance enables problems to be identified and corrected before occupant
complaints arise. In addition to the living-area sensors, wireless sensors may be
placed inside air ducts (to monitor the performance of heat exchange apparatus, for
example) without requiring maintenance personnel to make manual measurements
atop ladders. In addition, sensors may be placed in attics and crawlspaces that contain
ductwork; anomalous temperatures in such areas may indicate costly leaks of heated
or cooled air. For these reasons, total building HVAC costs should drop, while
occupant comfort would increase when wireless sensors and actuators are employed.

2.3.2 Home Automation and Consumer Electronics

The home is a very large application space for wireless sensor networks. [13] Many of
the industrial applications just described have parallels in the home. For example, a
home HVAC system equipped with wireless thermostats and dampers can keep the
rooms on the sunny side of the house comfortable — without chilling the occupants
on the shady side of the house — more effectively than a home equipped with only a
single, wired thermostat. However, many other opportunities are available.

One application is the "universal" remote control, a personal digital assistant (PDA)-
type device that can control not only the television, DVD player, stereo, and other
9
home electronic equipment, but the lights, curtains, and locks that are also equipped
with a wireless sensor network connection. With the universal remote control, one
may control the house from the comfort of one's armchair. Its most intriguing
potential, however, comes from the combination of multiple services, such as having
the curtains close automatically when the television is turned on, or perhaps
automatically muting the home entertainment system when a call is received on the
telephone or the doorbell rings. With the scale and personal computer both connected
via a wireless sensor network, one's weight may be automatically recorded without
the need for manual intervention (and the possibility of stretching the truth "just this
once").

A major use of wireless sensor networks in the home is expected to be for personal
computer peripherals, such as wireless keyboards and mice. Such applications take
advantage of the low cost and low power consumption that are the sine qua non of
wireless sensor networks. Another application in the home is sensor-based
information appliances that transparently interact and work symbiotically together as
well as with the home occupant. These networks are an extension of the information
appliances proposed by Norman.

Toys represent another large market for wireless sensor networks. The list of toys
that can be enhanced or enabled by wireless sensor networks is limited only by one's
imagination, and range from conventional radio-controlled cars and boats to
computer games employing wireless joysticks and controllers. A particularly
intriguing field is personal computer (PC)-enhanced toys, which employ the
computing power of a nearby computer to enrich the behavior of the toy itself. For
example, speech recognition and synthesis may be performed by placing the
microphone and speaker in the toy, along with the appropriate analog-to-digital and
digital-to-analog converters, but employing a wireless connection to the computer,
which performs the recognition and synthesis functions. By not placing the relatively
expensive yet limited speech recognition and synthesis circuits in the toy, and using
the (much more powerful) computing power already present in the computer, the cost
of the toy may be significantly reduced, while greatly improving the capabilities and
performance of the toy. It is also possible to give the toy complex behavior that is not
practical to implement in other technologies [4].

Another major home application is an extension of the Remote Keyless Entry (RKE)
feature found on many automobiles. With wireless sensor networks, wireless locks,
door and window sensors, and wireless light controls, the homeowner may have a
10
device similar to a key fob with a button. When this button is pressed, the device
locks all the doors and windows in the home, turns off most indoor lights (save a few
night lights), turns on outdoor security lights, and sets the home's HVAC system to
nighttime (sleeping) mode. The user receives a reassuring "beep" once this is all done
successfully, and sleeps soundly, knowing that the home is secure. Should a door be
left open, or some other problem exists, a small display on the device indicates the
source of the trouble. The network may even employ a full home security system to
detect a broken window or other trouble.

Outside of the home, the location-aware capabilities of wireless sensor networks are
suitable for a diverse collection of consumer-related activities, including tourism [17]
and shopping.[18], [19] In these applications, location can be used to provide context-
specific information to the consumer. In the case of the tourism guide, the user is
provided only information relevant to his present view; in the case of the shopping
guide, the user is provided information relevant to the products before him, including
sale items and special discounts and offers.

2.3.3 Security and Military Sensing

The wireless security system described above for the home can be augmented for use
in industrial security applications. Such systems, employing proprietary
communication protocols, have existed for several years. They can support multiple
sensors relevant to industrial security, including passive infrared, magnetic door
opening, smoke, and broken glass sensors, and sensors for direct human intervention
(the "panic button" sensor requesting immediate assistance).

As with many technologies, some of the earliest proposed uses of wireless sensor
networks were for military applications. One of the great benefits of using wireless
sensor networks is that they can be used to replace guards and sentries around
defensive perimeters, keeping soldiers out of harm's way. In this way, they can serve
the same function as antipersonnel mines, without the attendant hazard mines
represent to allied personnel during the battle (or the civilian population afterward).
In addition to such defensive applications, deployed wireless sensor networks can be
used to locate and identify targets for potential attack, and to support the attack by
locating friendly troops and unmanned vehicles. They may be equipped with acoustic
microphones, seismic vibration sensors, magnetic sensors, ultra wideband radar, and
other sensors.[22]

11
Wireless sensor networks can be small, unobtrusive, and camouflaged to resemble
native rock, trees, or even roadside litter. By their nature, multihop networks are
redundant. These networks have distributed control and routing algorithms (i.e.,
without a single point of failure), a feature that makes them difficult to destroy in
battle.[23] The use of spread spectrum techniques, combined with the bursty
transmission format common to many wireless sensor networks (to optimize battery
life), can give them a low probability of detection by electronic means. The relative
location determination capability of many ad hoc wireless sensor networks can
enable the network nodes to be used as elements of a retro directive array of
randomly distributed radiating elements; such an array can be used to provide
exfiltration of the sensor network data. [4]The relative location information is used to
align the relative carrier phase of the signals transmitted by each node; with this
information, the exfiltrated data may be transmitted not just in the direction of the
incoming signal, but in any desired direction. Beam forming techniques can also be
applied to the sensors themselves, to enhance their sensitivity and improve detection
probabilities.

Wireless sensor networks can also be effective in the monitoring and control of
civilian populations with the use of optical, audio, chemical, biological, and
radiological sensors to track individuals and groups. The control of wireless sensor
networks and the data they produce in a free society, while an important public
policy discussion,[28] is outside the scope of this text.

2.3.4 Asset Tracking and Supply Chain Management

A very large unit volume application of wireless sensor networks is expected to be

asset tracking and supply chain management. Asset tracking can take many forms.
One example is the tracking of shipping containers in a large port. Such port facilities
may have tens of thousands of containers, some of which are empty and in storage,
while others are bound for many different destinations. The containers are stacked,
both on land and on ship. An important factor in the shipper's productivity (and
profitability) is how efficiently the containers can be organized so that they can be
handled the fewest number of times and with the fewest errors. For example, it is
important that the containers next needed be on top of a nearby stack instead of at the
bottom of a stack 1 km away. An error in the location record of any container can be
disastrous; a "lost" container can be found only by an exhaustive search of a very
large facility. Wireless sensor networks can be used to advantage in such a situation;
by placing sensors on each container, its location can always be determined.
12
Similar situations involving large numbers of items that must be tracked occur in rail
yards, where thousands of railroad cars of all types must be organized, and in the
manufacture of durable goods, such as cars and trucks, that may sit in large lots or
warehouses after manufacture, but before delivery to a retailer.

A related application is that of supply chain management. An item in a large

warehouse, but with its precise location unknown, is practically lost because it is
unavailable to be used or sold. This represents inventory shrinkage, even though the
item is physically on the premises, and is therefore a business expense. In a manner
similar to that of the asset tracking application described previously, wireless sensor
networks can be used to reduce this cost; however, additional benefits may be
obtained. In a large distribution chain, one of the most vexing problems facing the
distributor is to quickly and accurately identify the location of material to be sold.
Knowing where a product is can mean the difference between making or not making
a sale, but knowing the status of the entire supply chain — from raw materials
through components to final product — can help a business operate more efficiently.
For example, transferring excess product from Division X (where it is selling slowly)
to Division Y (where it is selling briskly) can help a company avoid the purchase of
component parts to manufacture more product for Division Y. Wireless sensor
networks placed along the supply chain enable everyone in the business to make
better decisions because more information about product in the supply chain is
available.

This information can also be used as a competitive advantage; by being able to tell a
customer exactly where his product is (or even where the component parts of his
product are) in the supply chain, the customer's confidence of on-time delivery (and
opinion of the seller's competence) rises. This has already been used extensively in
the package shipping industry, so much so that customers expect this service as a
matter of course — a shipper that cannot tell a customer where his package is at any
given time is rarely reused [4].

The use of wireless sensor networks for the tracking of nuclear materials has already
been demonstrated in the Authenticated Tracking and Monitoring System (ATMS).
The ATMS employs wireless sensors (including the state of the door seal, as well as
infrared, smoke, radiation, and temperature sensors) within a shipping container (e.g.,
a railroad car) to monitor the state of its contents. Notification of sensor events are
wirelessly transmitted within the shipping container to a mobile processing unit,
connected to both a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver and an International
13
Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) transceiver. Through the INMARSAT system, the
location and status of each shipment may be monitored anywhere in the world.

2.3.5 Intelligent Agriculture and Environmental Sensing

A textbook example of the use of wireless sensor networks in agriculture is the rain
gauge. Large farms and ranches may cover several square miles, and they may
receive rain only sporadically and only on some portions of the farm. Irrigation is
expensive, so it is important to know which fields have received rain, so that
irrigation may be omitted, and which fields have not and must be irrigated. Such an
application is ideal for wireless sensor networks. The amount of data sent over the
network can be very low (as low as one bit — "yes or no" — in response to the "Did
it rain today?" query), and the message latency can be on the order of minutes. Yet,
costs must be low, and power consumption must be low enough for the entire
network to last an entire growing season.

The wireless sensor network is capable of much more than just soil moisture
measurements, however, because the network can be fitted with a near-infinite
variety of chemical and biological sensors. The data that is provided by such a
network is capable of providing the farmer with a graphical view of soil moisture;
temperature; the need for pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers; received sunshine;
and many other quantities. This type of application is especially important in
vineyards, where subtle environmental changes may have large effects on the value
of the crop and how it is processed.

The location determination features of many wireless sensor networks also may be
used in advanced control systems to enable more automation of farming equipment
[4].

Many applications of wireless sensor networks are also used on ranches. Ranchers
may use wireless sensor networks in the location determination of animals within the
ranch and, with sensors placed on each animal, determine the need for treatments to
prevent parasites. Dairy farmers may use wireless sensors to determine the onset of
estrus in cattle, a labor-intensive manual process at present. Hog and chicken farmers
typically have many animals in cooled, ventilated barns. Should the temperature rise
excessively, many thousands of animals may be lost. Wireless sensor networks can
be used to monitor the temperature throughout the barn, keeping the animals safe.

14
Wireless sensor networks may also be used for low-power sensing of environmental
contaminants such as mercury.[31] Integrated micro cantilever sensors sensitive to
particular contaminants can achieve parts-per-trillion sensitivities. These micro-
electromechanical (MEMS) sensors may be integrated with a wireless transceiver in
a standard complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process, providing a
very low-cost solution to the monitoring of chemical and biological agents.

2.3.6 Health Monitoring

A market for wireless sensor networks that is expected to grow quickly is the field of
health monitoring. "Health monitoring" is usually defined as "monitoring of non-life-
critical health information," to differentiate it from medical telemetry, although the
definition is broad and nonspecific, and some medical telemetry applications can be
considered for wireless sensor networks.

Two general classes of health monitoring applications are available for wireless
sensor networks. One class is athletic performance monitoring, for example, tracking
one's pulse and respiration rate via wearable sensors and sending the information to a
personal computer for later analysis.[32] The other class is at-home health monitoring,
for example, personal weight management.[33] The patient's weight may be wirelessly
sent to a personal computer for storage. Other examples are daily blood sugar
monitoring and recording by a diabetic, and remote monitoring of patients with
chronic disorders.[34]

The use of wireless sensor networks in health monitoring is expected to accelerate

due to the development of biological sensors compatible with conventional CMOS
integrated circuit processes.[35] These sensors, which can detect enzymes, nucleic
acids, and other biologically important materials, can be very small and inexpensive,
leading to many applications in pharmaceuticals and medical care.

A developing field in the health monitoring market is that of implanted medical

devices. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
established regulations governing the Medical Implant Communications Service, in
January 2000, "for transmitting data in support of diagnostic or therapeutic functions
associated with implanted medical devices." [36] These types of systems can be used
for a number of purposes, from monitoring cardiac pacemakers to specialized drug
delivery systems.

15
A developing field related to both health monitoring and security is that of disaster
relief. For example, the wireless sensors of the HVAC system in a collapsed
multistory building (perhaps the result of an earthquake) can provide victim location
information to rescue workers if acoustic sensors, activated automatically by
accelerometers or manually by emergency personnel, are included. Water and gas
sensors also could be used to give rescuers an understanding of the conditions
beneath them in the rubble. Even if no additional sensors were included, the identities
and pre- and post-collapse locations of the surviving network nodes can be used to
help workers understand how the building collapsed, where air pockets or other
survivable areas may be, and can be used by forensic investigators to make future
buildings safer.

Wireless disaster relief systems, in the form of avalanche rescue beacons, are already
on the market. Avalanche rescue beacons, which continuously transmit signals that
rescuers can use to locate the wearer in time of emergency, are used by skiers and
other mountaineers in avalanche-prone areas. The present systems have their
limitations, however; principal among these is that they provide only location
information, and give no information about the health of the victim. In a large
avalanche, when emergency personnel can detect several beacons, they have no way
to decide who should be assisted first. It was recently proposed that these systems be
enhanced by the addition of health sensors, including oximeters and thermometers, so
that would-be rescuers would be able to perform triage in a large avalanche,
identifying those still alive under the snow[4].

2.4 Network topologies

There are a number of different topologies for radio communications networks. A
brief discussion of the network topologies that apply to wireless sensor networks are
outlined below.

2.4.1 star network (Single Point-to- Multipoint)

A star network is a communications topology where a single base station can send
and/or receive a message to a number of remote nodes. The remote nodes can only
send or receive a message from the single base station, they are not permitted to send
messages to each other. The advantage of this type of network for wireless sensor
networks is in its simplicity and the ability to keep the remote node’s power

16
consumption to a minimum. It also allows for low latency communications between
the remote node and the base station. The disadvantage of such a network is that the
base station must be within radio transmission range of all the individual nodes and is
not as robust as other networks due to its dependency on a single node to manage the
network.

Figure 2

2.4.2 Mesh network

A mesh network allows for any node in the network to transmit to any other node in
the network that is within its radio transmission range. This allows for what is known
as multihop communications; that is, if a node wants to send a message to another
node that is out of radio communications range, it can use an intermediate node to
forward the message to the desired node. This network topology has the advantage of
redundancy and scalability.
If an individual node fails, a remote node still can communicate to any other node in
its range, which in turn, can forward the message to the desired location. In addition,
the range of the network is not necessarily limited by the range in between single
nodes, it can simply be extended by adding more nodes to the system. The
disadvantage of this type of network is in power consumption for the nodes that
implement the multihop communications are generally higher than for the nodes that
don’t have this capability, often limiting the battery life. Additionally, as the number
17
of communication hops to a destination increases, the time to deliver the message
also increases, especially if low power operation of the nodes is a requirement.

Figure 3

2.4.3 hybrid star – Mesh network

A hybrid between the star and mesh network provides for a robust and versatile
communications network, while maintaining the ability to keep the wireless sensor
nodes power consumption to a minimum. In this network topology, the lowest power
sensor nodes are not enabled with the ability to forward messages. This allows for
minimal power consumption to be maintained. However, other nodes on the network
are enabled with multihop capability, allowing them to forward messages from the
low power nodes to other nodes on the network. Generally, the nodes with the
multihop capability are higher power, and if possible, are often plugged into the
electrical mains line. This is the topology implemented by the up and coming mesh
networking standard known as ZigBee

18
Figure 4

2.5 power consideration in wireless sensor networks

The single most important consideration for a wireless sensor network is power
consumption. While the concept of wireless sensor networks looks practical and
exciting on paper, if batteries are going to have to be changed constantly, widespread
adoption will not occur. Therefore, when the sensor node Is designed power
consumption must be minimized.
contributors to power consumption in a typical 5000-ohm wireless strain gage sensor
node versus transmitted data update rate. Note that by far, the largest power
consumption is attributable to the radio link itself.

19
Figure 5

20
Chapter- 3 Sensors

Sensors are devices that convert a physical parameter such as room temperature,
blood pressure or wind speed into a signal that can be measured electrically. Other
sensor outputs are equally valid (e.g. visual output from a glass thermometer), but we
will confined our coverage to electrical output sensors as they are more compatible
with electronic measuring devices.

Once the physical parameter has been converted to an electrical equivalent it is easily
input into a computer or microprocessor for manipulating, analyzing and displaying.

By far the most common parameter measured is temperature. At present temperature

is the only parameter covered in detail [5].

Each year hundreds millions of sensors are manufactured. They are in domestic
appliances, medical equipment, industrial control systems, air-conditioning systems,
aircraft, satellites and toys. Sensors are becoming smarter, more accurate and
cheaper. They will play an ever increasing role in just about every field imaginable .

21
Figure 6

3.1 control sensors

A sensor as a control component is to capture correctly and speedy data of an
environment where a machine is installed and data of products that are being
processed, and then convert those data to controllable electric signals or information
that human can easily confirm.

22
 (1) Role of sensor in automation
• Flow of control:

Figure 7

Figure 8

23
 • Application in Factory
<Pudding Production Process>

(2) Type of sensor

Figure 9

Table 1

24
 (3) Use of sensor <basic function>

Table 2

(4) Sensor Output

• ON/OFF Output
ON /OFF when input value exceeds the value set (it may be Called High/Low, 1/0)

• Digital Sensor input

Which changes itself continuously is output as digital value such as BCD/BIN.

• Analog Sensor input

Which changes itself continuously is output as consecutive value of voltage /electric
current.

3.2 Classification of measurement errors

A good sensor obeys the following rules:

 Is sensitive to the measured property

 Is insensitive to any other property
 Does not influence the measured property
Ideal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly
proportional to the value of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as
the ratio between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor
measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the
unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all points of
measurement.
Sensor deviations
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:
25
 The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a
sensitivity error, but the sensor is still linear.
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will
eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds
the limits. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the
measured property.
 If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor
has an offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
 If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is
called nonlinearity. Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from
ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the
full range.
 If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time,
there is a dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode
plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as function of the frequency of a
periodic input signal.
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this
is defined as drift (telecommunication).
 Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a
long period of time.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
 Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction,
but there is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different
offset error in one direction than in the other.
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of
the measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also
can cause a dynamic error.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property
being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of
their environment.
All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors.
Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind
of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal
processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the
sensor.
26
Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is
measuring. Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate,
indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is
related to the precision with which the measurement is made. For example,
a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects an electron tunneling
current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

3.3 Types of sensors

Sensors are used to measure basic physical phenomena including:

1. Acceleration - Shock & Vibration.

2. Angular / Linear Position
3. Chemical/Gas Concentration
4. Humidity
5. Flow Rate
6. Force
7. Magnetic Fields
8. Pressure
9. Sound
10. Temperature
11. .Velocity

 Sensors: Acceleration

An accelerometer is an electromechanical transducer which produces at its output

terminals, a voltage or charge that is proportional to the acceleration to which it is
subjected. The piezoelectric elements (similar to small crystals) within the
accelerometer have the property of producing an electrical charge which is directly
proportional to the strain and thus the applied force when loaded either in tension,
compression or shear.

27
Applications include measurement of Acceleration, Angular Acceleration, Velocity,
Position, RPM or Angular Rate, Frequency, Impulse and Impulse Energy, Force, Tilt
and Orientation, and Motion Detection.

 Sensors: Linear / Angular Position

Potentiometers

Potentiometers utilize a variable resistor to convert an angle or displacement to

a resistance/voltage. They operate by moving a contact along a resistor to
produce a voltage proportional to the position.

Encoders

An encoder is a sensor of mechanical motion. It translates motion Rotary Encoder

(such as position, velocity, and acceleration) into electrical signals. Figure 10

Absolute encoders have a unique value for each mechanical position and thus the
position is known "absolutely". With this type of encoder, the position information is
never lost and is instantly available as a digital word on power-up.

Incremental encoders have output signals which repeat over the range of motion and
thus each mechanical position is not uniquely defined. The current position sensed is
only incremental from the last position sensed. Thus at power up, the position of an
incremental encoder is not known since the output signals are not unique to any
singular position. They are made up of 2 major parts, the disk and the sensor. The
disk of an incremental encoder is patterned with a single track of lines near the
outside edge of the disk. The disk count is defined as the number of dark/light line
pairs that occur per revolution (CPR). As a rule, one or more tracks are added to
generate a signal that occurs once per revolution (index signal), which can be used to
indicate zero or home on the encoder. Count and direction information can be
obtained from both absolute and incremental encoders.

28
  Sensors: Chemical / Gas Concentrations

Chemical / Gas Concentrations

There are many different types of sensors for detection concentration levels of
chemicals and gasses. These sensors are critical for safety Catalytic Sensor
considerations in many industrial applications.

Following is a table providing a brief summary of sensor types and applications .

Figure 11

Table 3

 Sensors: Humidity

Humidity sensors are used to measure the humidity in air, as a fraction of the
maximum amount of water that can be absorbed by air at a certain temperature.
Under normal atmospheric conditions and a given temperature this fraction can vary
between 0 ( absolute dry point ) and 100 (Condensation starting point ). This relative
humidity measurement is only valid under the above mentioned temperature
29
and atmospheric conditions, thus making very important the fact that the sensor must
not be affected by temperature or pressure changes. As a result it is obvious that
Temperature or Pressure Dependent sensing elements, such as Mechanical Devices
and Resistive type Sensors, are far behind of the respective non-dependent ones, such
as Capacitance sensors. Absorption based humidity sensors provide both temperature
and %RH (Relative Humidity) outputs.

Humidity Cells are mainly Capacitance sensors characterized of an excellent long

term stability, good resistance to pollutants, precise measurements, high sensitivity,
intergangeability and wettability.

Applications Include:

1. Refrigeration
2. Drying Processes
3. Meteorology
4. Battery-powered systems
5. OEM assemblies
Figure 12

 Sensors: Flow Rate

Flow Rate

Ventura Valves Flow Rate Sensor

A Ventura valve reduces the cross section of a pipe to create a pressure differential
from the normal pipe diameter. The pressure differential increases with the velocity
of the flow to aid in determining the flow rate.

Transit-Time Flow Measurement Principle

A transit-time flow meter measures the effect of a liquid's flow velocity on bi-
directional acoustical signals. An upstream transducer (T1) sends a signal to a
downstream transducer (T2) that in turn sends a signal back. WhenFigurethere
13 is no flow,
the time to go from the T1 to T2 is the same as the time going from T2 to T1.
However, when there is flow, the effect of the liquid's flow velocity on the acoustical
signal is to assist the signal in the up to downstream direction and hinder the signal in

30
the down to upstream direction. This creates the time difference by which the liquid's
flow velocity, and ultimately the flow rate, is determined.

Pitot Tubes

Pitot tubes have been used in flow measurement for years. Conventional pitot tubes
sense velocity pressure at only one point in the flowing stream. Therefore, a series of
measurements must be taken across the stream to obtain a meaningful average flow
rate.

Flow Transducers

Fluid flowing through the sensor spins a magnetic rotor to induce a voltage in a
coil. An electronic circuit measures the frequency of the electrical pulses
generated and computes the flow rate. This rate is converted to a 0-5 VDC or 0-
20 MA output proportional to the flow rate and also used to control a relay. The
relay trip point may be present at the factory or adjusted by the user by turning
a potentiometer.

 Sensors: Force
Force

Load Cells / Force Transducers

Load Cells are intended for determination of static or dynamic tensile and
compressive loads and come in many different forms including compression, tension,
simple beam and single point. Force transducers can be used as Tension Load Cell
load cells, but can also be used in weighing applications and
measuring compression or tension. Load cells can be built
utilizing either transducers, LVDTs, strain gauges or piezoelectric sensors.

Figure 14

Strain Gauges

31
Strain gauges are used for the measurement of tensile and compressive strain in a
body and can therefore pick up expansion as well as contraction. Strain is caused in a
body by internal or external forces, pressures, moments, heat, Strain Gauges
or structural changes in the material. In general, most types
of strain gages depend on the proportional variance of electrical resistance to strain:
the piezoresistive or semi-conductor gage, the carbon-resistive gage, the bonded
metallic wire, and foil resistance gages.

The bonded resistance strain gage is by far the most widely used in experimental
stress analysis. They typically consist of a grid of very fine wire or foil bonded to the
backing or carrier matrix. The carrier matrix attaches to test Figure specimens
15 with an
adhesive. When the specimen is mechanically stressed (loaded), the strain on the
surface is transmitted to the resistive grid through the adhesive and carrier layers.
The strain is then found by measuring the change in resistance.

The bonded resistance strain gage is low in cost, can be made with a short gage
length, is only moderately affected by temperature changes, has small physical size
and low mass, and has fairly high sensitivity to strain.

 Sensors: Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Fields

Magneto resistive (MR) Sensors

Magneto resistive sensors can determine the change in earth's magnetic field
due to the presence of a ferromagnetic object or position within the earth's
magnetic field. The high bandwidth allows detection of vehicles and other
ferrous objects at high speeds. The sensors are contactless and the working
distance is dependent on the ferromagnetic mass it is measuring. Applications
include Compassing and Navigation, Vehicle Detection, Virtual Reality,
Laboratory Instrumentation, Medical Instruments, Underground Boring
Equipment and Flux Gate Replacement.

 Sensors: Pressure

Pressure Transducer

32
Pressure sensor applications include flow (HVAC), height of a column of liquid,
altitude, depth of a submerged object, position, sound (dbspl), Pressure Transducer - Motorola
barometric pressure, map, pressure drop, vacuum, volumetric displacement, and
weight.

A transducer is simply a device (or medium) that converts energyFigure from

16 one form to
another. The term is generally applied to devices that take physical phenomenon
(pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, etc.) and convert it to an electrical signal.

Pressure transducers/sensors use a wide range of operating principles including:

1. Motion transducers use a bellows or Bourdon tube to convert pressure to an

output. In one common type, the LVDT, an inductive member is driven into or
out of a coil. It contains numerous pivots and linkages, making it nonlinear and
susceptible to wear and vibration, but it has the advantage of inherently high
output.
2. Pressure potentiometers have characteristics similar to those of LVDTs. In
this case, a wiper is driven across a resistive coil, with output determined by
wiper position. Compared to an LVDT, it has the added disadvantage of coil
wear. If continuously operated in about the same pressure range, it may
suddenly short out or produce severely nonlinear output. These sensors are
rather inexpensive.
3. Silicon or "chip" transducers are widely used in high-volume applications.
There are two types of silicon pressure sensors, capacitive and piezoresistive.
Capacitive devices are much more stable, sensitive, and temperature resistant.
Piezoresistive types are easier to make and cost less and therefore dominate the
market.
4. Capacitance transducers use a flexing diaphragm to produce capacitance
changes proportional to applied pressure. Because of their low price, a common
application of these devices is in automobiles. One drawback is at normal
hydraulic pressure their operation dictates a large diaphragm making them
better suited to low-pressure systems.
5. Piezoresistive Sensors are available in both gage and absolute versions. The
sensor typically consists of a Wheatstone bridge etched on a silicon diaphragm
which outputs a voltage that is proportional to pressure.

33
 6. Electropneumatic transducers are used to provide regulated air pressures for
the control of process systems. Typically, electropneumatic transducers are of
three basic types: voice-coil beam, voice-coil beam dampened by an oil
dashpot, and torque motor.
o Voice-coil beam transducers use a nozzle/flapper arrangement to
convert a small mechanical motion into a proportional pneumatic signal.
o Damped transducers operate in a similar manner except that the arm
controlling flapper position is attached to a float suspended in silicone oil.
o Torque-motor transducers also have similar operating principles, except
that a conventional torque motor replaces the voice-coil beam
arrangement to position the flapper.

 Sensors: Sound
Sound

Microphones

A sensor for detecting sound is, in general, called a microphone. The microphone can
be classified into several basic types including dynamic, Sound Sensor
electrostatic, and piezoelectric according to their conversion
system.

The dynamic microphone still has big demands primarily in the music world, while
the piezoelectric microphone is extensively used primarily for a microphone for low-
frequency sound-level meters. Figure 17

For measurement, electrostatic type (condenser) microphones are most popular

because they can be downsized, have flat frequency responses over a wide frequency
range, and provide markedly high stability as compared to other types of
microphones.

The condenser microphones are available in two types: bias type and back
electrets type. The difference is whether the DC voltage is applied from the
outside or permanently electrically polarized polymer film is used in place of
applying voltage. In general, the bias type provides higher sensitivity and
stability.

34
Sound Intensity Microphones 

Sound intensity is a measure of the "flow of energy passing through a unit area per
unit time" and its measurement unit is W/m2. The sound intensity microphone probe
is designed to capture sound intensity together with the unit direction of flow as a
vector quantity. This is achieved by incorporating more than one microphone in a
probe to measure the sound energy flow. Conventional microphones can measure
sound pressure (unit: Pa), which represents sound intensity at a specific place (one
point), but can measure the direction of flow. The sound intensity microphone is
therefore used for sound source probing and for measuring sound power.

 Sensors: Temperature
Temperature

 
Typical applications for temperature sensors include: Temperature Sensors

 HVAC - room, duct, and refrigerant equipment

 Motors - overload protection
 Electronic circuits - semiconductor protection
 Electronic assemblies - thermal management, temperature compensation
 Process control - temperature regulation
 Automotive - air and oil temperature Figure 18

 Appliances - heating and cooling temperature

 Sensor Types

1. Thermocouples - Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal alloy wires

joined at least at one end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between
the two ends according to the size of the temperature difference between the
ends, the relative Seebeck coefficient of the wire pair and the uniformity of
the wire's relative Seebeck coefficient.
2. Thermistors - Thermistors (Resistance Thermometers) are instruments used to
measure temperature by relating the change in resistance as a function of
temperature.
3. Radiation Pyrometer - A device to measure temperature by sensing the
thermal radiation emitted from the object.
35
4. Radiation Thermometers (Optical Pyrometers and Infrared
Thermometers) - Optical Pyrometers are devices used to measure temperature
of an object at high temperatures by sensing the brightness of an objects
surface.
5. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) - RTD's (Resistance Temperature
Detectors) are precision, wire-wound resistors with a known temperature
resistance characteristic. In operation, the RTD is usually wired into a specific
type of circuit (Wheatstone bridge). They are nearly linear over a wide range
of temperatures and can be made small enough to have response times of a
fraction of a second. They require an electrical current to produce a voltage
drop across the sensor that can be then measured by a calibrated read-out
device. The output of this circuit can be used to drive a meter which has been
calibrated in temperature, or to operate a relay to sound an alarm or shut down
the motor. The Platinum RTD is the most accurate and stable temperature
detector from zero to about 500°C. It can measure temperatures up to 800°C.
The resistance of the RTD changes as a function of absolute temperature, so it
is categorized as one of the absolute temperature devices. (In contrast, the
thermocouple cannot measure absolute temperature; it can only measure
relative temperature.)
6. Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors - Optical-based temperature sensors
provide accurate and stable remote measurement of on-line temperatures in
hazardous environments and in environments having high ambient
electromagnetic fields without the need for calibration of individual probes and
sensors.

Optical temperature sensor systems measure temperatures from -200C to 600C

safely and accurately even in extremely hazardous, corrosive, and high electro-
magnetic field environments. They are ideal for use in these conditions because
their glass-based technology is inherently immune to electrical interference and
corrosion. Since there is no need to recalibrate individual sensors, operator and
technician safety is greatly enhanced as the need for their repeated exposure to
field conditions is eliminated.

Probes are made from largely non-conducting and low thermal conductance
material, resulting in high stability and low susceptibility to interference, and in
increased operator safety. Optical cables also have a much higher information-
carrying capacity and are far less subject to interference than electrical
conductors.
36
 7. Silicon Temperature Sensors - Integrated circuit temperature sensors differ
significantly from the other types in a couple of important ways. The first is
operating temperature range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the
nominal IC temperature range of -55 C to +150 C. Some devices go beyond
this range while others, because of package or cost constraints, operate over a
narrower range. The second difference is functionality. A silicon temperature
sensor is an integrated circuit, including extensive signal processing circuitry
within the same package as the sensor.

 Sensors: Velocity
Velocity

Linear Velocity Transducer - LVT

The LVT is based on the principle of magnetic induction and

provide reliable velocity measurement in a linear motion.
37

Figure 19

Handheld Tachometer
 Passing a magnet through the coil form generates a voltage proportional to the
magnets velocity and field strength. This output signal is used to carefully
monitor component velocities in various applications.

Tachometer

The tachometer measures the angular velocity of a rotating shaft using one of
two methods. The first type connects a DC generator (motor) to the shaft which
produces a voltage proportional to the increase in shaft angular velocity. The
second type utilizes a magnet with a pickup coil. As the magnet passes the coil a
pulse is generated. The pulse magnitude and frequency are proportional to the
angular speed.

3.4 Applications:
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable
applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include
cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1
cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that
measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an
38
impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted
into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer.
Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the
sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a
micro-scopic scale as micro-sensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a
micro-sensor reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared
with macroscopic approaches.

39
Figure 20

40