Earth and Life Science Handout

Natural Hazards, Mitigation,and Adaptation

Geological Hazards
 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of a
geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.

Earthquake
 An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from accumulated
stress along the geologic faults or by volcanic activity. It may cause collapse of buildings, tsunamis,
landslides, and ground-level changes

 An earthquake is ground shaking caused by the sudden and rapid movement of one block of rock
slipping past another along fractures in Earth’s crust called faults. The energy generated by an
earthquake radiates outward in the form of seismic waves from the source of the quake, called the
hypocenter, or focus

 The three basic types of seismic waves generated by an earthquake are P waves, S waves, and surface
waves. P and S waves travel through Earth’s interior, and surface waves are transmitted along the
surface (see Figure 6.1). Of the three wave types, P waves have the greatest velocity and, therefore,
reach the seismograph station first. Surface waves arrive at the seismograph station last.

 Seismographs are instruments that detect and record seismic waves. The recordings made by
seismographs are called seismograms. Seismograms are used to determine the time and location of
earthquakes. These records also allow us to study the nature of Earth’s interior.

I. Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause adverse effects on organisms
and their environment.

 Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake. The intensity of the
vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and the distance from the epicenter. Ground
shaking may cause partial or total collapse of buildings and structures.

 Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement of the ground

surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller area compared to ground shaking. However, it severely
damages buildings and structures located adjacent to the faults.

 Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐like state during ground shaking.
When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.

 Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other disturbance under the
sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near the shorelines.

 Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and displacement. It poses threat of
explosions which may cause death and destruction of property.

Bohol Earthquake

 On October 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of Bohol. Its recorded
magnitude was 7.2. The ground shaking and displacement caused major damage of several

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 government buildings, schools, and houses. At least 93 people had been reported dead after the
earthquake.

Volcanic Eruption

 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released from a volcano
due to a buildup of pressure inside. The effects of an eruption can be on a local scale affecting the
areas near the volcano (e.g. lava flow reaches nearby towns) or on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash
particles on air change global temperature).

II. Volcanic Eruption Hazards

Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that may cause adverse effects on
organisms and their environment.

 Lahar 
 Pyroclastic fall 
 Volcanic gases 
 Tephra falls 
 Pyroclastic fall is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of ash and dust) and hot gases. It
moves rapidly along the ground surface. It buries towns and causes burns, injury, and damage upon
impact.
 Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of these gases, such as hydrogen sulfide
(HS) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), are poisonous. They cause respiratory damage and death.
 Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a volcano. They damage structures, break
power lines, kill vegetation, and cause respiratory damage.

 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This eruption deposited about 5 km3 of rock fragments and
volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. When a heavy rain fell on that day, the rocks and ashes were
washed down into the surrounding lowlands in large, fast-moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar caused
more destruction in the lowlands than the eruption itself.

III. Landslide Hazards

Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause adverse effects on organisms and
their environment.

 Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and cars as it moves down the
slope. It may block bridges and tributaries causing flood along its path.
 Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay, fine sand, and silt. It is slower
than mudflow, but it inflicts the same damage.
 Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts road traffic in mountainous
regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it causes damage depending on the size of the rock and the
force of impact.
Southern Leyte Landslide 2006

 A massive landslide happened on February 17, 2006 in Southern Leyte. The landslide caused
widespread damage and loss of life. It was followed by heavy rainfall and a minor earthquake. The
official death toll was 1126.

Key Points
 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of a
geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.
 An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking of the surface of the Earth. It may cause ground shaking,
ground displacement, liquefaction, tsunami, and fire.

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  Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released from a volcano
due to a buildup of pressure inside. It may bring about lahar, pyroclastic fall, volcanic gases, and tephra
fall.
 A landslide occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along a slope. It may
bring about mud flow, earthflow, and rock fall.

Understanding Geological Hazard Maps

Geological Hazard Maps

 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It is a tool used by scientists and local government
authorities to anticipate any hazard that a geological event may bring. It also helps the public be
informed and prepared for the geological hazard.

How do you read a geological hazard map?

 The map title indicates what type of information is being presented by the map. For example, the title
“tsunami-prone areas” indicates that the map presents the places along the coastal areas that are
prone to tsunami hazards.

 Symbols are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map. For example, a line may indicate
faults or tsunamis while a triangular shape may represent a volcano. The legend tells you specifically
what these symbols mean.

 Sources. Make sure that the source of your map is a credible institution. Hazard maps are produced by
government agencies like PhiVolcS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology), DOST
(Department of Science and Technology), and DENR (Department of Environment and Natural
Resources). Private research institutes like the Manila Observatory also generate maps. With the use of
the Internet, these maps can be viewed online on their websites.

Earthquake Hazard Map

Based on the legend, the different locations are colored depending on the number of earthquake hits for the
past 30 years. For example, Baguio City (Benguet), which is found in the northern part of Luzon, experienced
76-100 earthquakes. Meanwhile, Puerto Princesa City (Palawan), which is in the Southwest of Luzon,
experienced fewer earthquakes.

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The top ten provinces that are most prone to earthquakes are:
1. Surigao Del Sur
2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10. Nueva Ecija
Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental, are earthquake-prone because they are located along the Philippine
Trench and because of nearby active fault lines. Deep-focus earthquakes that are experienced in La Union and
Pangasinan are due to the Manila Trench, while shallow earthquakes in these areas together with Nueva Vizcaya,
Nueva Ecija, and Benguet are generally due to their location along the Philippine Fault Zone. Although Ifugao
experienced fewer earthquakes in the past, it is still very vulnerable to future earthquakes.

Tsunami Hazard Map

Majority of the coastal areas in Luzon (with the exception of Palawan and northern islands) have a high tsunami
potential with historical tsunami records. Meanwhile, the coastal places in the Visayas region also show tsunami
potential mostly from local generators with a small percent of foreign generators. Furthermore in the Mindanao region,
high tsunami potential is also evident in the mainland area while the small islands located in the southwest show
tsunami potentials by local generators
Majority of the coastal areas in Luzon (with the exception of Palawan and northern islands) have a high tsunami
potential with historical tsunami records. Meanwhile, the coastal places in the Visayas region also show tsunami
potential mostly from local generators with a small percent of foreign generators. Furthermore in the Mindanao region,
high tsunami potential is also evident in the mainland area while the small islands located in the southwest show
tsunami potentials by local generators

Map of the Distribution of Volcanoes

Below is the map showing the distribution of volcanoes all over the Philippines. These volcanoes are classified as active
(red), potentially active (orange), and inactive (gray). Places where active and potentially active volcanoes are prone to
hazards of volcanic activities or volcanic eruptions.

For example, Mayon Volcano situated in Albay in the Bicol Region, is known not only for its perfect cone, but also for its
volcanic activities. It has 49 recorded eruptions as of 2013. The areas surrounding the volcano are highly affected by
volcanic hazards. On the contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to volcanic eruption hazards since there are very few
volcanoes near the area and all of them are inactive.

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Earthquake-Induced Shallow Landslides Map
Places that have landslide hazards are presented in the map below. The legend tells you the levels of the danger of the
occurrence of landslide. For example, majority of the provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-danger zone.
These include mountainous areas like Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mt. Province. On the other hand, Palawan
shows no present risk in landslides.

Key Points
 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It helps the public be informed and prepared for the geological hazard.
 You must take note of the title, symbols and legend, and source when studying a geological hazard map.
 Geological hazard maps of the Philippines include maps that present the earthquake-prone areas, tsunami-
prone areas, distribution of volcanoes, and earthquake-induced shallow landslides .

Coping with Geological Hazards

What should you do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by earthquakes?

Before an Earthquake During an Earthquake After an Earthquake

 Develop a disaster plan. Determine  Wherever you are, take cover  Check yourself for injuries.
the “safe places” in your house. A safe immediately.  Help injured or trapped persons if you can.
place could be under a sturdy table or  If you are indoors, drop on  Be prepared for
against an interior wall away from aftershocks. Aftershocks are smaller
the ground, take cover under a
windows or tall furniture. earthquakes that follow the main earthquake
sturdy thing like a table, and hold
 Practice "drop, cover, and hold and can cause further damage to weakened
on" in the safe place. Drop under a on until the earthquake stops. buildings.
sturdy desk or table, take cover, and Stay away from windows, tall  Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, and
hold on. furniture, and light fixtures. gasoline immediately.
 Take training on first aid from your Shattered glass and heavy objects  Open cabinet doors cautiously. Contents
local Red Cross chapter. Also, learn how may hurt you. may have been shifted during the shaking.
to use a fire extinguisher.  If you are outdoors, go to an  Listen to the radio or television for more
 Discuss earthquake with your open area away from buildings, information from authorities.
family and/or housemates. Everyone trees, streetlights, and power  Stay out of damaged buildings.
should know what to do in case the  If you are in a coastal area, move to a
lines.
disaster strikes. higher ground. The earthquake may trigger
 Prepare an emergency supply kit.  If you are in a vehicle, pull tsunamis.
It must include non-perishable food, over to a safe place, avoiding  If you are in a mountainous area or near
water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery- anything that can collapse. Stay unstable slopes, be aware of landslide. Soil and
operated radio, flashlights, and extra inside the vehicle with your seat rocks may be loosened by the earthquake.
batteries. belt fastened until the shaking
stops.

What should you do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by volcanic eruptions?

Before a Volcanic Eruption During a Volcanic Eruption After a Volcanic

Eruption
 Prepare an emergency supply kit.  Follow the evacuation orders issued by  Stay in the evacuation
It must include non-perishable food, government officials and evacuate center until the authorities say
water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery- immediately to avoid flying debris, hot gases, that it is safe to go back home.
volcano blast, and lava flow.
operated radio, flashlights, and extra  Help in cleaning and
 Be aware of mudflows and lahar. The
batteries. Also, include masks and a checking the damages brought
danger of these hazards increases near
pair of goggles for each member of the tributaries. They can flow faster than you can by volcanic eruption hazards.
family. walk or run. Look upstream when crossing a  When cleaning ashes or
 Make an emergency plan. Each bridge and do not cross it when a mudflow is mudflows at home, use a dust
member of the family must know what approaching. mask to cover your nose and
to do and how to contact one another  Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth mouth. Seek advice from the
when the disaster strikes. over your nose and mouth to prevent inhaling authorities regarding the
 Learn about your community's risk volcanic gases. Also, cover your skin to disposal of volcanic ash in your
from hazards of volcanic eruptions. protect yourself from ashfall. community.
 If you are unable to evacuate, remain
 For government institutions, set-
indoors with doors, windows, and ventilation
up an exclusion zone around a volcano closed until the ash settles.
for safety and crowd control.  Listen to the radio for the latest
An exclusion zone is a location where emergency information.

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 specific activities are prohibited.

What should you do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by landslides?

Before a Landslide During a Landslide After a Landslide

 Have your parents ask for a  Stay alert and awake. Many  Stay away from the landslide area.
ground assessment of your landslide fatalities occur when people  Listen to local radio for the latest
property. are sleeping. emergency information.
 Know the patterns of storm-  Stay away from the path of any  Check for injured or trapped
water drainage near your home. landslide hazards. If you suspect persons near the landslide, without
Note where runoff water imminent danger, evacuate entering the area. Direct the rescuers
converges, and avoid these places immediately. to their locations.
during a storm.  If caught in a rock fall and escape  Replant the damaged ground as
 Learn about the emergency is not possible, roll into a ball to soon as possible to avoid landslides in
response and evacuation plans for protect your head. the future.
your area during a landslide.
 When you suspect imminent
landslide danger, contact the
emergency response team of your
community immediately. Evacuate
immediately and inform neighbors
who might be at risk.
 Consider relocation if living in
an area vulnerable to landslides.

Key Points
 Many geological hazards cannot be prevented. However, through careful planning and preparation, damage to
property and loss of life can be avoided.

 Everyone in the family must know what to do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

Human Activities that Trigger Landslides

Landslides may be triggered by natural processes such as heavy rainfall and earthquakes. They can also be triggered and
aggravated by human activities such as the following:

 Clear-cutting 
 Slash-and-burn 
 Mining and quarrying operations 
 Construction activities 
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides

 Clear-cutting is a method done by logging companies to cut down every marketable tree from a selected area to
harvest timber. Deforestation or removal of trees that hold water and topsoil may cause landslides.

 Slash-and-burn or kaingin system is a method that cuts down and burns off the existing vegetation. It is a form
of deforestation because the land is converted to other uses.

 Mining and quarrying operations use explosives in their blasting techniques to break rocks and gather ore
deposits. They cause land areas to slide due to the vibrations from the blast.

 Construction activities such as building of roads and railways may interfere or change the natural drainage of
water. When there is heavy rainfall or flood, water may then move to a different path which may saturate slopes
and cause landslides.

Ways to Lessen the Occurrence of Landslides

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  Instead of clear-cutting, selective cutting can be adopted by logging companies to allow old trees to remain. This
method cuts down mature or inferior kind of trees to encourage the growth of the remaining trees in the forest.
 Do alley-cropping instead of slash-and-burn method. Alley-cropping is a method of simultaneously growing an
agricultural crop with a tree crop, retaining soil fertility.
 Plant more trees with strong root structures that hold the soil together.
 The government must set mining rules based on the evaluation of slope stability and landslide threat in the
mining areas. Mining companies must follow these rules. In case of disobedience, temporary or permanent
suspension of mining operations must be implemented.
 Avoid construction on steep slopes. As this is not entirely possible, evaluation of the area for land development
should be performed by engineers and geologists.
 Construct proper drainage away from the slope to control water accumulation and to avoid slope instability.
 During construction, do not add an unnecessary weight of fill materials to avoid overloading. Also, check broken
or leaking pipes because oversaturation of soil with water can trigger landslides.

Key Points
 Human activities can increase landslide risks. They include clearcutting, mining and quarrying, bad agricultural
practices, and construction activities.
 Suggestions to lessen landslides include planting more trees, controlling water in the slope, practicing good
agricultural methods, and avoiding construction on steep slope

Hydrometeorological Hazards
 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of
a hydrometeorological process such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.

Tropical Cyclone

 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over tropical oceans. It is
called typhoon in the Philippines. The typhoons entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) are given a
local name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).
This agency monitors and disseminates information about weather disturbances.

Tropical Cyclone Hazards

Tropical cyclones or typhoons bring about hazards that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment.

 Flood
 Strong Sustained Wind
 Landslide
 Stormsurge
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land. Due to heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon, the water
levels in dams and rivers increase. The water then overflows to nearby land areas. A flood can damage houses,
buildings, and bridges. Flash flood, which is a sudden, rapid flooding, may cause drowning and fatal injuries.
 A strong sustained wind is often brought by a typhoon. It can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges,
fields, and plantations.
 A landslide is the movement of a mass of rocks, soil, and debris down a slope. It can be triggered by heavy
rainfall.
 A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea water due to a typhoon. It is created when water is being pushed
toward the shore by the force of the winds moving in a circular manner. It ravages beaches and coastal areas.

Super Typhoon Yolanda

 Super Typhoon Yolanda (International name Haiyan) was one of the most powerful typhoons ever recorded. It
caused massive destruction in the Philippines on November 9, 2013. Strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm
surges caused widespread damage to properties and loss of lives. About 6000 people died and 28 000 were
injured because of the typhoon.

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Monsoon
 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. It brings a different kind of weather
depending on where it comes from. When it blows from the southwest between May and September, it brings
rainy weather. When it blows from the northeast between October and April, it brings dry weather. In the
Philippines, the southwest monsoon brings about heavy rainfall.
Southwest Monsoon Hazards
A monsoon may bring about the same hazards caused by a typhoon. It may cause heavy rainfall, strong wind, landslide,
and flood.
 Heavy rainfall and strong wind can damage residential and industrial buildings. It can also destroy agricultural
crops.
 A landslide may happen when the soil becomes saturated with water due to heavy rainfall. The soil and rocks
from the slope can move down and destroy many properties along the way.
 A flood may occur due to heavy rainfall that saturates the soil and causes an overflow of water to dry land areas.

Marikina River
 On August 1 to 8, 2012, the southwest monsoon (Habagat) caused typhoon-like damage in Metro Manila and
nearby provinces. Heavy rainfall caused the Marikina River to overflow, triggered a landslide, and caused the
collapse of roads and bridges. The floods and rain left 95 people dead and damaged 8000 houses.

Ipo-ipo
 An ipo-ipo (tornado) is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a funnel-shaped cloud. It can destroy
large buildings, uproot trees, and hurl vehicles

Ipo-ipo Hazards
 The strong whirling wind can lift and hurl objects it encounters no matter how heavy the object is. It causes
destruction of houses, buildings, dams, and bridges. The lifted objects may also cause injuries and death upon
impact.

Key Points
 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of a
hydrometeorological process such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.
 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over tropical oceans. It may bring about
strong winds, flood, landslide, and storm surge.
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land.
 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the southwest
monsoon may bring about heavy rainfall, landslide, and flood.
 A tornado or ipo-ipo is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a funnel-shaped cloud. The strong
whirling wind brought by a tornado can lift and hurl objects it encounters.

Understanding Hydrometeorological Hazard Maps

Hydrometeorological Hazard Map
 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by
tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo. Recall that in studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source,
legend, and symbols. They guide you in understanding the information presented by the map.
• Risk to Typhoons Map
The dark blue areas on the map are those that have high risks of being hit by typhoons. For example, the smaller
islands in the northern part, including Batanes, have very high risk to typhoons. In fact, these islands are hit by
typhoons almost all year round. Also, Albay in the Bicol region has very high risk to typhoons. It is often the first
area that is hit by typhoons that move along a westward path.

• On the other hand, those that are colored green have medium risks, and those that are yellow and tan have low
risks to typhoons. For instance, Mindoro (located in Southern Luzon) has medium risk, Bohol (in the Visayas) has
low risk, and Bukidnon (and most of Mindanao region) has very low risk to typhoons.
Flood Susceptibility Map

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  Flood is the overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal confines. It is a hydrometeorological hazard
that can be caused by heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon or the Southwest monsoon. It causes damage to
infrastructure and poses threats to the health of residents living in the area.
 Unlike the typhoon risk map which presents the level of risk of different provinces to typhoons based on their
location to the typhoon route, flood maps are more area-specific. A flood map represents past scenarios of flood
events in the specific area due to the overflow of a nearby water resource.
Key Points
 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by
tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo.
 In studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source, legend, and symbols.
 The risk to typhoons map presents the level of risk of different provinces to typhoons based on their location to
the typhoon route.
 A flood map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area due to the overflow of a nearby water
resource.
 Project NOAH has released hazard vulnerability maps to help concerned agencies involved in disaster prevention
and mitigation.

Coping with Hydrometeorological Hazards

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a tropical cyclone or monsoon:

Before the Tropical Cyclone or During the Tropical After the Tropical Cyclone
Monsoon Cyclone or Monsoon or Monsoon
 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must  Closely monitor weather  If your house was heavily
include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit, reports for updated damaged, ask for the advice of
clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights information on the tropical authorities regarding its safety and
and extra batteries, and a whistle. cyclone (storm signal stability. Do not go inside the house
 Make sure you have an adequate supply of numbers or storm surge if you are uncertain of its condition.
non-perishable food and clean water at home. advisory) or monsoon.  Check gas, water, and electrical
 If you live in a place that is in the path of  If you are in an area lines for any damage.
the cyclone or monsoon, close all doors and being directly hit by the  Beware of animals such as
windows. hazard, stay indoors as much snakes that may have entered your
 Check your drainage system at home. An as possible. house.
efficient drainage system will lessen the chance  Evacuate when  Wear protective gears when
of flooding and leaks. necessary and bring your cleaning up debris.
 Check to see if there is a need to fix roofs, emergency supply kit.  Some roads may be closed due
ceilings, doors, and windows.  In case of a threat of a to flood. If you come upon a
 Frequently listen to the weather reports. storm surge, evacuate to a barricade or a flooded road, turn
 Charge up emergency lights, electronic place higher than 500 meters around and use another route.
communication devices such as cellphones, and from the coast.
power banks. There is a high probability of
power outage due to strong winds and heavy
rainfall.
 Identify a safe area for evacuation.

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a flood:

Before the Flood During the Flood After the Flood

 Create a family disaster plan.  If you see any signs of flood, turn off the  Have an electrician
Designate a contact person who can be main source of electricity and go to a higher inspect your house
reached and discuss where you will place such as the second floor or attic. wirings and electrical
meet if family members are separated.  Do not wade along flooded areas to keep outlets before using
 Closely monitor weather reports yourself from having water-borne diseases. them.
for information on the possibility of  In case you need to pass through the flood,  Clean up your house.
flooding. wear protective gears such as boots and Dispose of things that
 Identify a safe place for evacuation raincoats. may be used by
and alternative routes that are not  Follow any evacuation orders. mosquitoes to breed like
prone to flooding.  Watch out for live wires or any electrical water vase and anything
 If a flash flood warning is issued in outlet submerged in water. that can hold stagnant
your area, evacuate to a safe place  If you are inside a vehicle and water rises water.

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 immediately. around it, leave it immediately. Climb to higher  Boil water before
 If flood alert is issued in your area, ground as quickly as possible. drinking because it may
move valuables and furniture to higher  If you see someone falls or is trapped in have been contaminated.
levels and disconnect electrical flood water, do not go after the victim. Throw  Do not go or return
appliance. the victim a floatation device such as tire, large to flooded areas until the
 Prepare and emergency kit and ball, or ice chest. Then ask help from a trained authorities say that it is
supplies like food and water. rescuer. safe to do so.

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after an ipo-ipo:

Before an Ipo-ipo During an Ipo-ipo After an Ipo-ipo

 Know the safe places where you can hide  If you are inside a house, move to a  Check yourself for
when there is an ipo-ipo. The safest place is safe place. Get under a steady piece of injuries.
underground. If your house does not have a furniture, such as a heavy table. Hold  Check for injured or
basement, a small room in the middle of the onto it and protect your head. trapped persons. Help if
house away from the windows is best.  If you are inside a vehicle, get out you can, but do not move
 Pay attention to weather reports about the and seek a safe shelter. them unless they are in
possible occurrence of an ipo-ipo. Familiarize  If you are outdoors and there is no immediate danger of
yourself with the warning sign. An ipo-ipo is often shelter to hide, lie down in a low area further injury.
accompanied by strong typhoons. Watch out for with your hands over your head and  Wear protective
clouds that begin to rotate in a circular pattern. neck. Always watch out for flying gears when walking and
 Create a family disaster plan. Designate a debris. working through the
contact person who can be reached and discuss  If you are inside a high-rise debris.
where you will meet if family members are building, move to a room on the lowest
separated. floor
 Prepare and emergency kit and make sure
that there is an ample supply of food and water.

Key Points
 It is important to know what to do before, during, and after a hydrometeorological hazard.
 Create a family disaster plan and educate everyone on what to do during and after the occurrence of the hazard.
 Be calm when the hazard strikes and carry out the disaster plan.
 Continue practicing safety procedures even after the occurrence of the hazard.
 Emergency numbers of government offices or NGOs which can respond immediately should be noted and kept
handy.

Coastal Processes
 Coastal processes are naturally-occurring processes that bring alterations to the coastal zones. They are
interactions of marine, physical, meteorological, geological, and biological events.
Waves
 Waves are created by the energy of the wind on the sea. The wind causes water particles to rotate and produce
waves. Large waves are usually formed during storms and typhoons. The height and energy of the waves vary on
wind speed, duration of the wave, fetch, and water depth. Fetch is an area of a water wave where the wind
blows in a constant direction. The higher speed, longer duration, wide fetch, and deeper wave have more energy
than other types of wave.
Types of Waves
 Constructive waves have low energy and have a stronger swash (a wave that approaches the coast)
than backwash (a wave that recedes from the coast). They are responsible for material depositions.
 Destructive waves have a higher height and energy. They are significant forces of change in the coasts. In
destructive waves, the backwash is much stronger than the swash. Because of this, the coast has a higher
tendency of erosion. Strong destructive waves can carry a great load of sediments that could significantly alter
the coastal landscape.
Tides
 Tides are temporary fluctuations in sea levels due to gravitational forces between the sun, the moon, and the
earth. They carry less energy to the coasts but occur more often than waves. High tides occur when water levels
are at their highest while low tides occur when water levels are at their lowest.
 Low-lying locations get submerged in seawater during high tide leading to submersion. Repeated exposure of
the coasts to submersion can loosen materials and cause erosion in the long run.
Sea Level Rise

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  Faster sea level rise has been observed in the recent years. This is due to the warming of the sea and melting of
glaciers. The rise in sea level has become more permanent. This warming of the sea and melting of glaciers are
due to enhanced greenhouse effect brought about by carbon emissions from various human activities. Islands
and even some countries are in danger of being submerged underwater if the sea levels continue to increase.
Sea level changes threaten low-lying areas to experience submersion permanently

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Crustal Movements
 Continents and landmasses have been formed and continuously shaped by the movement of tectonic plates.
These plates move because of the accumulated stress within the Earth's crust releasing energy and forming
different landmasses. Coastal areas can be changed by the movement of these plates.
 Crustal movements can cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion along coasts. Its major effect is
erosion followed by submersion as a subsequent effect. It can also cause low-lying areas and islands adjacent to
oceans or seas to sink. Saltwater may also enter freshwater basins if crustal movements would cause cracks in
the coastlines.
Storm Surge
 Storm surge occurs when the wind from tropical cyclones cause sea water levels to be unusually higher than
high tide levels. It can go as high as 20 feet or more above the normal sea level. It is more likely to occur on
coasts with gentle slopes than those with steep slopes.
 Some locations experience submersion during storm surge, which is not experienced during high tides. Erosion is
also more likely to happen because of the additional actions of waves during storm surge. Inland groundwater
sources experience saltwater intrusion. This happens when the seawater reaches the coastal areas and gets into
groundwater and other freshwater resources.

Key Points
 Coastal processes are natural events that affect the features of coasts and nearby areas.
 The three primary effects of coastal processes are erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
 Tides cause an increase or a decrease in sea levels. Locations with increased sea level (high tide) are exposed to
the dangers of submersion. Constant submersion can also lead to erosion.
 The rise in sea levels causes submersion of low-lying areas.
 Crustal movements cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
 Storm surge endangers areas near coasts to submersion. Erosion can also occur because of wave action on
storm surges. Saltwater intrusion can also happen if the seawater reaches wells and reservoirs of freshwater.

Coping with Coastal Erosion, Submersion, and Saltwater Intrusion

Coastal Protections
 Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to shores that protect the coasts from wave actions.
 Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to shores to prevent coastal erosion by promoting
beach build-up as they trap sand.
 Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel waves and in turn, prevent erosion and
submersion.
 Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is added to the coasts. This will create a new
beach or widen an existing one. However, this method is costly which deters communities to use it.
 Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They also diminish the effect of a storm surge that
can cause submersion.

Reducing Coastal Erosion

 Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances from the coasts.
 Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent erosion.
 Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce the speed of current that promote
erosion.
 Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.
 Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from erosion.

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Coping with Saltwater Intrusion
 Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater intrusion cases.
 Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion. Structures must be regulated to have a
safe distance from the sea to prevent excessive groundwater extraction from the reservoir that contributes to
saltwater intrusion.
 Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater from intruding through the coasts.
 Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further advancement of saltwater if already present.

Mitigation of the Impacts of Land Development, Waste Disposal, and Construction on Coasts
 Human activities such as land development, waste disposal, and construction cause different changes in coastal
features. It is vital that impacts of these activities be prevented or mitigated to help the coasts in withstanding
coastal processes.

Coastal Land Development

 Coastal land development is due to the demand in space, structures, and facilities that are used for various
human needs. It aggravates the effects of coastal processes. It increases the incidents of sand
mining and sediment run-off that contribute to coastal erosion. In addition, the increase in establishments leads
to higher demand for freshwater which then contribute to saltwater intrusion.
 Several ways must be employed to control the impact of land development on coasts. In the Philippines, PD
1586 has established the implementation of Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA allows the
determination of the possible environmental consequences of implementing a project, and it also plans possible
preventive and enhancing methods for mitigation of the determined risks. EIA points out the dangers before,
during, and after development. Meanwhile, environmental risk assessments (ERAs) are done in an ongoing
project and help identify and evaluate the effects on the ecosystem of any hazards caused by land development.
Developments must also have blueprints that ensure that coasts are preserved, infrastructures are used
efficiently, and the development itself has a beneficial use for the community. Lastly, controlling activities of
development must be employed to ensure the protection of coasts from strain.

Waste Disposal
 The increase in development and population may lead to increased amounts of waste disposed of in a coastal
area. The wastes are sometimes disposed of in landfills built near the coasts. The construction of these landfills
not only causes land and water pollution to the coastal area but also amplifies the effects of coastal erosion and
results in saltwater intrusion.
 Effective solid waste management planning and implementation must be carried out by the residents and
users of coastal areas. Managing solid wastes at the community level prevents coastal deterioration. Industrial
wastes must also be properly managed and not released in coastal areas.

Construction
 Constructions on coasts are consequences of the increasing land development in the area. If done haphazardly,
these constructed infrastructures can cause more harm to the coast. 
It is crucial that these structures are built at a safe distance from the coasts. This ensures both the structures’
and coasts’ safety. Structures must also have strong foundations to withstand the coastal harshness so that they
will not deteriorate. It is also suggested that the buildings be elevated so as not to impact directly the coastal soil
and for their protection against coastal processes. If possible, reinforcing building envelopes should be
considered to protect the infrastructure and land from coastal threats. Building envelopes are structures that
separate interior from exterior, like walls, doors, roofs.

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