STRAIN

One of the basic variable in continuum mechanics is displacement, the geometrical change of
a point in the continuum. In a uniaxial tension test of a solid bar, the strain is defined as the
change in length per unit initial length.

L L

Continuum

x
P Q
P’ Q’

Undeformed geometry
Deformed geometry

Original geometry,

P = (x, y) and Q = (x+ x, y)

After deformation, the displacement field is given by u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y).

P’ = (x, y) + (u(x, y),v(x, y)) and Q’ = (x+ x, y) + (u(x+ x, y),v(x+ x, y))

⼀一
New length along the horizontal axis,

x+ x + u(x+ x, y) – x – u(x, y) = x + u(x+ x, y) – u(x, y)

New length Original length x u( x x, y ) u ( x, y ) x

Strain
Original length x

u( x x, y ) u ( x, y )
Strain
x

u( x x, y ) u ( x, y ) u
For very small sampling segment length, x→0, lim
x 0 x x
 Q
y Q’

P
P’

Undeformed geometry
Deformed geometry

Original geometry,

P = (x, y) and Q = (x, y+ y)

After deformation, the displacement field is given by u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y).

P’ = (x, y) + (u(x, y), v(x, y)) and Q’ = (x, y+ y) + (u(x, y+ y), v(x, y+ y))

New length along the vertical axis,

y+ y + v(x, y+ y) – y – v(x, y) = y + v(x, y+ y) – v(x, y)

New length Original length y v ( x, y y ) v ( x, y ) y

Strain
Original length y

v ( x, y y ) v ( x, y )
Strain
y

v ( x, y y ) v ( x, y ) v
For very small sampling segment length, y→0, lim
y 0 y y
 R R’
2
y
Q Q’
P x

P’ 1

Undeformed geometry
Deformed geometry

P = (x, y), Q = (x+ x, y) and R = (x, y+ y)

P’ = (x, y) + (u(x, y),v(x, y)), Q’ = (x+ x, y) + (u(x+ x, y),v(x+ x, y)), and

R’ = (x, y+ y) + (u(x, y+ y), v(x, y+ y))

Change of angle = 1 + 2

v( x x, y ) v ( x, y ) u( x, y y ) u ( x, y )
=
x y

v u
=
x y

Summary:

u
xx
x
v
yy
y
v u
xy
x y

Note:

1
我 2G
Mechanical strain is defined as ij (ui , j u j ,i )
2

Hence, 11 xx , etc. However, 12

1
2 xy , etc.
-
Example:

(u0, v0)

y c.vn 10以
x
One of the corners of a 2x2 square
ǔ c uby⼼心a displacement of (u0, v0), find the strain at
y 2is displaced
⽕火2
the centre of the square.

Let the displacement field be represented by

1
(u, v) = xy(u0, v0)
4

u 1
xx yu 0
x 4

v 1
yy xv 0
y 4

v u 1
xy ( yv 0 xu 0 )
x y 4

At the centre of the square, x=1 and y=1.

u 1 1
xx yu 0 u0
x 4 4

v 1 1
yy xv 0 v0
y 4 4

v u 1 1
xy ( yv 0 xu 0 ) ( v0 u0 )
x y 4 4
Index notation:

Classical notation Index notation

Coordinates: x, y, z x1, x2, x3

Unit vectors: iˆ, ˆj, kˆ eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3

Displacement: u, v, w u1, u2, u3

u ui
Displacement gradient: , etc . or ui , j , etc.
x xj

Strain components: xx , xy , etc. 11 , 12 , ij , etc.

Stress components: xx , xy , etc. 11 , 12 , ij , etc.

vi - 6

篮
STRESS

The notion of stress is from our desire to quantify internal and external force distribution in a
body and along its boundary. Body forces such as gravity act inside a body, whereas surface
forces act on the boundary are called traction forces. Stresses are those forces distributed over
an infinitesimal unit area out of a body in certain direction.

F
F
F
A

F
lim
A 0 A

In fact, it equals to the projection of stress on the given surface ( n̂ ), or it equals to the traction
force at the point under consideration.

Cauchy’s Formula

It provides a relationship between traction force and stress.

t σ nˆ

where t is the traction force, is stress state or stress tensor and n̂ is the unit normal.
Example:

A cube of homogeneous stress state .

2
3=30N/mm

2
1=10N/mm
2
2=20N/mm

11

Matrix representation 22

33

Tensor representation iˆiˆ

11 22
ˆjˆj 33 kˆkˆ

(i) Along x-axis, nˆ1 (1,0,0)

11 1 11

Traction force tˆ1 σ nˆ 1 22 0 0

33 0 0

( iˆiˆ
11 22
ˆjˆj 33 kˆkˆ) iˆ iˆ
11

(ii) Along y-axis, nˆ2 (0,1,0)

11 0 0
Traction force tˆ 2 σ nˆ 2 22 1 22

33 0 0

( iˆiˆ
11 22
ˆjˆj 33 kˆkˆ) ˆj 22
ˆj
 (iii) Along z-axis, nˆ3 (0,0,1)

11 0 0
Traction force tˆ 3 σ nˆ 3 22 0 0
33 1 33

( iˆiˆ
11 22
ˆjˆj 33 kˆkˆ) kˆ 33 kˆ

1
(iv) Arbitrary inclined plane nˆ (1,1,1)
3
2
3=30N/mm
2
2=20N/mm 2
1=10N/mm

Shear stress on ts
octahedral plane
I i 6
h I E Get E
G sein
11 1 11

Traction force t σ nˆ 22
1
3
1
1
3
22 E Coutu
33 1 33

1 ˆ 1
( iˆiˆ
11 22
ˆjˆj 33 kˆkˆ) (i ˆj kˆ) ( 11iˆ 22
ˆj 33 kˆ)
3 3

1 ˆ ˆj kˆ) 1 ( 1
Normal stress, tn t nˆ (i 11 iˆ 22
ˆj 33 kˆ) ( 11 22 33 )
3 3 3

1 1 1
tn tn nˆ m (1,1,1) ( m , m , m ) where mean stress m ( 11 22 33 )
3 3 3
1 1 1
ts t tn ( 11, 22 , 33 ) ( m , m , m ) ( 11 m , 22 m , 33 m )
3 3 3

Stain 7
7

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2 hi
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stress e1
加⼗十 on 7
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对称的

EÈC Uijtujikig
Exercise: Find the stress components associated with an orthonomal basis (e1,e2,e3).
Characteristic equation and principal stress E 6 Ā Cauchy'sformula

Recall Cauchy’s formula, t σ n

On the principal plane, shear stress equal to zero, i.e. ts = 0 or t = n.

Hence,
σ n t n or (σ I) n 0

The principal stresses are given by the eigenvalues of and the eigenvectors define the
principal planes.

11 12 13

det(σ I) 0 21 22 23 0
31 32 33

3 2
or I1 I2 I3 0

I1 11 22 33

2 2 2
where I 2 11 22 22 33 33 11 12 23 31

11 12 13
I3 det(σ ) 21 22 23

31 32 33

I1, I2 and I3 are independent of the choice of coordinates, and are called stress invariants.

In terms of the principal stresses:

I1 1 2 3

I2 1 2 2 3 3 1

I3 det(σ ) 1 2 3

Exercise: Find the stress characteristic equation for the 2D case. Hence, express principal
stresses in terms of the stress components.
 6C E
3ㄨ3 33
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIP-LINEAR ELASTICITY

Stress-strain relationship: σ C:ε in component form ij

G
C
ijkl kl
Cijtu

For isotropic materials, C can be defined in terms of only 2 parameters such that

Cijkl ij kl ( ik jl il jk ) EKL.GjzCijkc.GE
where and are Lamé constants which can be deduced from the Young’s modulus E and

I 8 ijh
the Poisson’s ratio as

(1
E
)(1 2 )
and
E
2(1 )
G ( shear modulus)
PNfii.GL
8访⾮非

ij is the Kronecker delta defined as

1 i j 6⻔门⼆二⼊入
ij
0 i j 8ijfskvlultmfikfjkutmsix.SK
Et
ij [ ij kl ( ik jl il jk )] kl ij kk 2 ij

Intel Sijhktyusij
or tr ( ) I 2 I = Identity 2-tensor
Gj
When the index equation is expanded, we get the individual stress components.

11 = ( 11+ 22+ 33) +2 11

22 = ( 11+ 22+ 33) +2 22

33 = ( 11+ 22+ 33) +2 33

12 =2 12 23 =2 23 31 =2 31

In matrix form:

11 2 11

22 2 22

33 2 33

12 2 12

23 2 23

31 2 31
Strain-stress relationship:

kk
kk 11 22 33 (3 2 ) kk kk
3 2

Substitute into the stress-strain equation, we have

kk 1
ij ij 2 ij ij ij kk ij
3 2 2 2 (3 2 )

Individual components are obtained by direct index substitution,

1
11 11 ( 11 22 33 ) 11 ( 22 33 )
2 2 (3 2 ) (3 2 ) 2 (3 2 )

(3 2 )
However, E and
2( )

1
or and
(3 2 ) E 2 (3 2 ) E

Hence,
1
11 11 ( 22 33 )
E

Similarly,
1 1
22 22 ( 33 11 ) and 33 33 ( 11 22 )
E E

1 1 1
Also, 12 12 23 23 31 31
2 2 2

11 1 11

22 1 22

33 1 1 33
In matrix form:
12 E 1 12

23 1 23

31 1 31

1 1
ij (1 ) ij tr ( ) ij or (1 ) tr ( ) I
E E
Determination of E and from simple tension test of a bar

11 11

1
11 11 , 22 11 , 33 11 ,
E E E

11 22 33
E and
11 11 11

Bulk Modulus

Hydrostatic pressure (pressure equal in all directions) acting on a body of initial volume V
causes a reduction in volume of V, then the bulk modulus K is defined as the ratio between
the applied hydrostatic pressure and the volumetric strain.

V P
Volumetric strain v and Bulk modulus K
V v

Strain along one direction, say Hydrostatic stress P

1
11 (1 2 ) P
E

Volumetric strain,

v (1 11 )(1 22 )(1 33 ) 1 11 22 33 3 11

Hence,

3(1 2 )
v P
E

and
P E
K
v 3(1 2 )
Plane stress and Plane strain

In many engineering problems, three-dimensional problems can be simplified into two-

dimensional problems. If one of the dimensions is small in comparison with the other
dimensions, the stress in the smaller dimension is negligible. The stress state in this case is
called plane stress. Hence, we may simply ignore the smaller dimension and perform our
analysis for the two-dimensional plane of the larger dimensions. On the other hand, if one of
the dimensions is extremely large relative to the other dimensions, it is possible that the strain
in this direction is negligible. The condition is referred to as plane strain. The three-
dimensional problem can be idealized to a two-dimensional analysis on a slice of unit
thickness

22, 12

22, 12

33 =0
11, 21
33 0
33 =0
33 0 11, 21

Plane stress Plane strain

For plane stress, the 3D stress-strain relationship is modified by the conditions

33 = 31 = 32 =0

33 0 ( 11 22 33 ) 2 33 0

or 33 ( 11 22 )
2

The 3D stress-strain relationship can be simplified to

11 1 0 11
E
22 2
1 0 22 (Plane stress)
1
12 0 0 1 12
For the plane strain case, the stress-strain relationship is simply given by

11 2 0 11

22 2 0 22 (Plane strain)
12 0 0 2 12

Examples of plane stress analysis:

Bending of cantilever
Plane frame analysis
In plane stress analysis of perforated thin plate

Examples of plane strain analysis:

Tunnel section
Retaining wall
2
1
Bending and pulling of a thin plate
E