2.

Systems of Linear Equations

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems
In general, we define a linear equation in the n variables x1, x2, …, xn to be one that can be
expressed in the form

where a1, a2, …, an and b are constants and the a’s are not all zero.

In the special case where b=0, the equation has the form

which is called a homogeneous linear equation.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems

Example 1

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems

A finite set of linear equations is called a system of linear equations or a linear system. The
variables in a linear system are called the unknowns.

m equations, n unknowns

aij: i-th equation, j-th unknown

Solution, solution set

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems With Two and Three Unknowns

Linear systems in two unknowns arise in connection with intersections of lines in R2.

A linear system is consistent if it has at least one solution and inconsistent if it has no solutions.
Thus, a consistent linear system of two equations in two unknowns has either one solution or
infinitely many solutions.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems With Two and Three Unknowns

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Systems With Two and Three Unknowns

Example 2 Example 4

Example 3 Example 5

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Augmented Matrices And Elementary Row Operations

Augmented matrix

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Augmented Matrices And Elementary Row Operations
The succession of simpler systems can be obtained by eliminating unknowns systematically
using three types of operations:
1. Multiply an equation through by a nonzero constant.
2. Interchange two equations.
3. Add a multiple of one equation to another.
 Elementary row operations

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Augmented Matrices And Elementary Row Operations
Example 6

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Augmented Matrices And Elementary Row Operations
Example 6
Determine whether the vector w=(9,1,0) can be expressed as a linear combination of the
vectors

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Echelon Forms
Reduced row echelon form

1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero number in the row is a 1.
We call this a leading 1.
2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped together at the
bottom of the matrix.
3. In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1 in the lower
row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
4. Each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else.

A matrix that has the first three properties is said to be in row echelon form.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Echelon Forms
Example 1

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Echelon Forms
Example 2
A matrix in row echelon form has zeros below each leading 1, whereas a matrix in reduced
echelon form has zeros below and above each leading 1.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Echelon Forms

If by a sequence of elementary row operations, the augmented matrix for a system of linear
equations is put in reduced row echelon form, then the solution set can be obtained either by
inspection, or by converting certain linear equations to parametric form.

Example 3

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Echelon Forms
Example 4

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
General Solutions As Linear Combinations of Column Vectors

For many purposes, it is desirable to express a general solution of a linear system as a linear
combination of column vectors.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Gauss-Jordan And Gaussian Elimination

A step-by-step procedure that can be used to reduce any matrix to reduced row echelon form
by elementary row operations.

Forward phase, backward phase

Gaussian-Jordan elimination
Gaussian elimination

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Some Facts About Echelon Forms

1. Every matrix has a unique reduced row echelon form; that is, regardless of whether one uses
Gaussian-Jordan elimination or some other sequence of elementary row operations, the same
reduced row echelon form will result in the end.
2. Row echelon forms are not unique; that is, different sequences of elementary row operations
may result in different row echelon forms for a given matrix. However, all of the row echelon
forms have their leading 1’s in the same positions and all have the same number of zero rows at
the bottom. The positions that have the leading 1’s are called the pivot positions in the
augmented matrix, and the columns that contain the leading 1’s are called pivot columns.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Some Facts About Echelon Forms
Example 5

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Back Substitution
Example 6

Back substitution

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Homogeneous Linear Systems

A linear equation is said to be homogeneous if its constant term is zero.

A linear system is homogeneous if each of its equations is homogeneous.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Homogeneous Linear Systems

Observe that every homogeneous linear system is consistent, since

is a solution. This is called the trivial solution.

All other solutions, if any, are called nontrivial solutions.

If the homogeneous linear solution has some nontrivial solution

Then it must have infinitely many solutions, since

is also a solution for any scalar t.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
Homogeneous Linear Systems
Example 7

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.2. Solving Linear Systems by Row Reduction
The Dimension Theorem for Homogeneous Linear Systems

REMARK
It is important to keep in mind that this theorem is only applicable to homogeneous linear
systems. Indeed, there exist nonhomogeneous linear systems with more unknowns than
equations that have no solutions.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Global Positioning

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Global Positioning
Example 1

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Global Positioning
Example 1

The quadratic terms in all of these equations are the same, so if we subtract each of the last
three equations from the first one, we obtain the linear system

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Global Positioning
Example 1

To find s we can substitute these expressions into any of the four quadratic equations from the
satellite.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Network Analysis

Loosely stated, a network is a set of branches through which something “flows.”

The branches meet at points, called nodes or junctions, where the flow divides.

Three basic properties:

1. One-directional flow: At any instant, the
flow in a branch is in one direction only.
2. Flow conservation at a node: the rate of
flow into a node is equal to the rate of flow
out of the node.
3. Flow conservation in the network: the rate
of flow into the network is equal to the rate of
flow out of the network.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Network Analysis
Example 2
Figure 2.3.3a shows a network in which the flow rate and direction of flow in certain branches
are known. Find the flow rates and directions of flow in the remaining branches.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Network Analysis
Example 3
(a) How many vehicles per hour should the traffic light let through to ensure that the average
number of vehicles per hour flowing into the complex is the same as the average number of
vehicles flowing out?
(b) Assuming that the traffic light has been set to balance the total flow in and out of the
complex, what can you say about the average number of vehicles per hour that will flow along
the streets that border the complex?

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Electrical Circuits

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Electrical Circuits
Example 4
Determine the current I in the circuit shown in Figure 2.3.9.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Electrical Circuits
Example 5
Determine the current I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.3.10.

I1=6A, I2=-5A, and I3=1A

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemical formulas

Chemical equation

reactants products

balanced

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Balancing Chemical Equations

x1=1, x2=2, x3=1, x4=2

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Balancing Chemical Equations
Example 6
Balance the chemical equation

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Polynomial Interpolation
Polynomial interpolation: finding a polynomial whose graph passes through a specified set of
points in the plane.

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Polynomial Interpolation

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Polynomial Interpolation
Example 7
Find a cubic polynomial whose graph passes through the points

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung
2.3. Applications of Linear Systems
Polynomial Interpolation
Example 8
Approximate integration

E-mail: [email protected]
http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/hgjung