UNIT II GEOMETRIC MODELING 9

Representation of curves-Hermite curve- Bezier curve- B-spline

curves-rational curves- Techniques for surface modeling – surface
patch- Coons and bicubic patches- Bezier and B-spline surfaces. Solid
modeling techniques- CSG and B-rep.
 GEOMETRIC MODELLING
WHAT ARE THE DRIVING FORCES BEHIND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
GEOMETRIC MODELLING?
1. CG
2. CAD
3. CAM
Now
1. Robotics
2. Computer vision
3. Virtual reality
4. Scientific visualisation
5. AI
REQUIREMENTS OF GEOMETRIC MODELLING
Conceptual design is basis for generation of G.M.
The database is stored in CAD system.
G.M is used for Engg.Analysis & Design Optimization.
Design testing & Evaluation is necessary for modify G.M before
finalized it.
1. Centroid, c/s area, surface area,
2. Mass properties-Density & Inertia,
3. FEA & Optimization
4. Volume Visualization
5. Animation of graphics
6. Assembly 7. Tolerance analysis 8. M/f
9. CAInspection & control
GEOMETRIC MODELS
Broadly Classified
1. 2D
2. 3D
 2D:
2D:
2D modelling includes the construction of geometric faces,
plane drawings, 2D views of objects.
2D models is limited to drafting, sheet metal, spot welding,
laser cutting.
 3D
1.WIREFRAME MODELLING
2. SURFACE MODELING
❑Analytical Surface
❑Free-form, Curved, & Sculptured Surface
3. SOLID MODELING
❑Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
❑Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
WIREFRAME MODELLING
Traditional modelling
ADVANTAGES OF WIREFRAME MODELING
❑Simple to construct
❑Does not require as much as computer time and memory
DISADVANTAGES OF WIREFRAME MODELING
❑Lack of visulaization
❑Cant be used in FEA
 SURFACE MODELING
❖A surface model is a set of faces.
❖A surface model consists of wireframe
entities that form the basis to create
surface entities.
❖In general, a wireframe model can be
extracted from a surface model by
deleting or blanking all surface entities
❖Shape design and representation of
complex objects such as car, ship, and
airplane bodies as well as castings
❑Widely used in shape design representation of complex profiles such
as Ship,Aircraft,
❑Turbine blades,
❑Automobile bodies,
❑Aerodynamic structures,
ADVANTAGES OF SURFACE MODELING
❖Surface modelling are less ambiguous as compared to wireframe
models.
❖They support hidden line & hidden surface removal algorithms to
add realism to display geometry.
❖Surface models are utilized for mass property calculations, creation
of finite meshes & interference checking.
DISADVANTAGES OF SURFACE MODELING
❑More complex
❑Higher computer time requires
 SOLID MODELLING-VOLUME MODELLING
❑Best technological solution for parametric design & m/f-ing
applications.
❑Solid models support hidden line & hidden surface removal
algorithm to add visual realism to display the geometry.
❑They support shading & rendering.
❑Solid models are constructed on the basis of both geometry &
topology.
ADVANTAGES OF SOLID MODELING
❑Evaluation of mass & geometric properties,
❑FEA,
❑Kinematic analysis, process planning, tolerances & surface finish,
❑Assembly, planning, robotics kinematics & dunamics, &
❑Interference analysis & checking mating.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID MODELING
❑Larger computer time
❑More memory than surface & wireframe models.
 WIREFRAME MODELLING
Consists of points, curves.

Curves play a vital role in

Generating a wireframe
modelling.
 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES:

What Is Curve?

❑ A curve can be described by arrays of coordinate data or by an

analytic equation.

❑ The coordinate array method is impractical for obvious

reasons.

❑ The storage required can be excessively large, and the

computation to transform the data from one form to another is
cumbersome in the co-ordinate method.
…….curves….

❑ Curves engineering objects - SMOOTH AND WELL-BEHAVED

❑ Curve equations is efficient to use in CAD/CAM software due to either

COMPUTATION METHODS or PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS.

❑ The intersection of two curves is to be found by solving their two equations

numerically, the forms of the two equations may be inadequate to program due
to the known problems with numerical solutions.
 TYPES OF CURVE EQUATIONS
EXPLICIT FORM

B
Y=c1+c2x+c3x2+c4x3(Opened)

A
IMPLICIT FORM

(x-xc)2+(y-yc)2=r2(Closed)
2A

A
❖ Parametric representation of curves overcomes all of these difficulties. It

allows closed and multiple–valued functions to be easily defined and replaces

slopes with tanget vectors.

❖ Parametric form, each points on a curve is expressed as a function of a

parameter u.

❖ The parametric equations for a 3D curve in space takes the following vector

form:

❖ P(u) = [x y z] = [x(u) y(u) z(u)]T umin≤u ≤ umax

❖ P(u) = [x y z] = [x(u) y(u) z(u)]T the above equations are used to
check a given points lies on the curve or not reduces to finding the
corresponding u value and checking whether that values lies in the
stated u range.

❖ Points on the curve can be computed by substituting the proper

parametric values into the above equations.

❖ Geometrical transformations can be performed directly on

parametric equations.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTIC &
SYNTHETIC CURVES:
ANALYTIC CURVES – Very compact form, simplify the computation such
as areas, volumes, they are not attractive to deal with interactively.

❖Ex: lines, circles, conics, ellipse, parabola & , hyperbola.

SYNTHETIC CURVES – provides greater flexibility, control of a curve

shape by changing the positions of control points.

Ex:B-plines, beizer curves and Hermite cubic spline.

 WHY DESIGNING CURVES?
❑ Many technological applications

*Design of products (E.g. CAD)

*Calculation of the path for a robot

❑ Design of fonts

*Large sized fonts must be smooth

❑ Interpolating measuring data

 APPLICATION OF CURVES
• To meet the geometric design requirements of mechanical parts.

Products such as :

❑ Car bodies,

❑ Ship hulls,

❑ Airplane fuselages & wings,

❑ Propeller blades,

❑ Shoe insoles & bottles etc.,

Application of curves
APPLICATION:
BEIZER LINEAR BEIZER QUADRATIC BEIZER
CURVES:
METHODS FOR DEFINING SYNTHETIC CURVES
 Parametric cubic curves
Why cubic ?
❖Lower degree polynomials give too little flexibility in controlling the shape of the curve
❖Higher degree polynomials can introduce unwanted wiggles and required more
computation.
❖Lowest degree that allows Specification of Endpoint and their derivatives.
❖Lowest degree that is not planar in 3D.

Why we go for SPLINE ?

• To produce a smooth curve through a designated set of points, a flexible strip

called SPLINE.

• Spline curve can be Mathematically described with a Piecewise cubic

polynomial function whose 1 & 2 derivatives.
 B-Spline curve

• Usually cubic B-splines are used.

• Cubic functions allow for Enough curve flexibility for most tasks, and are
easier to work with then higher order functions - Behave more predictably.

(Higher order functions may get unexpected wiggles and kinks).

• The cubic B-Spline blending functions work over four control points

A sharp twist (or) curve in something that is otherwise straight

To move up and down (or) from side to side with small rapid movements.
 B-Spline curve
• B-Spline curve are designed to Eliminate sharp corners.

• A sharp corner can be obtained, by using Duplicate sequential control points.

* Extrapolation is an estimation of a value based on extending a known sequence

of values or facts beyond the area that is certainly known.
* Interpolation is an estimation of a value within two known values in a
sequence of values.
 HERMITE CURVE
❑ Hermite curve is determined by defining positions and tangent vectors at the
data points.

❑ Hermite curve is also known as cubic curve.

❑ Hermite curve passes (interpolate) through the end points of the curve segment
and possesses first order (slope) continuity.
❑ Hermite cubic curve is an interpolating piecewise cubic polynomials.
❑ Unlike the natural cubic splines, Hermite curve segments are adjusted locally
because shape of each curve segment is dependent only upon its end point constraints.
❑ The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by,

3
P( S ) =  ci s i 0  S 1 - equa 2. 1
i =0

Here, .
S = parameter
Ci = the polynomial coefficient

In scalar f-orm,the equation (2.1) can be written as,

X (S) = C3x S3 + C2x S2 + C1x S1 + Cox ,

Y (S) = C3y S3 + C2y S2 + C1y S1 + Coy , - equa.2.2

Z (S) = C3z S3 + C2z S2 + C1z S1 + Coz ,

Equation 1 can written in the form of matrix form

-equa2. 3
Equation 3 can written in the form of matrix form
-equa 2.4

3
P( S ) =  ci s i −1 0  S 1 -equa 2.5
i =0
 INTERPOLATION AND APPROXIMATION MODELING

One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use Lagrangian polynomial

which is the unique polynomial degree of n passing through n+1 points. But, it is
unsuitable in modeling of curves because they tend to oscillate about control points,
they are computationally inconvenient and they are uneconomical of storing curve
in the computer. A cubic polynomial is the minimum-order polynomial that can
guarantee the generation of these curves.
HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE SURVE
HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE CURVES
BEZIRE CURVE:

b0

control polygon
bn

line line element

Bézier curve
element
BEZIRE CURVE:

•More control over the curve.

•Very smooth and continuous curve.

•Start point and end point will be in curve.

•No points will be inside curve.

•Convex hull property.

•No special program needed for drawing line.

 APPLICATIONS OF CURVES

Car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fusages, propeller blades, shoe

insoles, bottles.
1. Design or results of stress distribution – Interpolation curves
2. Free form of curve – Approximation curves
 Products such as car bodies, airplanes, propeller blades,
etc. are a few examples that require free-form or synthetic
curves and surfaces
Mathematical approaches to the representation of
curves in CAD can be based on either
•Interpolation
•Approximation
❑If the problem of curve design is a problem of data fitting,
the classic interpolation solutions are used.
❑If the problem is dealing with free form design with smooth
shapes, approximation methods are used.
 ANALYTICAL AND PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATIONS
Analytical Representations
❑ Precision
❑ Compact Storage – we store only the equations
❑ Ease of Interpolation
❑ Slope and radius of curvature can be determined easily
❑ Any point on the curve can be precisely determined
Parametric Representations
❖ The slope of the curve is represented by tangent vectors
❖ Infinite slope results when one of the components of tangent vector is zero
❖ As parameter is used, parametric representation is independent of axis
❖ The curve end points and length are fixed by the range
 INTERPOLATION AND APPROXIMATION MODELING

One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use Lagrangian polynomial

which is the unique polynomial degree of n passing through n+1 points. But, it is
unsuitable in modeling of curves because they tend to oscillate about control points,
they are computationally inconvenient and they are uneconomical of storing curve
in the computer.
A cubic polynomial is the minimum-order polynomial that can guarantee the
generation of these curves.
1. Design or results of stress distribution – Interpolation curves
2. Free form of curve – Approximation curves
SYNTHETIC
CURVES
1- Interpolation
Finding an arbitrary curve that fits (passes through) a set of given
points. This problem is encountered, for example, when trying to fit a
curve to a set of experimental values.
Types of interpolation techniques:
• Lagrange polynomial
• Parametric cubic (Hermite)

Parametric cubic
HERMITE CURVE:

The Hermite form of a cubic spline is obtained by defining positions and

tangent vectors at control points.
 SHAPE CONTROL OF HERMITE CURVE:
There are three ways to modify/control the shape of Hermite (cubic) curves, they
are:
(i) Change in the location of the control points.
(ii) Change in the magnitudes of the tangent vectors, keeping the same directions.
(iii) Change in the directions of the tangent vectors, keeping the same magnitudes.
 LIMITATIONS OF HERMITE CURVE
(i) It is always difficult to select the magnitude as well as angle of the tangent
vectors at the two end points of the curve segment.

(ii) Curves are difficult to control because of the global shape control
characteristics.

(iii) The cubic curves never reduce exactly to a conic section and poorly
approximate a curves.

(iv) The computation time required to invert the tangent vector matrix can be
excessive when the number of control points are large.
 Hermite Cubic spline:
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
• Ease of calculation.
• Need very less input. • Less control over the curve.
• Easy interpolation Lagrange method and • Need more computational space to alter.
Newton’s method.
 BEZIER CURVE
❑ Hermite curves are based on the interpolation techniques which means

the curve passes through the existing data points.

❑ This technique is suitable when the basic shape of the curve is obtained by

experimental methods, or through the mathematical calculation.

❑ Biezer curves are another alternative to generate curves based on this

approximation techniques, and to produce the curves that do not pass through

the given data pointer.

 Bezier curve is obtained by defining a characteristic polygon. The nomenclature of a

cubic (4 control points). Bezier curve is shown in Fig. In the Bezier curve the following

observations are made.

1. The shape of the Bezier curve is obtained or determined by the number of control

points. Generally the bezier curve approximates the data points and interpolates the end

points.

3. The position of the control points and vertices of Bezier characteristics polygon is used

to define the Bezier curve. The Bezier curve follows the shape of characteristics polygon. The

Bezier curve is tangent to the first and last polygon segment of the characteristic polygon.
2- APPROXIMATION:
Approximation approaches to the representation of curves provide a
smooth shape that approximates the original points, without exactly passing
through all of them.
Two approximation methods are used:
• Bezier Curves
• B-spline Curves

Bezier Curves

B-spline curves
BEZIER CURVE:
The data points of Bezier curve is called as control points. They
form the vertices of what is called the control or characteristic polygon,
which uniquely defines the curve shape as shown in fig.
NOMENCLATURE OF BEZIER CURVE
POSITION OF CONTROL POINTS ON THE
SHAPE OF THE BEZIER CURVE:
POSITION OF CONTROL POINTS ON THE
SHAPE OF THE BEZIER CURVE:
CUBIC BEZIER CURVE:
n
P(u ) =  Pi Bi ,n (u ), 0  u 1
I =0
P(u) is a point of curve
Pi is control points
Bi,n are Bernstein polynomials
Bezier curve has Bernstein basis.
The Bernstein polynomial serves as the blending or basis functions for
the Bezier curve and is given by
Bi,n(u)=C(n,i)ui(1-u)n-I
C(n,1) is the polynomial coefficient
2. B-spline
Curves
B - SPLINE CURVES:
B - spline curves gives another effective method of Bezier curves. B
- spline curves are the proper and powerful generalization of Bezier
curves.
B - spline curve has the ability to interpolate or approximate a set
of given data points.
The B -spline curve separates the degree of the resulting curve from
the number of the given control points.
The flexibility in the degree of the resulting curve is achieved by
choosing the blending function of B-spline curves with an additional
degree of freedom that does not exist in Bernstein polynomials.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE B-SPLINE CURVES
1. The local control of the curve can be changing the position of a control
point or using multiple control points at the same location. It can also
be obtained by choosing a different degree (k-I).
2. This curves do not pass through the first and last control points except
when the linear blending functions are used.
3. B-splines vary the number of control points used to design a curve
without changing the degree of the polynomial.
4. A non-periodic B-spline curve pass through the first and last control
points and it is tangent to the first and last segments of the control
polygon.
5. As the number of degree of curve increases, the curve tightens shown
in Figure if the degree of curve is less the control points will be closer.
When k = 1, a zero degree curve results and the curve then becomes the
control points themselves.
6. A second-degree curve (k = 3) is always tangent to the midpoints
of all internal polygon segments. This condition is not suitable for
other degrees.
Parametric representation of
synthetic curves

1. Hermite curves
2. Bezier curves
3. B-Spline curves
CLASSIFICATIONS OF B-SPLINES:
Uniform b-spline curves,(-1.2, -0.8 , -0.4 , 0 , 0.4 , 0.8 , 1.2)
Non-uniform b-spline curves,(0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 3, 4.5)
Open uniform b-spline curves,(
Curve continuity:
Co,
C1,
C2.

B-SPLINE:
To change the shape of curve, Local control points are available.
RATIONAL CURVES:
➢ Rational curves introduced by Coons.
➢ Rational curve is defined as the ratio of two
polynomials.
➢ A non-rational curve is defined by one
polynomial.
➢ Various rational curves such as rational Bezier
curves, rational B-spline and spline curves,
rational conic sections and rational cubics have
been formulated.
➢ Rational splines provide an exact representation
for quadric curves (conics), such as circles and
ellipses.
➢ The most widely used rational curves are non-
uniform rational B-splines (NURBS).
NURBS:
NURBS is capable of representing in a single form non-rational B-
splines and Bezier curves as well as linear and quadratic analytic curves.
Rational B-splines provide a single precise mathematical form
capable of representing the common analytical shapes such as lines,
planes, conic curves including circles, free form curves, quadric and
sculptured surfaces etc.
RATIONAL SPLINES HAVE THE FOLLOWING TWO IMPORTANT
ADVANTAGES COMPARED TO NON-RATIONAL SPLINES.
l. Rational splines provide an exact representation for quadric curves
(conics) such as circles and ellipses.
2. Non-rational splines which are polynomials can only approximate
conics.
3. Rational splines are invariant with respect to a perspective viewing
transformation.
4. Non-rational splines, are not invariant with respect to a perspective
viewing transformation.
SURFACE
MODELING
 DESIGN OF SURFACES:

❑The design of surfaces may be based on quadrics like ellipsoid,

hyperboloid, cone, hyperbolic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, elliptic cylinder
and elliptic paraboloid.
❑A surface may be generated by sweeping a pattern curve along a spline
curve. The swept surface may also be linear, conical linear or circular
swept surface.
 PARAMETRIC DESIGN OF SURFACES

PARAMETRIC SURFACES MAY BE DEFINED IN ONE OF THE FOLLOWING

METHODS:
❑In terms of points of data (positions, tangents, normals)
❑In terms of data on a number of space curves lying in these surfaces.
BI-CUBIC SURFACE PATCH:
PROPERTIES OF SURFACES CREATED
BY DIFFERENT METHODS
 SURFACE MODELING FACILITIES AVAILABLE IN AN ADVANCED MODELER
An advanced surface modeller helps to design complex
sculptured(the art of shaping figures) surfaces easily.
They provide a number of tools
❑Model creation,
❑Shape control &
❑Visualization.
Surface models have visualization tools:
❑Shading,
❑Hidden line elimination,
❑Creation of perspective views and evaluated surface displays.
 ❑Surface modeling is a widely used modeling technique in
which objects are defined by their bounding faces.
❑Surface modeling systems contain definitions of surfaces,
edges, and vertices

Complex objects such as car or airplane body can not be achieved utilizing wireframe
modeling.
SURFACE MODELING ARE USED IN
➢ calculating mass properties
➢ checking for interference
➢ between mating parts
➢ generating cross-section views
➢ generating finite elements meshes
SURFACE MODELLING:
❑Boundaries of the solid are defined by surfaces.
❑Surfaces themselves are bounded by curves. A surface is really just a
set of related curves.
❑A surface of an object is more complete and less ambiguous
representation than its wire frame model.
❑It is particularly useful for modeling objects which can be modeled as
shells such as car body panels, aircraft fuselages or fan blades.
 TYPES OF SURFACES
The surfaces generated by the surface modeling are classified as
follows:
(a) Flat surface - most basic feature of surface model.
(b) Sculptured surfaces - based on flat face mostly used in FE analysis.
(c) Sculptured surfaces based on patches.
(d) Analytical surfaces (very rarely used).
(e) Combination of the above types.
A simple and basic form of surface is Flat surface.
The most general and complex surface representations are generally
known as SCULPTURED SURFACE.
 Sculptured surface means the surface produced by combining two families of
curves which intersect one another in a criss-cross manner and creating network
of inter connected patches.
 Common surface entities used in a surface
modeling are as follows.
a. Plane surface
b. Ruled (lofted) surface
c. Surface of revolution
d. Tabulated surface
e. Bezier surface
f. B-spline surface
g. coons patch
h. Fillet surface
i. Offset surface
BI-LINEAR SURFACE
FILLET SURFACE
OFFSET SURFACE
 APPLICATIONS OF SURFACE MODELING

Surface modeling can be used generally to model exterior shell

objects such as sheet metal works and thin moulded plastic parts.
Other areas of applications of surface modelling are as follows.
1. Body panels of passenger cars, structural components of aircraft
and marine structures.
2. Plastic containers, telephones, impellers of pump and turbine,
development of surface for cutting shoe leather, glass marking etc.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Unambiguities in the interpretation of object are less than wire
frame models by using the provision of hidden line removal.
2. Surface modeling can be used to perform interference checking (i.e.
penetration of one part with other).
3. Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the
product (By using coloring and shade facilities).
4. As the surface models, they can help to produce NC machine
instructions automatically.
5. Complex surface features such as shoes, car panels, doors etc can be
created very easily.
DISADVANTAGES:

1. Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.

2. Surface models require more computational time when compared
to wire frame models.
3. More skill is required for surface modeling.
4. Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia
cannot be derived from surface models.
5. Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis
for stress strain prediction.
 PARAMETRIC
REPRESENTATION
OF ANALYTICAL
SURFACES
PLANE SURFACE
1- Plane Surface
The parametric equation of a plane defined by three points, P0,
P1, and P2

P(u, v) = P0 + u ( P1 − P0 ) + v( P2 − P0 )
0  u 1 0  v 1
RULED (LOFTED) SURFACE
 Parametric Representation of Analytical
Surfaces
2- Ruled Surface:
A ruled surface is generated by joining corresponding points on two space
curves (rails) G(u) and Q(u) by straight lines
The parametric equation of a ruled surface defined by two rails is
given as
P(u, v) = (1 − v)G (u ) + vQ(u )
0  u 1 0  v 1
TABULATED SURFACE
 Parametric Representation of Analytical Surfaces
3- TABULATED CYLINDER
A tabulated cylinder has been defined as a surface that results from translating
a space planar curve along a given direction.

The parametric equation of a tabulated cylinder is given as

0  u  umax
P(u, v) = G(u) + vn
0  v  vmax
 Parametric Representation of Analytical Surfaces

4- Surface of Revolution
Surface of revolution is generated by rotating a planar curve in space
about an axis at a certain angle.
 Mesh Generation
• Whenever the user requests the display of the surface with a
mesh size m x n
➢ The u range is divided equally into (m-1) divisions and m
values of u are obtained.
➢ The v range is divided equally into (n-1) divisions and n
values of v are obtained.
Coons Surface
BICUBIC SURFACE PATCH
The following are major types of parametric Bi-Cubic Surfaces used in
CAD:
❖Hermite Surfaces
❖Bezier Surfaces
❖B-Spline Surfaces
 PARAMETRIC
REPRESENTATION
OF SYNTHESIS
SURFACES
 PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SURFACE

P(u , v) = [ x y z]T

P(u , v) = [ x(u , v) y (u, v) z (u , v)]

umin  u  u max
vmin  v  vmax
BEZIER SURFACE:
PLANE SURFACE
RULED (LOFTED) SURFACE
TABULATED SURFACE
 Parametric Representation of Analytical Surfaces

4- Surface of Revolution
Surface of revolution is generated by rotating a planar curve in space
about an axis at a certain angle.
1- BEZIER SURFACE:
A Bezier surface is defined by a two-dimensional set of control points Pi,j
where “I” is in the range of 0 to m and j is in the range of 0 to n. Thus, in this case, we
have m+1 rows and n+1 columns of control points.
m n 0  u 1
p(u, v) =  Bm,i (u ) Bn , j (v) Pi , j
i =0 j =0 0  v 1
Where
P(u, v) is any point on the surface
Pi, j are the control points
Bm,i(u) and Bn,j are the i-th and j-th Bezier basis functions in the u- and v-
directions

m! m −i
Bm ,i (u ) = u (1 − u )
i

i!(m − i )!
n! n− j
Bn , j (v) = v (1 − v)
j

j!(n − j )!
1- B-SPLINE SURFACE:
B-spline surface defined by (m+1) x (n+1) array of control points is
given by
m n 0  u  umax
p(u, v) =  Pij Ni ,k (u ) N j , L (v)
i =0 j =0 0  v  vmax
Where
P(u, v) is any point on the surface
K is the degree in u-direction
L is the degree in v-direction
Ni,k (u) and Nj,L (v) are B-spline basis functions of degree K
and L respectively
B-SPLINE SURFACE
COONS PATCH
 SOLID
MODELLING:
There are three different forms in which a solid model can be
represented in CAD.
❑ Wireframe model
❑ Surface model
❑ Solid model.
BASIC SOLID MODELLING
Out of which, the following two basic approaches are important from
our subject point.of view.
(1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG).
(2) Boundary representation (B-rep.)
ADVANTAGES OF SOLID MODELING
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, center of gravity and
moment of inertia of physical model can be quickly calculated.
2. Solid models are un-ambiguous models.
3. Cross-section views of models can be easily obtained.
4. It can be used for interference/Clearance checking of moving parts.
5. Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in the computer
screen itself with colour shading, high-lighting and facilities available in
solid modelers.
6. Different views of object (Isometric, Perspective and Orthographic
view) can be obtained easily.
7. Solid model is very much useful for finite element analysis.
8. They can help to produce NC machining instructions automatically.
In CAD systems there are a number of representation schemes for solid
modeling include:
•Primitive creation functions.
•Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
•Sweeping
•Boundary Representation (BREP)
Primitive creation
functions:
These functions retrieve a
solid of a simple shape
from among the primitive
solids stored in the
program in advance and
create a solid of the same
shape but of the size
specified by the user.
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

CSG uses primitive

shapes as building
blocks and Boolean set
operators (U union,
difference, and 
intersection) to construct
an object.
Boundary Representation

Objects are represented by their bounded faces.

B-Rep Data Structure
SOLID MODELING:

Solid modeling techniques provide the user with the means to create,
store, and manipulate complete representations of solid objects with the
potential for integration and improved automation.

Types:-
•Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG).
•Boundary Representation (B-Rep).
•Sweeping
1- Constructive Solid Geometry

A CSG model is based on the topological notation that a physical object

can be divided into a set of primitives (basic elements or shapes) that can
be combined in a certain order following a set of rules (Boolean
operations) to form the object.
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.1 CSG Primitives
Primitives are usually translated and/or rotated to position and orient them properly
applying Boolean operations.
Following are the most commonly used primitives:
 ADVANTAGES OF CSG:
❑It creates fully valid geometrical solid model.
❑Complex shapes may be developed relatively quicker with the
available set of primitives.
❑Less skill is enough.
❑CSG guarantees automatically in which objects drawn by CSG are
valid.
❑CSG is more user friendly.
❑Algorithms for converting CSG into B-Rep have been developed.
DISADVANTAGES OF CSG:
❑Getting fillet, chamfer and tapemess in the model are very difficult.
❑CSG database contains information about a solid in an unevaluated
form.
❑The validity of a feature of an object cannot be assessed without
evaluating the entire tree.
❑The tree is not unique for the same part design.
❑More computational effort and time are required whenever the
model is to be displayed in the screen.
 2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
• A B-Rep model or boundary model is based on the
topological notation that a physical object is bounded by a
set of Faces. These faces are regions or subsets of closed
and orientable surfaces.
➢ A closed surface is one that is continuous without breaks.
➢ An orientable surface is one in which it is possible to distinguish two
sides by using the direction of the surface normal to a point inside or
outside of the solid model.
• Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

B-Rep Entities Definition

• Vertex is a unique point in space

• An Edge is a finite, non-self-intersecting, directed space curve

bounded by two vertices

• A Face is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of

a closed oriented surface bounded by one or more loops
2- BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-REP)
B-Rep Entities Definition
• A Loop is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges. A loop
defines a non-self-intersecting, piecewise, closed space curve which, in turn,
may be a boundary of a face.

• A Handle (Genus or Through hole) is defined as a passageway that

passes through the object completely.

• A Body (Shell) is a set of faces that

bound a single connected closed
volume. Thus a body is an entity
that has faces, edges, and vertices
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
Validity of B-Rep

• To ensure topological validation of the boundary model, special

operators are used to create and manipulate the topological entities.
These are called Euler Operators

• The Euler’s Law gives a quantitative relationship among faces,

edges, vertices, loops, bodies or genus in solids

Euler Law F − E + V − L = 2( B − G)
Where F = number of faces
E = number of edges
V = number of vertices
L = Faces inner loops
B = number of bodies
G = number of genus (handles)
For simple solids without holes should satisfy the following Euler's rule
F-E+ V=2
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
 The B-rep scheme is more widely used
because of the following reasons.
1. In CSG, the number of basic primitives available is limited but it is not
so in B-rep.
2. The performance of B-rep scheme is very much superior to that of
CSG scheme for complex engineering models.
3. Conversion of CSG to B-rep is possible but the conversion from B-rep
to CSG is not possible.
4. Combining the wire frame and surface model is possible only
through B-rep solid representation.
ADVANTAGES OF B-REP:
❑Computational effort and time required to display the model are less
compared with CSG.
❑Combining wire frame and'surface model are possible.
❑Complex engineering objects can be easily modeled compared with
CSG. Examples are aircraft fuselage and automobile body styling.
❑It is particularly suitable for modeling part having internal symmetry.
❑Computational effort and time required to display the model are less
compared to CSG.
DISADVANTAGES OF B-REP:
❑The data structure of B-rep is complex compared to CSG.
❑Conversion of CSG to B-rep is possible. At the same time, the
conversion for B-rep to CSG is impossible.
❑The data to be stored is more and hence, it requires more memory.
So, it is not suitable for tool-path generation.
❑Sometimes, geometrically valid solids are not possible.
❑There is no guarantee for the created object to check whether it is
valid or not.
3- SWEEP REPRESENTATION
Solids that have a uniform thickness in a particular direction
and axisymmetric solids can be created by what is called
Transitional (Extrusion) and Rotational (Revolution) Sweeping
• Sweeping requires two elements – a surface to be moved and a
trajectory, analytically defined, along which the movement should
occur.

Extrusion Revolution
 Sweeping Sweeping is a
modeling function in which a planar
closed domain is translated or
revolved to form a solid.
When the planar domain is
translated, the modeling activity is
called translational sweeping;
when the planar region is
revolved, it is called swinging, or
rotational sweeping.
Sweep Representations
• Use reflections, translations and rotations to construct new
shapes.

u
u

P(u)
Translational Rotational
Sweep Sweep
Translational Sweep
3- Sweep Representation

Extrusion (Transitional Sweeping)

Revolution (Rotational Sweeping)

P
R
I
M
I
T
I
V
E
S
TOP-DOWN APPROACH
UNBALANCED TREE
BOTTOM UP APPROACH
BALANCED TREE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACE EDGES & SURFACES:
 EULERS EQUATIONS
❖Eulers Equations are used to create, manipulation, & edit the faces,
edges and vertices of a boundary model.
❖Euler operators, as Boolean operators, ensure the validity of
boundary models.
❖Geometry includes co-ordinates of vertices and rigid motion and
transformation.
LOOPS:
 CURVED SOLIDS:
Sphere:
F = 1, V = 1,E = 0

Cylinder:
F = 3, E = 3, V=2
B-REP:
B-REP:
 ANNA
UNIVERSITY
QUESTION PAPERS
UNIT 1 & 2
UNIT-3,4 & 5