Mathematical Reasoning

MODULE - X
38 Linear Programming
and Mathematical
Reasoning

MATHEMATICAL REASONING
Notes

38.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, we shall learn about some basic ideas of mathematical reasoning and the
process of reasoning especially in context of mathematics. In mathematical language, there
are two kinds of reasoning. (i) Inductive reasoning and (ii) Deductive reasoning. We have
already discussed the inductive reasoning in mathematical induction. Now, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.

38.2 STATEMENT (OR PROPOSITION)

The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement :

A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if it is either true or false

but not both at the same time.
If a statement is true, we say that it is a valid statement. A false statement is known
as an invalid statement.
l Consider the following two sentences :
Three plus four is 6.
Two plus three is 5.
When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is wrong
and second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics such
sentences are called statements.
l Now consider the following sentence :
Mathematics is fun.
Mathematics is fun is true for those who like mathematics. But, for others, it may not
be true. So, the given sentence is true or false both. Hence, it is not a statement.
l Consider the following sentences :
(i) Moon revolves around the Earth.
(ii) Every square is a rectangle.
(iii) The Sun is a Star.
(iv) Every rectangle is a square.
(v) New Delhi is in Pakistan
When we read these sentences, the first, second and third sentences are true but
fourth and fifth are-false sentences. Hence, each of them is a statement.
MATHEMATICS 549
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MODULE - X l Consider the following sentences :
Linear Programming
and Mathematical (i) Give me a glass of water
Reasoning
(ii) Switch on the light
(iii) Where are you going?
(iv) How are you?
Notes (v) How beautiful!
(vi) May you live long!
(vii) Tomorrow is Wednesday
We can not decide the truth value of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) and (vii). Hence, they
are not statements.
Example 38.1 Check whether the following sentences are statements. Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) 12 is less than 16.
(ii) Every set is a finite set.
(iii) x + 5 = 11.
(iv) There is no rain without clouds.
(v) All integers are natural numbers.
(vi) How far is Agra form here?
(vii) Are you going to Kanpur?
(viii) All roses are white.
Solution : (i) This sentences is true, because 12 < 16 (12 is less than 16). Hence, it is a
statement.
(ii) This sentence is false, because there are sets which are not finite. Hence, it is a
statement.
(iii) The sentence x + 5 = 11 is an open sentence. Its truth value cannot be confirmed
unless we are given the value of x. Hence, it is not a statement.
(iv) It is scientifically established natural phenomenon that cloud is formed before it
rains. Therefore, this sentence is always true. Hence, it is a statement.
(v) This sentence is false, because all integers are not natural numbers. So, it is a
statement.
(vi) This sentence is a question (or interrogative sentence). Hence, it is not statement.
(vii) We can’t have a truth value for it. So it is not a statement.
(viii) This sentence is false, because all roses are not white. Hence, it is a statement.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.1

1. Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your answer.
(i) Today is a windy day.
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(ii) There are 40 days in a month. MODULE - X
Linear Programming
(iii) The sum of 6 and 8 is greater than 12. and Mathematical
Reasoning
(iv) The square of a number is an even number
(v) Mathematics is difficult
(vi) All real numbers are complex numbers
(vii) The product of (–2) and (–5) is (–10). Notes

(viii) There are 14 months in a year.

(ix) The real number x is less than 4
(x) Listen to me, Mohan!
(xi) Are all circles round?
(xii) All triangle have three sides.

38.3 NEGATION OF A STATEMENT

“The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement.”
Let us consider the statement :
P : New Delhi is a city.
The negation of this statement is
It is not the case that New Delhi is a city.
or
It is false that New Delhi is a city
or
New Delhi is not a city.

If p is statement, then the negation of p is also a statement and is denoted by ~p, and
read as ‘not p’.

Example 38.2 Write the negation of the following statements :

(i) Sum of 2 and 3 is 6.

(ii) 7 is rational.
(iii) Australia is a continent.
(iv) The number is less than 5.
Solution : (i) P : Sum of 2 and 3 is 6.
~P : Sum of 2 and 3 is not 6.
(ii) q : 7 is rational
~q : 7 is not rational
or
It is false that 7 is rational
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Linear Programming
and Mathematical ~r : Australia is not a continent
Reasoning
(iv) S : The number 8 is less than 5.
~S : The number 8 is not less than 5.
or
Notes It is false that the number 8 is less than 5.

38.4 COMPOUND STATEMENTS

In mathematical reasoning, we generally come across two types of statements.
(1) Simple Statements : A statement which cannot be broken into two or more state-
ments is called a simple statement. For example :
(i) Every set is a finite set
(ii) New Delhi is the capital of India
(iii) Roses are white
(iv) 2 is an irrational number
(v) The set of real numbers is an infinite set.
(2) Compound Statement : A statement that can be formed by combining two or more
simple statements is called a compound statement.
For example :
(i) Mohan is very smart or he is very lucky. This statement is actually made up of
two statements connected by “or”.
p : Mohan is very smart.
q : Mohan is very Lucky.
(ii) Sun is bigger than earth and earth is bigger than moon.
This statement is made up of two simple statements connected by ‘and’.
p : Sun is bigger than earth.
q : Earth is bigger than moon.

Example 38.3 Find the component statements of the following compound statements.

(i) The sky is blue and the grass is green.

(ii) All rational number are real and all real numbers are complex.
(iii) It is raining and it is cold.
(iv) 2 is a rational number or an irrational number..
Solution : (i) The component statements are
p : The sky is blue
q : The grass is green
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The connecting word is ‘and’. Linear Programming
and Mathematical
(ii) The component statements are Reasoning
p : All rational number are real
q : All real numbers are complex.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
Notes
(iii) The component statements are
p : It is raining
q : It is cold.
The connecting word is ‘and’
(iv) The component statements are
p: 2 is a rational number
q: 2 is an irrational number
The connecting word is ‘or’
Example 38.4 Find the component statements of the following compound statements.
(i) 0 is positive number or negative number.
(ii) All prime numbers are either even or odd.
(iii) Chandigarh is the capital of Panjab and U.P.
(iv) 12 is multiple of 2, 3 and 4.
Solution : (i) The component statements are
P : 0 is a positive number
q : 0 is a negative number
The connecting word is ‘or’.
(ii) The component statements are
p : All prime numbers are even numbers
q : All prime numbers are odd numbers
The connecting word is ‘or’
(iii) The component statements are
p : Chandigarh is the capital of Panjab.
q : Chandigarh is the capital of U.P.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
(iv) The component statements are
p : 12 is a multiple of 2
q : 12 is a multiple of 3
r : 12 is a multiple of 4
All the three statements are true. Here the connecting word is ‘and’.

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MODULE - X 38.5 IMPLICATIONS
Linear Programming
and MathematicalIn this section, we shall discuss the implication “if then”, “only if”, and “if and only
Reasoning
if”.
The statements with “if then” are very common in mathematics. For example, consider the
statement.
Notes r : If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country.
We observed that if corresponds to two statements p and q given by
p : you are born in some country
q : you are citizen of that country
p and q are two statements forming the implication “if p then q”, then we denoted this
implication by “p q”.
then, “if p then q” is the same as the following :
(i) If both p and q are true, then (ii) If p is true and q is false, then
p q is also true. p q is false.
(iii) If p is false and q is true, then (iv) If p and q both are false, then
p q is true p q is true.
Consider the following statements
If a number is a multiple if 9, then it is a multiple of 3.
It is an implication having antecedent(p) and consequent(q) as :
p : a number is multiple of 9
q : a number is multiple of 3.
the above statement says that
(i) p is sufficient condition for q.
this says that knowing that a number is a multiple of 9 is sufficient to conclude that
it is a multiple of 3.
(ii) p only if q.
This states that a number is a multiple of 9 only if it is a multiple of 3.
(iii) q is necessary condition for p.
This says that when a number is a multiple of 9, it is necessarily a multiple of 3.
(iv) ~q implies ~p.
This says that if a number is not a multiple of 3, then it is not a multiple of 9.

38.6 CONTRAPOSITIVE AND CONVERSE

Contrapositive : If p and q are two statements, then the contrapositive of the implication
“if p then q” is “if ~q, then ~p”.
Converse : If p and q are two statements, then the converse of the implication “if p-then
q” is “if q-then p”.
For example,

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If a number is divisible by 9, then it is divisible by 3. MODULE - X

Linear Programming
Its implication is as follows: and Mathematical
Reasoning
p : number is divisible by 9.
q : a number is divisible by 3.
The contrapositive of this statement is
Notes
If a number is not divisible by 3, it is not divisible by 9.
The converse of the statement is
If a number is divisible by 3, then it is divisible by 9.

38.7 IF AND ONLY IF IMPLICATION

If p and q are two statements, then the compound statement p  q and q p is called
if and only if implication and it is denoted by p  q.
For example,
A triangle is equilateral if and only if it is equiangular.
This is if and only if implication with the component statements
p : A triangle is equilateral
q : A triangle is equiangular

Example 38.5 Write the following statements in the form “if then”.
(i) You get job implies that your credentials are good.
(ii) The banana trees will bloom if it stays warm for a month.
(iii) A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its diagonals bisect each other.
Solution : (i) We know that “if p-then q” is equivalent to “p q”.
Then the given statement can be written as
“If you get a job, then your credentials are good”.
(ii) We know that “if p-then q” is equivalent to “p q”
The given statement can be written as
“If it stays warm for a month, then the banana trees will bloom”.
(iii) The given statement can be written as
“If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram”

Example 38.6 Write the contrapositive of the following statements :

(i) If a triangle is equilateral, it is isosceles.
(ii) If you are born in India, then you are a citizen of India.
(iii) x is an even number implies that x is divisible by 4.
Solution : The contrapositive of these statements are
(i) If a triangle is not isosceles, then it is not equilateral.
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MODULE - X (ii) If you are not a citizen of India, then you are not born in India.
Linear Programming
and Mathematical (iii) If x is not divisible by 4, then x is not an even number.
Reasoning

Example 38.7 Write the converse of the following statements :

(i) If a number n is even, then n2 is even.
Notes (ii) If x is even number, then x is divisible by 4.
Solution : The converse of these statements are :
(i) If a number n2 is even, then n is even.
(ii) If x is divisible by 4, then x is even.

Example 38.8 Given below are two pairs of statements. Combine these two statements
using “if and only if”.

(i) p : if a rectangle is a square, then all its four sides are equal.
q : if all the four sides of a rectangle are equal, then the rectangle is a square.
(ii) p : if the sum of digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
q : if a number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Solution : (i) A rectangle is a square if and only if all its four sides are equal.
(ii) A number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.2

1. Rewrite the following statement with “if-then” in five different ways conveying the same
meaning.
If a natural number is odd, then its square is also odd.
2. Write the contrapositive and converse of the following statements.
(i) If you live in Kanpur, then you have winter clothes.
(ii) If x is a prime number, then x is odd.
(iii) If two lines are parallel, then they do not intersect in the same plane.
(iv) x is an even number implies that x is divisible by 4.
(v) Something is cold implies that it has low temperature.
3. Write each of the following statements in the form of “if-then”.
(i) To get an A+ in the class, it is necessary that you do all the exercises of the book.
(ii) The game is cancelled only if it is raining.
(iii) It never rains when it is cold.
4. Rewrite each of the following statements in the form “if and only if”.
(i) If you watch television, then your mind is free and if your mind is free, then you
watch television.

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(ii) For you to get an A grade, it is necessary and sufficient that you do all the Linear Programming
homework regularly. and Mathematical
Reasoning

38.8 VALIDATING STATEMENTS

In this section, we will discuss validity of statement. Checking the validity of statement means
when it is true and when it is not true. The answer to these questions depend upon which Notes
of the special words and phrases “and”, “or” and which of the implications “if and only if”
“if-then”, and which of the quantifiers “for every”, “there exists”, appear in the given state-
ment.
Here, we shall discuss some techniques or rules to find when a statement is valid or
true.
Rule 1 : Statements with “And”
If p and q are mathematical statements, then in order to show that the statement “p and
q” is true, we follows the following steps :
Step-1 : Show that the statement p is true.
Step-2 : Show that the statement q is true.
Rule 2 : Statements with “or”
If p and q are mathematical statements, then in order to show that the statement “p or
q” is true, one must consider the following.
Case 1 : Assuming that p is false, show that q must be true.
Case 2 : Assuming that q is false, show that p must be true.
Rule 3 : Validity of statements with “if-then”.
If p and q are two mathematical statements, then to prove the statement “if p then q”,
we need to show that any one of the following case is true.
Case 1 : (Direct method)
By assuming that p is true, prove that q must true.
Case 2 : (Contrapositive method)
By assuming that q is false, prove that p must be false.
Rule 4 : Statements with “if and only if”.
In order to prove the validity of the statement “p if and only if q” we need to show :
(i) If p is true then q is true.
(ii) If q is true the p is true.

Example 38.9 If p and q are two statements given by

p : 35 is multiple of 5
q : 35 is multiple of 6
Write the compound statement connecting these two statements with “and” and check
the validity.
Solution : The compound statement “35 is multiple of 5 and 6. Since 35 is multiple of 5

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MODULE - X but it is not multiple of 6. Therefore p is true but q is not true.
Linear Programming
and Mathematical
Reasoning Example 38.10 Given below are two statements :
p : 35 is a multiple of 5
q : 35 is a multiple of 6
Notes Write the compound statement connecting these two statements with “OR” and check
its validity.
Solution : The compound statement is “35 is a multiple of 5 or 6.”
By assuming that the statement q is false, then p is true.
Hence the compound statement is true i.e. valid.

Example 38.11 Check whether the following statement is true or not.

“If x and y are odd integers, then xy is an odd integer”.
Solution : Let p and q be the statements given by
p : x and y are odd integers
q : xy is an odd integer
Then the given statement is
If p-then q.
Direct method : Let p be true, then,
p is true
 x and y are odd integers
 x = 2m + 1, y = 2n + 1 for some integers m, n
 xy = (2m + 1) (2n + 1)
 xy = 2 (2mn + m + n) + 1
 xy is an odd integer
 q is true
Thus p is true  q is true
Hence “ if p-then q” is a true statement.

38.8.1 Contrapositive Method

Let q be not true. Then q is not true
 xy is an even integer
 either x is even or y is even or both x and y are even
 p is not true
Thus q is false
 p is false
Hence “If p-then q” is a true statement.

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38.8.2 Validity of Statements by Contradiction Linear Programming
and Mathematical
Here to check whether a statement p is true, we assume that p is not true i.e. ~p is true. Reasoning

Then we arrive at some result which contradicts our assumption. Therefore, we conclude that
p is true.
Example 38.12 Verify by the method of contradiction p : 7 is irrational. Notes

Solution : Let p be the statement given by p : 7 is irrational.

We assume that 7 is rational

a
 7 , where a and b are integers having no common factor..
b
a2
 7= 2
b
 a 2  7b 2
 7 divides a2
 7 divides a
 a = 7c for some integer c
 a 2  49c 2
 7b 2  49c2
 b 2  7c 2
 7 divides b2
 7 divides b
Thus, 7 is common factor of both a and b. This contradicts that a and b have no
common factor. So, our assumption 7 is rational is wrong. Hence the statement “ 7 is
irrational”, is true.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.3

1. Check the validity of the following statements :
(i) p : 80 is a multiple of 4 and 5.
(ii) q : 115 is a multiple of 5 and 7.
(iii) r : 60 is a multiple of 2 and 3.
2. Show that the statement
p : “if x is a real number such that

x3  2 x  0 , then x is 0” is true by (i) direct method (ii) method of contradiction (iii)

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MODULE - X method of contrapositive.
Linear Programming
and Mathematical 3. Show that the following statement is true by the method of contrapositive
Reasoning
p : “if x is an integer and x2 is odd x is also odd”.
4. Show that the following statement is true.
“The integer x is even if and only if x2 is even.
Notes
5. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? In each case give a
valid reason for saying so :
(i) p : Each radius of a circle is a chord of the circle.
(ii) q : The centre of a circle bisect each other chord of the circle.
(iii) r : Circle is a particular case of an ellipse.
(iv) s : If x and y are integers such that x > y, then –x < –y.

(v) t : 11 is a rational number..

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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Write four examples of sentences which are not statements.
2. Are the following pairs of statements negations of each other :
(i) The number x is not a rational number.
The number x is not an irrational number.
(ii) The number x is a rational number.
The number x is an irrational number.
3. Write the contrapositive and converse of the following statements :
(i) If two lines are parallel, then they donnot intersect in the same plane.
(ii) If x is a prime number, then x is odd.
4. By giving a counter example, show that the following statements are not true :
(i) p : if all the angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is an obtuse angled
triangle.
(ii) q : the equation x2 – 1 = 0 does not have a root lying between 0 and 2.
5. Let, p : 25 is a multiple of 5.
q : 25 is a multiple of 8, be two statements.
Write the compound statements with “And” and “or”. In both the cases check the
validity of the compound statements.
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ANSWERS Reasoning

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.1

1. (i) Statements are, (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi), (vii), (viii), (xii) Notes

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.2

1. (i) p  q i.e., n is an odd natural number  x2 is an odd natural number.
(ii) p is a sufficient condition of q.
(iii) p only if q i.e, a natural number is odd only if its square is odd.
(iv) q is necessary condition of p.
(v) ~q ~ p i.e., if the square of a natural number is not odd, then the natural
number is not odd.
2. (i) Contrapositive : If you do not have winter clothes, then you do not live in Kanpur.
Converse : If you have winter clothes, then you live in Kanpur.
(ii) Contrapositive : If a number x is not odd, then x is not prime.
Converse : If a number x is odd, then x is a prime number.
(iii) Contrapositive : If two lines do not intersect in the same plane, then they are not
parallel.
Converse : If two lines do not intersect in the same plane, then they are parallel.
(iv) Contrapositive : If x is not divisible by 4, then x is not an even number.
Converse : If x is divisible by 4, then x is an even number.
(v) Contrapositive : If something does not have low temperature, then it is not cold.
Converse : If it has low temperature then something is cold.
3. (i) “If you get A+ in the class, then you do all the exercise of the book.”
(ii) If it is raining , then the game is cancelled.
(iii) If it is cold, then it never rains.
4. (i) You watch television if and only if your mind is free.
(ii) You get an A grade if and only if you do all the homework regularly.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 38.3

1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True
5. (i) False (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True (v) False.

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Linear Programming
and Mathematical
Reasoning
1. (i) Everyone in this room is bald.
1
(ii) “cos2 is always greater than .”
2
(iii) Mathematics is difficult.
Notes
(iv) Listen to me, Sohan!
2. (i) Yes (ii) Yes
3. (i) Contrapositive : If two lines intersect in the same plane, then they are not parallel.
Converse : If two lines do not intersect in the same plane, then they are
parallel.
(ii) Contrapositive : If a number x is not odd, then x is not a prime number.
Converse : If a number x is odd, then it is a prime number.
5. The compound statement with “And” : 25 is a multiple of 5 and 8, which is a false
statement.
The compound statement with “or” : 25 is a multiple of 5 or 8. This is a true
statements.

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