Steam Heating Process - Load Calculating

Calculating the amount of steam in non-flow batch and continuous flow

heating processes
In general steam heating is used to

 change a product or fluid temperature

 maintain a product or fluid temperature
A benefit with steam is the large amount of heat energy that can be
transferred. The energy released when steam condenses to water is in the
range 2000 - 2250 kJ/kg (depending on the pressure) - compared to water
with 80 - 120 kJ/kg (with temperature difference 20 - 30  oC). 

Changing Product Temperature - Heating up the Product with Steam

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance can be
expressed as:

Q = m cp dT                                            (1)

Where,

Q = quantity of energy or heat (kJ)

m = mass of substance (kg)

cp = specific heat of substance (kJ/kg  oC )

dT = temperature rise of substance (oC)

This equation can be used to determine a total amount of heat

energy for the whole process, but it does not take into account the rate of
heat transfer which is:

 amount of heat energy transferred per unit time

In non-flow type applications a fixed mass or a single batch of product is
heated. In flow type applications the product or fluid is heated when it
constantly flows over a heat transfer surface.

Non-flow or Batch Heating

In non-flow type applications the process fluid is kept as a single
batch within a tank or vessel. A steam coil or a steam jacket heats the fluid
from a low to a high temperature.
 The mean rate of heat transfer for such applications can be expressed
as:

q = m cp dT / t                                           (2)

where,

q = mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ/s))

m = mass of the product (kg)

cp = specific heat of the product (kJ/kg.oC) - 

dT = Change in temperature of the fluid (oC)

t = total time over which the heating process occurs (seconds)

Example - Time required to Heat up Water with direct Injection of

Steam
The time required to heat 75 kg of water (cp = 4.2 kJ/kgoC) from
temperature 20oC to 75oC with steam produced from a boiler with
capacity 200 kW (kJ/s) can be calculated by transforming eq. 2 to

t = m cp dT / q

 = (75 kg) (4.2 kJ/kgoC) ((75  oC) - (20  oC)) / (200 kJ/s) 

 = 86 s

Note! - When steam is injected directly to the water all the steam condenses
to water and all the energy from the steam is transferred instantly.

When heating through a heat exchanger - the heat transfer coefficient

and temperature difference between the steam and the heated fluid matters.
Increasing steam pressure increases temperature - and increases heat
transfer. Heat up time is decreased.

Overall steam consumption may increase - due to higher heat loss, or

decrease - due to shorter heat up time, depending on the configuration of
the actual system.  

Flow or Continuous Heating Processes

In heat exchangers the product or fluid flow is continuously heated.

A benefit with steam is homogeneous heat surface temperatures since

temperatures on heat surfaces depends on steam pressure.
 The mean heat transfer can be expressed as

q = cp dT m / t                                   (3)

Where,

q = mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ/s))

m / t = mass flow rate of the product (kg/s)

cp = specific heat of the product (kJ/kg.oC)

dT = change in fluid temperature (oC)

Calculating the Amount of Steam

If we know the heat transfer rate - the amount of steam can be
calculated:

ms = q / he                                             (4)

where,

ms = mass of steam (kg/s)

q = calculated heat transfer (kW)

he = evaporation energy of the steam (kJ/kg)

Example - Batch Heating by Steam

A quantity of water is heated with steam of 5 bar (6 bar abs) from a
temperature of 35  oC to 100  oC over a period of 20 minutes (1200 seconds).
The mass of water is 50 kg and the specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg.oC.

Heat transfer rate:

q = (50 kg) (4.19 kJ/kg  oC) ((100  oC) - (35  oC)) / (1200 s)

    = 11.35 kW

Amount of steam:

ms = (11.35 kW) / (2085 kJ/kg)

    = 0.0055 kg/s

    = 19.6 kg/h
Example - Continuously Heating by Steam
Water flowing at a constant rate of 3 l/s is heated from 10  oC to
60  oC with steam at 8 bar (9 bar abs).

The heat flow rate can be expressed as:

q = (4.19 kJ/kg.oC) ((60  oC) - (10  oC)) (3 l/s) (1 kg/l)

    = 628.5 kW

The steam flow rate can be expressed as:

ms = (628.5 kW) / (2030 kJ/kg)

    = 0.31 kg/s

    = 1115 kg/h

Atmospheric pressure

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Specific enthalpy - or Sensible Heat - is the quantity of heat in 1 kg of
water according to the selected temperature
Example - Boiling Water at 100  oC and 0 bar
At atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge or absolute 101.33 kN/m2 -
water boils at 100  oC. 419 kJ of energy is required to heat 1 kg of water
from 0  oC to the saturation temperature 100  oC.

Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) and 100  oC - the

specific enthalpy of water is 419 kJ/kg.

Another 2257 kJ of energy is required to evaporate the 1 kg of water

at 100  oC to steam at 100  oC. Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33
kN/m2) - the specific enthalpy of evaporation is 2257 kJ/kg.

The total specific enthalpy of the steam (or heat required to evaporate
water to steam) at atmospheric pressure and 100  oC can be summarized as:

hs = 419 + 2257

    = 2676 kJ/kg

    = 2676 (kJ/kg) / 3600 (s/h) = 0.74 kWh/kg

(1 hour = 3600 seconds, 1 kW = 1 kJ/s)

Example - Boiling Water at 170  oC and 7 bar
Steam at atmospheric pressure is of limited practical use since it
cannot be conveyed by its own pressure along a steam pipe to the points of
consumption.

At 7 bar gauge (absolute 800 kN/m2) - the saturation temperature of

water is 170  oC. More heat energy is required to raise the temperature to the
saturation point at 7 bar gauge than needed for water at atmospheric
pressure. From the table a value of 720.9 kJ is needed to raise 1 kg of water
from 0  oC to the saturation temperature 170  oC.

The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed at 7 bar gauge to

evaporate the water to steam is actually less than the heat energy required
at atmospheric pressure. The specific enthalpy of evaporation decreases
with steam pressure increase. The evaporation heat is 2047
kJ/kg according the table.

Note! Because the specific volume of steam decreases with increasing

pressure, the amount of heat energy transferred in the same volume
actually increases with steam pressure. In other words the same pipe may
transfer more energy with high pressure steam than with low pressure
steam.

Heating Air with Steam

Calculate air heating with steam
Steam is often used to heat air. Steam condensing rate for air heating
equipment can be calculated as

ms = q dt cp ρ / he                               (1)

ms = q dt cp ρ / he                               (1)

where

ms = rate of condensation, steam consumption (kg/s)

q = volumetric air flow rate (m3/s)

dt = temperature difference in air flow ( oC)

cp = specific heat of air (kJ/kg  oC)

ρ = density air (kg/m3)

he = specific enthalpy of evaporating (condensation) steam (kJ/kg)

Example - Heating Air with Steam
1 m3/s of air is heated from 10oC to 30oC with steam condensing at
atmospheric pressure. The steam consumption can be calculated as

ms = (1 m3/s) ((30oC) - (10oC)) (1.0 kJ/kg  oC) (1.204 kg/m3) / (2257

kJ/kg)

     = 0.011 kg/s

Cooling and Heating Equations

Latent and sensible cooling and heating equations –

Sensible Heat

The sensible heat in a heating or cooling process of air (heating or

cooling capacity) can be calculated in SI-units as

hs = cp ρ q dt (1)

where

hs = sensible heat (kW)

cp = specific heat of air (1.006 kJ/kg oC)

ρ = density of air (1.202 kg/m3)

q = air volume flow (m3/s)

dt = temperature difference (oC)

Example - Heating Air, Sensible Heat

An air flow of 1 m3/s is heated from 0 to 20oC. Using (1) the sensible
heat added to the air can be calculated as

hs = (1.006 kJ/kg oC) (1.202 kg/m3) (1 m3/s) ((20 oC) - (0 oC))

= 24.2 (kW)

Latent Heat

Latent heat due to the moisture in air can be calculated in SI-units as:

hl = ρ hwe q dwkg (2)

where

hl = latent heat (kW)

ρ = density of air (1.202 kg/m3)

q = air volume flow (m3/s)

hwe = latent heat evaporization water (2454 kJ/kg - in air at atmospheric

pressure and 20oC)

dwkg = humidity ratio difference (kg water/kg dry air)

(estimate humidity with the Mollier diagram)

Latent evaporation heat for water can be calculated as

hwe = 2494 - 2.2 t (2a)

where

t = evaporation temperature (oC)

Example - Cooling Air, Latent Heat

An air flow of 1 m3/s is cooled from 30 to 10oC. The relative humidity

of the air is 70% at the start and 100% at the end of the cooling process.

From the Mollier diagram we estimate the water content in the hot air to
be 0.0187 kg water/kg dry air, and the water content in the cold air to be
0.0075 kg water/kg dry air.

Using (2) the latent heat removed from the air can be calculated as

hl = (1.202 kg/m3) (2454 kJ/kg) (1 m3/s) ((0.0187 kg water/kg dry air) -

(0.0075 kg water/kg dry air))

= 34.3 (kW)

Total Heat - Latent and Sensible Heat

Total heat due to both temperature and moisture can be expressed in SI

units as:

ht = ρ q dh (3)

where

ht = total heat (kW)

q = air volume flow (m3/s)

ρ = density of air (1.202 kg/m3)

dh = enthalpy difference (kJ/kg)

(estimate enthalpy with the Mollier diagram)

Total heat can also be expressed as:

ht = hs + hl

= 1.08 q dt + 0.68 q dwgr (4)

Example - Cooling or Heating Air, Total Heat

An air flow of 1 m3/s is cooled from 30 to 10oC. The relative humidity of the
air is 70% at the start and 100% at the end of the cooling process.

From the Mollier diagram we estimate the water enthalpy in the hot air to be
77 kJ/kg dry air, and the enthalpy in the cold air to be 28 kJ/kg dry air.

Using (3) the total sensible and latent heat removed from the air can be
calculated as

ht = (1.202 kg/m3) (1 m3/s) ((77 kJ/kg dry air) - (28 kJ/kg dry air))

= 58.9 (kW)

SHR - Sensible Heat Ratio

The Sensible Heat Ratio can be expressed as

SHR = hs / ht (6)

where

SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio

hs = sensible heat

ht = total heat (sensible and latent)

Air is a mixture of mostly oxygen, nitrogen and water vapor. The Mollier
diagram is a graphic representation of the relationship between air
temperature, moisture content and enthalpy - and is a basic design tool for
building engineers and designers.
 Specific Humidity % Humidity Curves

D
B
T

w
B
T

Air Enthalpy Curve

Process Controllers

Proportional, integrating and derivative process controllers

The controller consists of

 a measuring unit with an appropriate instrument to measure the state

of process, a temperature transmitter, pressure transmitter or similar
 a input set point device to set the desired value
 a comparator for comparing the measured value with the set point,
calculating the difference or error between the two
 a control unit to calculate the output magnitude and direction to
compensate the deviation from the desired value
 a output unit converting the output from the controller to physical
action, a control valve, a motor or similar

Controller Principles The Control Units are in general build on the control
principles

 proportional controller
 integral controller

 derivative controller

Controll
Steady
er Rise Oversho Settlin
State
Respons Time ot g Time
Error
e
Decrea Small Decreas
P Increase
se Change e
Decrea Increas Elimina
I Increase
se e te
Small Decrea Small
D Decrease
Change se Change
Proportional Controller (P-Controller)

One of the most used controllers is the Proportional Controller (P-

Controller) who produce an output action that is proportional to the
deviation between the set point and the measured process value.

OP = -kP Er                           (1)

where

OP = output proportional controller

kP = proportional gain or action factor of the controller

Er = error or deviation between the set point value and the measured value

The gain or action factor - kP

 influence on the output with a magnitude of kP

 determines how fast the system responds. If the value is too large the
system will be in danger to oscillate and/or become unstable. If the
value is too small the system error or deviation from set point will be
very large
 can be regarded linear only for very small variations

The gain kP can be expressed as

kP = 100 / P                        (1b)

where

P = proportional band

 The proportional band P, express the value necessary
for 100% controller output. If P = 0, the gain or action factor kP would
be infinity - the control action would be ON/OFF.

Note! A proportional controller will have the effect of reducing the rise time
and will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error.

Integral Controller (I-Controller)

With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the

amount of time the error is present. Integral action eliminates offset.

OI = - kI Σ(Er dt)                        (2)

where

OI = output integrating controller

kI = integrating gain or action factor of the controller

dt = time sample

The integral controller produce an output proportional to the

summarized deviation between the set point and measured value and
integrating gain or action factor.

Integral controllers tend to respond slowly at first, but over a long

period of time they tend to eliminate errors.

The integral controller eliminates the steady-state error, but may

make the transient response worse. The controller may be unstable.

The integral regulator may also cause problems during shutdowns

and start up as a result of the integral saturation or wind up effect. An
integrating regulator with over time deviation (typical during plant shut
downs) will summarize the output to +/- 100%. During start up the output
is set to 100% m which may be catastrophic.

Derivative Controller (D-Controller)

With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate

of change of the measurement or error. The controller output is calculated
by the rate of change of the deviation or error with time.

OD = - kD dEr / dt                           (3)

where

OD = output derivative controller

kD = derivative gain or action factor of the controller

dEr = deviation change over time sample dt

dt = time sample

The derivative or differential controller is never used alone. With

sudden changes in the system the derivative controller will compensate the
output fast. The long term effects the controller allow huge steady state
errors.

A derivative controller will in general have the effect of increasing the

stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient
response.

Proportional, Integral, Derivative Controller (PID-Controller)

The functions of the individual proportional, integral and derivative

controllers complement each other. If they are combined it’s possible to
make a system that responds quickly to changes (derivative), tracks required
positions (proportional), and reduces steady state errors (integral).

Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because P, I

and D are dependent of each other. Changing one of these variables can
change the effect of the other two.

Flow of Liquids from Containers - Volume Flow and Emptying Time

Calculator

Liquid velocity, volume flow and draining time when emptying

containers

Base Apertures
The liquid outlet velocity when draining a tank or a container can be
calculated

v = Cv (2 g H )1/2                                (1a)

where

v = outlet velocity (m/s)

Cv = velocity coefficient (water 0.97)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

H = height (m)

The liquid volume flow can be calculated

V = Cd A (2 g H)1/2                        (1b)

where

V = volume flow (m3/s)

A = area of aperture - flow outlet (m2)

Cd = discharge coefficient

where

Cd = Cc Cv 

where

Cc = contraction coefficient (sharp edge aperture 0.62, well rounded aperture
0.97)

A = area aperture (m2)

Example - Volume Flow when draining a Container

The height from the surface to the outlet aperture in a water filled container
is 3 m. The aperture is sharp edged with diameter 0.1 m. The discharge
coefficient can be calculated as

Cd = 0.62 0.97

     = 0.6

The are of the aperture can be calculated as

A = π ((0.1 m) / 2)2

   =   0.008 m2

The volume flow through the aperture can be calculated as

V = 0.6  (0.008 m2) (2 (9.81 m/s2) (3 m))1/2  

   = 0.037 m3/s

For height 1.5 m the volume flow is 0.1 m3/s. For height 0.5 m the volume
flow is 0.06 m3/s.

Small Lateral Apertures

Outlet velocity can be expressed as

v = Cv (2 g H)1/2                                (2a)

Distance s can be expressed as

s = 2 (H h)1/2                               (2b)

Volume flow can be expressed as

V = Cd A (2 g H)1/2                             (2c)

Reaction force can be expressed as

F = ρ V v                                 (2d)

where

ρ = density (kg/m3)  (water 1000 kg/m3)

Large Lateral Apertures

Volume flow can be expressed as

V = 2/3 Cd b (2 g)1/2 (H23/2 - H13/2)                                (3a)

where

b = width of aperture (m)

Excess Pressure in Container

Outlet velocity can be expressed as

v = Cv (2 (g H + p / ρ))1/2                               (4a)

where

p = excess pressure in container or tank (N/m2, Pa)

Volume flow can be expressed as

V = Cd A (2 (g H + p / ρ))1/2                           (4b)

Draining Tank Calculator
This calculator is based on eq. (1b) and can be used to estimate
the volume flow and time used to drain a container or tank through an
aperture.
The calculator divides the container in "slices" and makes an iterative
average calculation for each slice. The accuracy of the calculation can be
increased by increasing the number of slices.
1
 Bottom area of tank or container  (m2)
3
 H - height between surface and aperture (m)
0.008
 A - aperture area (m2)
0.6
 Cd - discharge coefficient
10
 no. of "slices" (for the iterative calculation)
 - results in table below!

Average Height
between Volume in Time to Drain
Segmen Average Flow
Segment and Segment Segment
t (m3/s)
Aperture (m3) (s)
(m)

0 2.85 0.0359 0.3 8.36

1 2.55 0.034 0.3 8.84

2 2.25 0.0319 0.3 9.41

3 1.95 0.0297 0.3 10.1

4 1.65 0.0273 0.3 11

5 1.35 0.0247 0.3 12.1

6 1.05 0.0218 0.3 13.8

7 0.75 0.0184 0.3 16.3

8 0.45 0.0143 0.3 21

9 0.15 0.00823 0.3 36.4

SUM 3 147

Note! - the flow is reduced and the time is increased with reduced height.
The orifice, nozzle and venturi flow rate meters use the Bernoulli
Equation to calculate fluid flow rate using pressure difference through
obstructions in the flow.

In a flow metering device based on the Bernoulli Equation the downstream

pressure after an obstruction will be lower than the upstream pressure
before. To understand orifice, nozzle and venturi meters it is necessary to
explore the Bernoulli Equation.

The Bernoulli Equation

Assuming a horizontal flow (neglecting the minor elevation difference
between the measuring points) the Bernoulli Equation can be modified to:

p1 + 1/2 ρ v12 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v22                            (1)

where

p = pressure  (Pa, psi)

ρ = density   (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)

v = flow velocity (m/s, in/s)

The equation can be adapted to vertical flow by adding elevation heights:

p1 + 1/2 ρ v12 + γ h1 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v22 + γ h2                      (1b)

where

γ = specific weight of fluid (kg/m3, slugs/in3)

h = elevation (m, in)

Assuming uniform velocity profiles in the upstream and downstream flow -

the Continuity Equation can be expressed as

q = v1 A1 = v2 A2                                  (2)

where

q = flow rate   (m3/s, in3/s)

A = flow area   (m2, in2)

Combining (1) and (2), assuming A2 < A1, gives the "ideal" equation:

q = A2 [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - (A2 / A1)2) ]1/2                              
(3)

For a given geometry (A), the flow rate can be determined by measuring the
pressure difference p1 - p2.

The theoretical flow rate q will in practice be smaller (2 - 40%) due to

geometrical conditions.

The ideal equation (3) can be modified with a discharge coefficient:

q = cd A2 [ 2 (p1 - p2) / ρ (1 - (A2 / A1)2) ]1/2                          

(3b)

where

cd = discharge coefficient

The discharge coefficient cd is a function of the jet size - or orifice opening -

the

area ratio = Avc / A2

where

Avc = area in "vena contracta"   (m2, in2)

"Vena Contracta" is the minimum jet area that appears just downstream of
the restriction. The viscous effect is usually expressed in terms of the non-
dimensional parameter Reynolds Number -  Re.

Due to the Benoulli and the Continuity Equation the velocity of the fluid will
be at it's highest and the pressure at the lowest in "Vena Contracta". After
the metering device the velocity will decrease to the same level as before the
obstruction. The pressure recover to a pressure level lower than the
pressure before the obstruction and adds a head loss to the flow.

Equation (3) can be modified with diameters to:

q = cd (π / 4) D22 [ 2 (p1 - p2) / ρ (1 - d4) ]1/2                             
(4)

where

D2 = orifice, venturi or nozzle inside diameter (m, in)

D1 = upstream and downstream pipe diameter  (m, in)

d = D2 / D1 diameter ratio

π = 3.14...

Equation (4) can be modified to mass flow for fluids by simply multiplying

with the density:

m = cd (π / 4) D22 ρ [ 2 (p1 - p2) / ρ (1 - d4) ]1/2                           

(5)

where

m = mass flow (kg/s)

When measuring the mass flow in gases, its necessary to considerate the
pressure reduction and change in density of the fluid. The formula above
can be used with limitations for applications with relatively small changes in
pressure and density.

The Orifice Plate

The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in
it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just
downstream. There are in general three methods for placing the taps. The
coefficient of a meter depends on the position of the taps.
 
Flange location - Pressure tap location 1 inch upstream and 1
inch downstream from face of orifice
 "Vena Contracta" location - Pressure tap location 1 pipe diameter (actual
inside) upstream and 0.3 to 0.8 pipe diameter downstream from face of
orifice
 Pipe location - Pressure tap location 2.5 times nominal pipe diameter
upstream and 8 times nominal pipe diameter downstream from face of orifice
The discharge coefficient - cd - varies considerably with changes in area ratio and
the Reynolds number. A discharge coefficient cd = 0.60 may be taken as standard,
but the value varies noticeably at low values of the Reynolds number.

Discharge Coefficient - cd

Diameter Reynolds Number - Re

Ratio
d = D2 / D1 104 105 106 107

0.2 0.60 0.595 0.594 0.594

0.4 0.61 0.603 0.598 0.598

0.5 0.62 0.608 0.603 0.603

0.6 0.63 0.61 0.608 0.608

0.7 0.64 0.614 0.609 0.609

The pressure recovery is limited for an orifice plate and the permanent pressure
loss depends primarily on the area ratio. For an area ratio of 0.5 the head loss is
about 70 - 75% of the orifice differential.

 The orifice meter is recommended for clean and dirty liquids and some slurry
services.
 The rangeability is 4 to 1
 The pressure loss is medium
 Typical accuracy is 2 to 4% of full scale
 The required upstream diameter is 10 to 30
 The viscosity effect is high
 The relative cost is low

Example - Orifice Flow

An orifice with diameter D2 = 50 mm is inserted in a pipe with diameter D1 = 114
mm. The diameter ratio can be calculated to
d = (50 mm) / (102 mm)

  = 0.49

From the table above the discharge coefficient can be estimated to

approximately 0.6 for a wide range of the Reynolds number.

If the fluid is water with density 1000 kg/m3 and the pressure difference over the
orifice is 20 kPa (20000 Pa, N/m2) - the mass flow through the pipe can be
calculated from (5) as

m = 0.6 (π / 4) (0.05 m)2 (1000 kg/m3) [ 2 (20000 Pa) / (1000 kg/m3) (1 - 0.494) ]

1/2
     

   = 7.7 kg/s

Orifice Calculator
The orifice calculator is based on eq. 5 and can be used to calculate mass flow
through an orifice.

0.6
 cd - discharge coefficient

0.05
 D2 - orifice diameter (m)

0.102
 D1 - pipe diameter (m)

100000
 p1 - upstream pressure (Pa)

80000
 p2 - downstream pressure (Pa)

1000
 ρ - density of fluid (kg/m3)

The Venturi Meter

In the venturi meter the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of
angle 15-20o and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the
cone and the throat is measured and provides a signal for the rate of flow.
The fluid slows down in a cone with smaller angle (5 - 7o) where most of the
kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy. Because of the cone
and the gradual reduction in the area there is no "Vena Contracta". The flow
area is at a minimum at the throat.

High pressure and energy recovery makes the venturi meter suitable where
only small pressure heads are available.

A discharge coefficient cd = 0.975 can be indicated as standard, but the

value varies noticeably at low values of the Reynolds number.

The pressure recovery is much better for the venturi meter than for the
orifice plate.

 The venturi tube is suitable for clean, dirty and viscous liquid and
some slurry services.
 The rangeability is 4 to 1
 Pressure loss is low
 Typical accuracy is 1% of full range
 Required upstream pipe length 5 to 20 diameters
 Viscosity effect is high
 Relative cost is medium

Discharge Coefficient - cd

Diameter Reynolds Number - Re

Ratio
d = D2  / D1
104 105 106 107

0.2 0.968 0.988 0.994 0.995

 0.4 0.957 0.984 0.993 0.995

0.6 0.95 0.981 0.992 0.995

0.8 0.94 0.978 0.991 0.995

 The flow nozzle is recommended for both clean and dirty liquids
 The rangeability is 4 to 1
 The relative pressure loss is medium
 Typical accuracy is 1-2% of full range
 Required upstream pipe length is 10 to 30 diameters
 The viscosity effect high
 The relative cost is medium
Example - Kerosene Flow Through a Venturi Meter
The pressure difference dp = p1 - p2 between upstream and downstream
is 100 kPa (1 105 N/m2). The specific gravity of kerosene is 0.82.

Upstream diameter is 0.1 m and downstream diameter is 0.06 m.

Density of kerosene can be calculated as:

ρ = 0.82 (1000 kg/m3)

    = 820 (kg/m3)

 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity - An introduction and

definition of density, specific weight and specific gravity. Formulas
with examples.
Upstream and downstream area can be calculated as:

A1 = π ((0.1 m)/2)2

    = 0.00785 (m2)

A2 = π  ((0.06 m)/2)2

    = 0.002826 (m2)

Theoretical flow can be calculated from (3):

q = A2 [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - (A2/A1)2) ]1/2

q = (0.002826 m2) [2 (105 N/m2) / (820 kg/m3)(1 - ( (0.002826 m2) / (0.00785

m2) )2)]1/2
    = 0.047 (m3/s)

For a pressure difference of 1 kPa (0,01x105 N/m2) - the theoretical flow can

be calculated:

q = (0.002826 m2) [2 (0.01 105 N/m2) / (820 kg/m3)(1 - ( (0.002826 m2) /

(0.00785 m2) )2)]1/2

    = 0.0047 (m3/s)

The mass flow can be calculated as:

m=qρ

    = (0.0047 m3/s) (820 kg/m3)

    = 3.85 (kg/s)

Flow Rate and Change in Pressure Difference

Note! - The flow rate varies with the square root of the pressure difference.

From the example above:

 a tenfold increase in the flow rate requires a one hundredfold increase

in the pressure difference!