THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ON

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ON TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, training and its important has been discussed
citing various references from the experts. Then a glance about auto components
industry and particularly about the profile of the REVL has been dealt in detail. The
research questions, the problems, the significance and need of the study were also
discussed. In this second chapter, an attempt has been made to discuss elaborately
the theoretical concepts on training and developments.

The following are some of the definitions through which, the concept has
been exhaustively studied. The present empirical research is carried out at M/s Rane
Engine Valve Limited in order to measure the effectiveness of its training program
conducted for their employees across various levels.

2.2 TRAINING

“Accordingly, training refers to the methods used to give new or present

employees the skills that they need to perform their jobs.”1 “Additionally, the focus
of training is performance improvement,”2 which are directed towards maintaining
and improving current job performance”3.

Hence training is the important function that directly contributes to the

development of human resources”4. “Training is an essential part of the organization
since technology develops continuously at a faster rate. Systems and practices get
out- dated soon due to new discoveries in technology. These include technical,

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 24

managerial and behavioural aspects. Organizations, which do not develop a system,

to catch up with uses the growing technology which soon become stale. However,
developing individuals in the organization can contribute towards effectiveness of
the organization” 5. A good training sub-system would greatly help in monitoring
the directions in which employees should develop in the best interests of the
organization. “A good training system also ensures that employees develop in
directions congruent with their career plans”.6

“Training can provide employees with knowledge and skills to perform

more effectively, preparing them to meet the inevitable changes that occur in their
jobs. However, training is only an “opportunity” for learning. What is learnt depends
on many factors such as the design and implementation of training, the motivation
and learning style of trainees, and the learning climate of the organization. Evidence
now shows that companies investing more in training will show higher net sales per
employee, gross profits per employee and ratio of market to book value”.7

Training is an important process because employees need to learn new

knowledge and skills. “Action learning is a powerful form of training for
organizational change because it develops management skills while discovering
ways to improve the organization”8.

“Subsequently, some of the most often mentioned reasons for adults

engaging in new learning are problems on the job, job/occupational changes, home
and personal responsibilities, and competency at some hobby or recreational
activity”9.

2.3 STRATEGIC TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Strategic Training and Development focuses on the design and

implementation of training systems to successfully impact organizational
performance. Tannenbaum (2002) provided one of the most comprehensive models
of the strategic training and development process.

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2.4 THE STRATEGIC TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

(TANNENBAUM 2002)

Firstly, the above model exhibits that the strategic process begins with
identifying the business strategy. Secondly, the strategic learning imperatives, which
refer to the strategic training and development goals which support the business
strategy that have been identified. Thirdly, the strategic learning imperatives are then
translated into specific training and development activities, and while the final step
involves evaluating whether training has helped in contributing to the goals of the
organization, by utilizing the appropriate metrics.

Additionally, the above model suggests that training and development

cannot be differentiated. All training interventions should be carefully planned,
designed, and evaluated in support of organizational goals and objectives. Several
authors suggest that most organizational training and development initiative that has
occurred in the last decade have been strategic because they have emphasized
knowledge management, continuous learning and development programmes to help
organizations increase their ability to detect change, adapt and anticipate trends
(Kraiger and Ford 2006) 10; (Sessa and London 2006) 11.

Before implementing any training programme, the company should

assess the needs of the training. With respect to needs assessment, the emphasis is
on aligning training systems with the organizations business strategy and operating
constraints. Further the training design is on the development of systems of
interventions to support knowledge as well as skills acquisition and transfer, rather
than on the design and implementation of discrete training activities or methods.
Evaluation is therefore focused on demonstrating an organizational impact of
training investments.

2.5 TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

The goal of needs assessment from a strategic perspective is to link

training initiatives with the overall goals of the organization. Needs assessment is
critical because it helps evaluate whether training is a viable option for the
organization based on its resources and strategy. This determines the type of training
that should be provided, and identifies the outcomes or metrics for subsequent
evaluation.

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12 13
Lepak (1992) and Snell (2002) have focused on the adoption of the
following employment modes with occupational groups, which vary in strategic
value and uniqueness.

Sl.No. Employment Mode Training Foci

1. Commitment Providing employees with long-term
interval development opportunities.
2. Productivity Training employees immediately in core
skills offer limited development opportunities
3. Collaboration Training employees in teamwork and
relationships; providing incentives to
transfer and share information.
4. Compliance Training employees in compliance issues;
focused on policies, procedures and systems.
Sl.No. Types of Employees The Foci

1. Knowledge Employees Strategically valuable and unique

(Commitment)
2. Job based employees Strategically valuable but not unique
(Productivity)
3. Alliance / Partnership Unique but not strategically valuable
employees
(Collaboration)
4. Contract employees Neither strategically valuable nor unique
(Compliance)

2.6 NEEDS ASSESSMENT MODELS

14
Leigh, Watkins, Plat and Kaufmann (2000) reviewed various NA
models and differentiated on the outcomes addressed to societal, organizational and
individual as well as small group efforts, activities, and resources. Suitable models
are those that link the training needs to what organizations use, do, produce and
deliver which serve its purpose.

Nelson, Whitener and Philcox (1995) 15 model, which draws on Ostroff

16
and Ford’s (1989) content level application matrix, focuses on process and inputs
at the organizational small group and individual levels. Moreover, Kaubman’s (1972
17 18 19
, 1992 , 1998) organizational elements model addresses linkage between
societal, organizational, small group and individual results as well as organizational

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resources and activities. The strength of this framework from a strategic perspective
is the multi level systems perspective.

Competency modeling may be a valuable means to link training and

development systems to organizational objectives (Shippmann et al., 2000).20
Competencies refer to areas of personal capability that enable employees to perform
their jobs by achieving specific outcomes or accomplishing tasks (Lucia and
Lapsinger, 1999) 21, and a corresponding model identifies competencies required for
a job along with the requisite knowledge, skills, behaviours and personality
characteristics for each competency. In a dynamic business environment,
competency modeling may have more advantages than traditional needs assessment
approaches. Further, competency model can serve as a foundation for integrating
systems of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices thereby creating a
22
horizontal fit, which is a key principle in strategic HRM (Huselid, 1995) .
23
Tannenbaum (2002) argues that needs assessment should focus on whether
appropriate support is present in the work environment to support transfer of training
on the application of trained skills. If transfer of training does not occur, training
will not have an organizational impact. Research has demonstrated that transfer can
be facilitated through rewards, incentives and social support (Rociller and Goldstein
1993) 24; (Tracey et al; 1995) 25.

2.7 ORGANIZING TRAINING FUNCTION

An important strategic issue is whether an organization should assume

responsibility for training or outsource its responsibility to outside vendors. A
survey conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management found that 57%
of the HR and training professionals outsourced all or portion of their training
programmes (Johnson 2004) 26.

Different models have been used for organizing and using training and
development resources. These include consulting firms (a group from outside the
organization that advises on training), internal profit carter (internal group that offers
training services and makes a profit), internal cost center (Internal group that offers

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training at a cost), leveraged expertise (small internal group of trainers),

development shop (external group that builds courses on a contract basis), and
27
course marketers (building courses). Neo (2008) suggests that the business
embedded model (BE) was becoming popular. The BE model provides the
opportunity to gain the benefits of centralized training, while ensuring that
programmes meet the business needs. As such, the BE training function views
trainees as customers. The corporate university model however centralizes training
to ensure that best training practices are disseminated across the company. Also, the
corporate university model enables organizations to control costs by developing
consistent training practices and policies.

2.8 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The sharing and creation of knowledge are increasingly believed to be

the key sources of competitive advantage. Knowledge is information that is relevant,
28
actionable, and partially based on experience (Leonard and Sensiper, 1998) .
29
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) classify knowledge into two categories namely that
of tacit knowledge and exploit knowledge. Transfer of knowledge involves training
and development activities. Most knowledge management systems emphasize the
use of technology while they often fail to recognize the social system as a key
ingredient for effectiveness. The largest barriers to knowledge sharing are cultural
barriers, lack of top management support, lack of shared understanding of the
business strategy and lack of a appropriate organizational structure.

2.9 INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL

30
Kang, Morris and Snell (2007) emphasize that a firm’s ability to
explore and exploit knowledge through social relationship is the fundamental means
through which human resources contribute to a company’s competitive advantage.
They suggest that social networks between core employees and internal partners
(cooperative archetype) and between core employees and external partners
(entrepreneurial archetype) are most important.

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2.10 INDIVIDUALS CONTRIBUTION

Wasko and Faraj (2005)31 found that individuals contribute knowledge

when they (a) believe it enhances their reputation, (b) have experiences to share, and
(c) have a high degree of centrality in the electronic network. A draw back to
communities of practice is that participation is often voluntary and therefore some
individuals may not share their knowledge (Williams and Cothrel, 2000) 32. Employees
may not share knowledge for several reasons including perceptions that others may not
consider their knowledge as valuable, loss of expert power, and beliefs that knowledge
sharing takes too much time away from their work (Starbuck, 1992) 33.

2.11 TRANSFER OF TRAINING

For training and development interventions to have an organizational

impact, knowledge and skills sets must be successfully applied, or transferred, on the
job. However, discrete learning activities alone may be insufficient to support
transfer (Baldwin and Ford, 1998) 34. Researchers have argued that attention should
be paid to factors beyond the formal learning experience to enhance transfer
35 36
(Baldwin and Ford, 1998) ; (Baldwin and Magjuka, 1991) ; (Kozlowski and
37 38
Salas, 1997) ; (Yelon and Ford, 1999) . Training effectiveness is grounded in the
proper design and delivery of the formal learning experience, yet training should not
be an isolated classroom activity, if benefits are to be fully realized.

2.12 THE FIVE STEPS OF TRAINING

Gary Dessler39 is of the opinion that training consists of the five steps:

1. Training Needs Analysis (TNA): Identifies the specific job

performance skills needed, assesses the prospective trainees’ skills,
and develops specific measurable knowledge and performance
objectives based on any deficiencies.

2. Training Instructional Design (TID) is To decide, compile and

produce training programme content, including workbooks,
exercises, and activities and some techniques like computer and on
the job training technique.

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3. Training Validation: The bugs are worked out of the training

programme by presenting it to a small representative audience.

4. Implementation: Actually training the targeted employee group.

5. Evaluation: Management assess the programme’s success or

failures.

2.13 TRAINING RESOURCES

Some of the methods suggested by Garry Dessler40 are:

1. On the job training : A person learns a job by actually doing it.

2. Apprenticeship training : Is a structured process by which people
become skilled workers through a
combination of class room instruction and
on the job training
3. Informal learning : Performing their jobs on a daily basis in
collaboration with their colleges
4. Job instruction training : The logical sequence of steps in the jobs are
(JIT) taught step by step
5. Lectures : Through class room or on the spot lectures
6. Programmed learning : Step by step self learning method
7. Literacy training techniques : Diversity training programme
8. Audio visual based training : Films, power point, video conferencing,
audio-tapes, and video- tapes are effectively
and widely used.
9. Simulated training : Otherwise called vestibule training, where
trainees learn on the actual or simulated
equipment which they use on the job, but
are actually trained off the job.
10. Computer based training : Trainee uses computer based / or DVD
systems to interactively increase his or her
knowledge or skills.
11. Electronic performance : Sets of computerized tools and displays that
supportive system (EPSS) automate training, documentation and
phone support integrate this automation into
applications and provide support that is
better, cheaper and more effective than
traditional methods.
12. Distance and Internet Based : Include traditional paper and pencil
Training correspondence courses, as well as tele-
training, video conferencing and internet-
based classes.

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2.14 MEASURING TRAINING EFFECTS

The effects of training can be measured through the following four basic
categories of outcome.

1. Reaction
2. Learning
3. Behaviour
4. Results

2.15 TRAINING NEED

The need is identified from the calculation of required performance

minus that of the actual performance.

“The first decade of the twenty first century will see the value of products
and services determined more by the knowledge of the workforce and less by
physical labour besides the demographic shifts that are also to be seen. They are,
aging of the population, lower birth rates, significant fluctuations in general
educational achievement, increased diversity of ethnic and cultural makeup, and
differing values of newer generations of employees”41.

High quality products and services are necessary just to stay in business
in today’s competitive business market. Training the employees to suit the
organization requirements will make the organization to withstand the challenges.
However the training needs can be determined using the following procedures.

1. Performance appraisal

2. Analysis of job requirements

3. Organizational analysis

4. Employee survey

5. Individual himself requesting for training

6. Management services surveys

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2.16 PURPOSE OF TRAINING

The effectiveness of an organization is to a degree dependent upon the

effectiveness of its training programme, which should have two purposes (Gordon P.
Rabey) 42.

1. The production of work to required standards of quality, quantity,

cost and time as this is the reason why the organization is in
business.

2. The development of staff, by skill and knowledge so as to meet the

fore- seeable needs of the organization and thereby seek to realize
the potential of each individual in these areas.

The purposes explain the main concern such as higher productivity,

increased effectiveness of operations and a safe and harmonious working
environment. These things can be achieved only by teaching new skill or new
knowledge to selected people, reducing time required to learn a new job, by
reducing the costs. Standardization of current methods is to enable the new workers
to reach average earnings, as soon as possible. In this case, the quality standards can
be achieved, maintained and improved. To change the attitudes regarding particular
situations and ensure better operating or care of the machines, spoilage and wastages
can be reduced to a considerable level besides improving safety on the job.
Supervisory and managerial skills can also be developed.

2.17 RESISTANCE FOR TRAINING

The training programmes are being introduced mainly to accomplish the

change in the organization. Nick Blanchard.P and James W. Thacker 43 observe that
resistance to change is a common occurrence. Without sufficient motivation to
change, resistance is natural. A major factor in this resistance is the failure of the
change process to address all the three levels of change that are, the organization
itself, groups and their interrelationships and individuals within groups.

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The employee attitude also plays a vital role in resistance along with
motivation. Resistance of learning also comes from defensiveness. The trainees with
their elaborative highly integrated cognitive structure usually resist accommodating
themselves into developing new cognitive categories. The group dynamics and its
impact on motivation resist the learning programme. The disjointed and non-goal
oriented training effort creates a negative perception and approach among the
employees. In addition, obsolete training process and methodology add to negative
experiences and thus employees lose interest and faith in the training process.

2.18 CONCLUSION

The researcher has studied in detail the various concepts in relation to

training and development. The concepts such as training, training need analysis,
transfer of training, knowledge management, resistance to the training etc. have been
understood thoroughly through various sources. This extensive work has helped the
researcher to understand the concept of the present research and through which, the
present work has been made done as full-fledged one. And to support the concepts
reviewed above, the investigator has gone through number of reviews in books,
journals, dailies and websites to substantiate his study. This review of literatures has
been detailed in Chapter III.

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REFERENCE

1. Gary Desseler, “Human Resource Management”, 10th Ed., Printice Hall of

India, New Delhi, 2007, p.270.

2. Blanchard, P, Nick and Tracker, James, W; “Effective Training Systems –

Strategic and Practices’ 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd., New Delhi,
2006, p.4.
3. Stoner, James., A.F., Freeman et.al., “Management”, 6th Ed., Pearson
Education, New Delhi, 2004, p.890.
4. Uday Pareek and Venkateswara Rao, T, “ Designing and Managing Human
Resource System,” Oxford and IBM Publishing Company Pvt Ltd., New
Delhi, 1999, p.207.

5. Ibid
6. Ibid
7. Opcite, Blanchard, P, Nick and Tracker, James, W.
8. J. Conger and K.Xin, “Executive Education in the 21st Centuary, Journal of
Management Education, 2000, Vol 24, pp.73-101.
9. Opcite, Blanchard, P, Nick and Tracker, James, W.
10. Kraiger, K, and Ford, JK., The Expanding Role of Work Place Training;
Theme and Trends influencing training research and practice, In L. Koopes
Ed., “Historical perspectives in industrial psychology, Erlbraum and
Associates, New Jersey, 2006, pp.281-309.
11. Sessa. V, and London, M; “Continuous Learning In Organizations; Lawrence
Erlbraum, Mahwah; The routledge comparison to strategic human resource
management, Ed by John Storey, Patric M. Wright and Dave Ulrich,
Routledge, London, 2009, p.263.
12. Lepak, D and Snell, S; The Human Resource Architecture: Toward a Theory
of Human Capital allocation and development, Academy of Management
Review, V 24, pp.31-48.
13. Lepak,D and Snell, S; Examining the Human Resource Architecture: The
relationship among human capital employment and human resource
configurations, Journal of management, V 28, pp.517-543.
14. Leigh, D and Watkins, R, Plat, et.al; Alternate Models of Needs and
Assessment: Selecting the right one for your organization, Human Resource
Development, quarterly, 11, pp.87-93.

15. Nelson, R, et.al; The Assessment of End-User Training Needs,

Communications of the association for computing Machinery, 38, pp.27-39.

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16. Ostroff.C and Ford JK, Assessing Training needs; Critical levels of analysis,
In I. Goldstein (Ed)., Training and Development in Organizations, Jossey-
Bass, San Fransisco, 1989, pp.25-62.
17. Kaufman, R, “Educational system planning”, Prentice Hall, Eanglewood
cliffs, 1972.
18. Ibid, “Strategic planning plus; An Organizational Guide, Sage,1972.
19. Ibid, “Strategic Thinking; “A guide to indentifying and solving problems”,
American Society for Training and Development, Washigton DC:
International Society for Performance Improvement, Arbinton, 1998.
20. Shippmann J et.al, The Practice of Competency Modelling, Personnel
Psychology, 53, pp.703-740.
21. Lucia. A and Lapsinger.R: The Art and Science of Competency Models:
Pinpointing critical success factors in organizations, Jossey-Bass, San
Franssisco.
22. Husolid, M; The impact of Human Resource Management; Practices on
Turnover, Productivity and Corporate Financial Performance, Academy of
Management Journal, 38, pp.635-672.
23. Opcite, Tannenbaum.S.
24. Rouiller.J and Goldstein, I: The Relationship Between Organizational
Transfer Climate and Possiture, Transfer of Training, Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 4, pp.377-390.
25. Tracey.J and Tannenbaum.S and Karanagh, M: Applying Trained Skills on
the Job: The importance of the work environment, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 80, pp.239-52.

26. Johnson.G: To outsource or not to outsource…. that is the question,

Training, 41, pp.26-29.
27. Neo,R: Employee Training and Development, McGraw Hill, New York,
2008.
28. Leonard.D and Sensiper,S: The role of tacit knowledge in group innovation;
california management review, 40, pp.112-32.

29. Nonaka.I and Takeuchi.H: “The knowledge creating company: How

Japanese Companies create the dynamics of innovation,” Oxford University
Press, New York, 1995.
30. Kang.S, Morris.S and Snell.S: Organizational Learning and value creation,
Extending the human resource architecture, Academy of management
review, 32, pp. 236-256.

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31. Wasko et.al: Why should I share? Examining social capital and knowledge
contribution in electronics networks of practice, MIS Quarterly, 29, pp.35-
57.
32. Williams R and Cothral J: Four Smart Ways to run Online Communities,
Sloan Management Review, 41, pp.81-91.
33. Starbuck.W: Learning by Knowledge-Intensive firms, Journal of
management studies, 29, pp. 713- 740.
34. Baldwin.T and Ford J.K: Transfer of Training: A Review and Directions for
Future Research, Personnel Psychology, 41, pp. 63-105.
35. Ibid.
36. Baldwin T and Magjuka,R: Organizational Training and Signals of
Performance: Linking Pretraining Perceptions to Intentions to Transfer,
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2, pp. 25-36.
37. Koslowski.S and Salas.E: A Multi-level organizational systems approach for
the implementation and transfer of training. In J.K. Ford, S and Koslowski,
K.Kraiger, E. Salas and M. Teachout (Eds), Improving training effectiveness
in work organizations, Eralbaum, Hillsdale, 1997, pp.247-287.
38. Yelon.S.L.and Ford J. K: Persuing a multidimentional view of transfer,
performance improvement Quarterly, 12, pp.58-78.
39. Gary Desseler, Opcite, p.270.
40. Ibid, p.275.
41. Opcite, Blenchard, p.5.
42. Gorden. P and Rabey: “Training” – A practical approach to job training –
Designed for managers, supervisors and training officers, Dialogue, New
Delhi, 1983, p.7.
43. Opcite, P. Nick Blenchard and James. N. Tracker, pp.103-105.

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