The Human Immune System • Specifically targets and kills T-cells

• Because normal body cells are unaffected, immune

What is the immune system? response is not launched
The body’s defense against disease causing organisms, • Transmitted by sexual contact, blood transfusions,
malfunctioning cells, and foreign particles contaminated needles

The First Line of Defense

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. Skin
The dead, outer layer of skin, known as the epidermis, forms The skeletal system is all the bony tissues in an animal’s
a shield against invaders and secretes chemicals that kill body.
potential invaders Animal’s that have an internal skeleton, or endoskeleton,
include humans and domestic animals.
2.Saliva The skeletons are similar in most species, but may vary in
Saliva contains many chemicals that break down lengths and sizes of bones.
Thousands of different types of bacteria can survive these Functions of the skeleton include:
chemicals • Giving the body shape and form,
• Protecting vital organs,
3. Stomach Acid • Allowing for body movement,
Swallowed bacteria are broken down by incredibly strong • Storing minerals, and
acids in the stomach that break down your food Serving as a site for formation of blood cells.
The stomach must produce a coating of special mucus or this
acid would eat through the stomach! Anatomy of Bones and Bone Tissue
The outer portion of the bone is hard, dense bone and forms
Escherichia coli the cortex.
is common and plentiful in all of our The inner portion of the bone is spongy, porous bone that
digestive tracts. forms a network called the medulla cavity.
- These bacteria are technically outside the body and The medulla cavity has a membrane lining called the
aid in digesting material we cannot endosteum
- Only if E.Coli are introduced in an unnatural manner
can they break through the first line of defense and Bone marrow is a thick, red mass of cells inside the medulla
harm us cavity, which makes essential blood cells.
Blood cells created in the bone marrow include the
The Second Line of Defense following:
1. White Blood Cells~ • Leukocytes – fight infection,
- If invaders actually get within the body, then your • Erythrocytes – carry oxygen, and
white blood cells (WBCs) begin their attack Platelets – help the blood to clot.
- WBCs normally circulate throughout the blood, but
will enter the body’s tissues if invaders are detected
2. Interferon
- Virus-infected body cells release interferon when an
invasion occurs
- Interferon – chemical that
interferes with the ability to
viruses to attack other body cells
3. The Inflammatory Response
- Injured body cells release chemicals called
histamines, which begin inflammatory response

The Third Line of Defense

1. Antibodies

What is immunity?
- Resistance to a disease causing organism or harmful
substance As the bone ages, the red bone marrow gradually changes
- Two types into yellow fatty marrow.
- Active Immunity
- Passive Immunity Total Bone Mass
Active Immunity Of the total bone mass, 26% is mineral matter; the other
- You produce the antibodies chemical compositions are 20% protein, 4% fat, and 50%
Your body has been exposed to the antigen in the water.
past

Passive Immunity
• You don’t produce the antibodies
– A mother will pass immunities on to her
baby during pregnancy - through what
organ?
These antibodies will protect the
baby for a short period of time
following birth while its immune
system develops.
The outer layer of a bone is composed of mineral deposits,
Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) which makes the bone hard and inflexible.
• Caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus
• Discovered in 1983
Calcium phosphate makes up almost 85% of the mineral Esophagus
matter and the remaining 15% is calcium carbonate and • Approximately 10” long
magnesium phosphate. • Functions include:
1. Secrete mucus
One-third of the bone’s total weight is comprised of living 2. Moves food from the throat to the stomach using
tissues that contain replicating cells, blood vessels, lymphatic muscle movement called peristalsis
vessels, and nerves. If acid from the stomach gets in here that’s heartburn.

Number of Vertebrae Stomach

Cervical- 7 bones • J-shaped muscular bag that stores the food you eat,
Thoracic- 12 bones breaks it down into tiny pieces.
Lumbar- 5 bones • Mixes food with digestive juices that contain
Sacral- 5 fused bones enzymes to break down proteins and lipids.
Coccygeal – 4 fused bones Acid in the stomach kills bacteria

Ribs – thin, flat, curved bones that protect the heart, lungs, Small Intestine
stomach, spleen, and kidneys. • Small intestines are roughly 7 meters long
Ribs also assist in respiration by lifting up and allowing the • Lining of intestine walls has finger-like projections
lungs to expand during inhalation and by moving down and called villi, to increase surface area.
squeezing air out during exhalation • The villi are covered in microvilli which further
increases surface area for absorption.
True ribs (sternal ribs) – ribs that are attached to the sternum
by cartilage. Large Intestine
• About 5 feet long
False ribs – ribs that do not connect directly to the sternum, • Accepts what small intestines don’t absorb
but may connect to the last sternal rib by cartilage. • Rectum (short term storage which holds feces before
Floating ribs – ribs that have no connection to other ribs in it is expelled).
the sternum area.
Accessory Organs
Sternum – several small bones (sternebrae) that fuse • Include: Liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
together as animal ages to form the floor of the thoracic
cavity. Liver
The sternum, as previously mentioned, is the site of • Directly affects digestion by producing bile
attachment for the sternal (true) ribs. – Bile helps digest fat
– filters out toxins and waste including drugs
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM and alcohol
Gall Bladder
Phases Include • Stores bile from the liver, releases it into the small
1. Ingestion intestine.
2. Movement • Fatty diets can cause gallstones
3. Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
4. Absorption Pancreas
5. Elimination • Produces digestive enzymes to digest fats,
Types carbohydrates and proteins
1. Mechanical (physical) • Regulates blood sugar by producing insulin
• Chew
• Tear
• Grind
• Mash
• Mix
2. Chemical
• Enzymatic reactions to improve
digestion of
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Digestive System Organization
Gastrointestinal (Gl) tract
1. Tube within a tube
2. Direct link/path between organs
3. Structures
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large Intestine
• Rectum
Mouth
• Teeth mechanically break down food into small
pieces. Tongue mixes food with saliva (contains
amylase, which helps break down starch).
• Epiglottis is a flap-like structure at the back of the
throat that closes over the trachea preventing food
from entering it.
Genetic Engineering
-allows genes from one organism to be transferred into the
DNA of another organism.
• First accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley
Cohen in 1973.

Hybridization
the process of crossing plants/animals with different
variations of the same trait.

Recombinant DNA Technology

• -is a technique of combining two DNA sequences
from different sources.
Transgenic Organisms
• are organisms with altered genomes via genetic
engineering.
Genetically Modified Foods
• are crop plants created for human or animal
consumption using the latest genetic engineering
methodologies.
Dolly the Sheep
• Dolly saw the light of day in 1996. She lived until the
age of six. The first cloned mammal, Dolly is
considered to be a great success. Later, several
hundred other Dollies were cloned.
Cumulina the Mouse
Cloned in Hawa’ii in 2000, Cumulina was the first
successful mouse clone. She lived until the ripe old
age of two years and seven months, a victory for her
researchers
Xenotransplantation
• the use of animal organsinstead of human organs in
transplant parents.