UNIT 1

LEGAL REQUIREMENTS

Several important laws require the participation of students with disabilities in

standards-based instruction and assessment initiatives. These include federal laws such as the
reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA).

Reauthorization of Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Stronger accountability for educational achievement results is one of the four basic
education principles contained in ESEA. This law complements the provisions in providing
public accountability at the school, district, and state levels for all students with disabilities.
ESEA explicitly calls for the participation in such assessments of all students (The term “such
assessments” refers to a set of high quality, yearly student academic assessments.) It also
requires that these assessments provide for the reasonable adaptations and accommodations
for students with disabilities—as defined under Section 602(3) of IDEA—necessary to measure
the academic achievement of such students relative to state academic content and state
student academic achievement standards.

There are several critical elements in ESEA that hold schools accountable for educational
results:
 Academic content standards (what students should learn) and academic achievement
standards (how well students should learn the content) form the basis of state
accountability systems.
 State assessments are the mechanism for checking whether schools have been
successful in students attaining the knowledge and skills defined by the content
standards.
 States must provide assessments in reading/language arts and mathematics for all
students, including students with disabilities, in grades 3–8 and once in high school.
 States must also provide science assessments in at least one grade in each of three
grade spans (3–5, 6–9, 10–12) each year.
 School, district, and state accountability are based on measuring success in educating all
students and determining what needs to be improved for specific groups of students.
 The accountability system is defined in terms of adequate yearly progress (AYP), a way
to measure the improvement in achieving standards for all students and designated
subgroups each year.
 Schools, districts, and states are held accountable for improvements on an annual basis
by public reporting and ultimately through consequences if AYP is not achieved.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004

IDEA specifically governs services provided to students with disabilities. Accountability

at the individual level is provided through IEPs developed on the basis of each child’s unique
needs. IDEA requires the participation of students with disabilities in state- and districtwide
assessments. Specific IDEA requirements include the following:

Children with disabilities are included in general state and district-wide assessment
programs, with appropriate accommodations. The term “individualized education program” or
“IEP” means a written statement for each child with a disability that is developed, reviewed,
and revised in accordance with this section and that includes . . . a statement of any individual
modifications in the administration of state or district-wide assessments of student
achievement that are needed in order for the child to participate in such assessment; and if the
IEP Team determines that the child will not participate in a particular state or district-wide
assessment of student achievement (or part of such an assessment), a statement of why that
assessment is not appropriate for the child; and how the child will be assessed.

Supported by ongoing educational reform efforts, such as Race to the Top (RTTT) and
other initiatives passed by states, the use of assessments for accountability purposes will likely
continue in the future, supported by other legislative initiatives passed by states in their efforts
to implement educational reform.

Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act

Section 504 provides individuals with disabilities with certain rights and protects
individuals with disabilities against discrimination from federally funded programs and
activities. Section 504 states the following:

No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States, as defined in

section 705(20) of this title, shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the
participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program
or activity receiving Federal financial assistance or under any program or activity conducted by
any Executive agency.

In school settings, 504 legislation guarantees and protects students with disabilities who may
not otherwise have an IEP but are still considered individuals with disabilities. The definition of
a student with disabilities is much broader under 504 than it is under IDEA. An important part
of the 504 plans developed by schools for students with disabilities are often the lists of
accommodations that the student can utilize on assessments.
 UNIT 2
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT AND TESTING CONSIDERATIONS

Based from the districts manual in special education, before special education or related
services can be provided to a student with a disability, the District must conduct a
comprehensive evaluation based on the determined scope of the assessment to address all
areas of suspected disability. The purpose of this evaluation is to determine whether the
student is eligible for special education services and, if so, to determine the student’s special
educational programming and service needs. Evaluation of a student is also required in other
circumstances, such as when it is suspected that the student no longer has an Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) eligibility, or may have a disability not addressed by the
student’s current finding of eligibility.
The district has series of evaluation to know if the student has disability or not. Of
course for the school to provide varied services for the students, it is normal for the school to
be suspicious about the behavior of the students if they qualify for such services. So, the
following are the steps in assessing students with disabilities in the district; (i) Suspicion of
disability; (ii) Initial evaluation; (iii) Reevaluation; or evaluation for transfer students. From the
first step of evaluation down to the last one the students will also comply for the general
requirements needed for specific services. In short, if the student has mental disability, that
student will be given different assessments to identify his/her weaknesses and strength both
academe and vocational.
The term “Initial Evaluation” refers to a formal evaluation that considers initial eligibility
for special education under the Nevada Administrative Code (NAC). Initial evaluation applies to:
a. general education students with no history of special education; b. general education
students who previously received and were exited from special education including general
education students whose parents revoked consent for the continued receipt of special
education services; or c. all transfer students from other states who have a current out of- state
eligibility, but no current special education eligibility in Nevada. The term “Reevaluation” refers
to the formal evaluation of a student who is already identified as eligible for special education
under NAC. Reevaluation applies to: a. students who are routinely evaluated every three years
for continuing special education eligibility in Nevada; b. students who are evaluated for
continuing eligibility for special education in Nevada under a different or additional eligibility
classification. This includes: students who currently hold Developmental Delay or
Speech/Language Impairment eligibilities; c. other students whose primary eligibility
classifications might change (e.g., LD to ED, MR to MI). A reevaluation is required if there is
sufficient information to suspect that a significant change in a student’s physical, psychological,
academic, or social functioning is occurring that may have an impact on the student’s eligibility
for special education and/or related services, including situations where the student may no
longer need special education services to receive an appropriate education. The transfer
student should be registered and enrolled as expeditiously as possible in either the home zoned
school (all resource level support; special programming when possible) or when warranted, at a
nearby school offering appropriate specialized programming. All placements in specialized
programs must be formally assigned via the Student Support Services Division (SSSD) Case
Manager’s Office.
The completion of formal eligibility reevaluations for students with disabilities who are
3, 4 or 5 years of age occur when warranted, including when other eligibility classifications are
suspected. In the case of a 5 year old who has a Developmental Delay eligibility, formal
reevaluation procedures are required and this reevaluation must occur no later than the
student’s sixth birthday.
 UNIT 3
KEY STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND TERMS

504 Plan: The 504 Plan is a plan developed to ensure that a child who has a disability identified
under the Rehabilitation Act and is attending an elementary or secondary educational
institution receives accommodations that will ensure their academic success and access to the
learning environment. These accommodations and modifications must ensure that there is no
discrimination because of the child’s disability.

Accommodations: Curricular adaptations that compensate for learners’ weaknesses without

modifying the curriculum. Students receiving accommodations read the same material and take
the same tests as their peers without disabilities.

Adaptations: Changes in educational environments that allow students with disabilities to

participate in inclusive environments by compensating for learners’ weaknesses.

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The measure by which schools, districts and states are held
accountable for student performance under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Every state
has the freedom to define AYP. All students, including those in special education programs,
must demonstrate adequate yearly progress, until 2014 when the law assumes all students
have met the standards. It is very likely that the 2014 date and perhaps the  notion of Annual
Yearly Progress will be significantly changed with the reauthorization of No Child Left Behind
(NCLB).

Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD): The name given to the committee used in some states
(in other states not using the term ARD, they are called IEP teams or IEP committees) that is
responsible for the development and review of a child’s individualized education plan (IEP),
evaluation and re-evaluation, functional behavioral analysis (FBA), and behavior intervention
plan (BIP). The ARD committee meets at least once per year to review the IEP and construct a
new plan for the coming year. In addition to the annual review meeting, other meetings can be
called by teachers or parents whenever needed. This group is responsible for creating,
implementing and maintaining the educational program from students with disabilities, as
identified by IDEA.

Annual Review (AR): The yearly meeting of the individual education program (IEP) team (or
called ARD committee in some states). The AR is designed to gather all the IEP team
members in one location to update one another on a student’s needs and performance by
reviewing progress toward goals and looking at new data like work samples and recent testing.

Antecedent Behavioral Consequences Chart (ABC): A tool used to create a record of disruptive
behaviors that is utilized as part of functional behavioral assessment (FBA to help to determine
the triggers of and motivations behind these behaviors. ABCs are used to record what
happened just before a behavior, a description of the behavior itself and the consequence of
the behavior.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): A technique for correcting behavior and social skill deficits  in
children with special needs. It is based on the understanding that children are more likely to
repeat desired behaviors when these behaviors are met with positive reinforcement, and that
they are less likely to repeat undesirable behaviors that are not rewarded. One significant part
of ABA is discrete trial training (DTT), in which a skill is broken down into its most basic
components so that these components may be taught one at a time.

Assessment:  Evaluations used to identify a student’s strengths, weaknesses and progress.

These tests are designed to provide an overview of a child’s academic performance, basic
cognitive functioning and/or his or her current strengths or weaknesses; they can also test
hearing and vision. Assessments can consist of anything from the observations of a teacher or
aide to standardized and criterion-referenced tests to complex, multi-stage procedures such as
a group of teachers assembling a large portfolio of student work.

Assessment Plan: A written description of the assessments that will be used to evaluate a

student’s strengths, weaknesses and progress and to determine his or her eligibility for special
education services and the types of services that would help that student succeed. In some
states the school district is given 15 days to decide which testing services will be used and put
that into a plan, while in other states the time frame is not defined. However, IDEA gives only
60 days to complete an evaluation from the time a parent gives permission.

Assistive Technology (AT): Assistive Technology  is technology used by individuals with

disabilities in order to perform functions that might otherwise be difficult or impossible.
Assistive technology can include mobility devices such as walkers and wheelchairs, as well as
hardware, software and peripherals that assist people with disabilities in accessing computers
or other information technologies.

Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP):  A plan that targets one to three of a student’s undesirable
behaviors with interventions that are linked to the functions of the behavior; each intervention
specifically addresses a measurable, clearly-stated targeted behavior. A BIP can include
prevention strategies, which stop the behavior before it begins, as well as replacement
behaviors, which achieve the same function as the disruptive behavior without causing
disruption.

Behavior Management:  Responding to, preventing and de-escalating disruptive behavior.  

Behavior Support Plan (BSP): A proactive action plan to address behavior(s) that are impeding
learning of a student or of others in his or her classroom.

Child Find Program: A program, mandated by IDEA, that continuously searches for and
evaluates children who may have a disability. Child Find Programs can vary widely from school
district to school district.

Classroom Management: The way in which a class is arranged. This involves planning every
aspect of a lesson, routines, procedures, interactions and the discipline in the classroom.

Collaborative Teaching: A teaching strategy  in which two or more teachers work together,
sharing responsibilities to help all students succeed in the classroom.

Curriculum-Based Measurements (CBM): Small, regular evaluations used to determine how

well a student is learning in various subject areas. CBM can involve checklists or oral questions
which the teacher uses to gauge student understanding and skill in a particular curriculum.
These measurements are part of the monitoring component of the RTI process.  

Cut Point, Cut Scores: Scores on screening tools, usually selected by a school district, that are
used to determine whether or not a student needs additional testing or intervention.  

Data-Based Decisions: A component of the RTI process that involves using information

collected through the screening process to determine the intensity and duration of the needed
intervention. 

Developmental and Social History: A narrative assessment formulated by a child’s classroom

teacher, parents, pediatrician and school specialists, focusing on issues such as the child’s
health history, developmental milestones, genetic factors, friendships, family relationships,
hobbies, behavioral issues and academic performance. A developmental and social history is a
common element of an assessment plan.

Developmental Milestones: A set of functional skills or age-specific tasks that most children can
do at a certain age range.

Direct Assessment: A component of functional behavioral assessment (FBA) that involves

recording objective information about a student’s disruptive behavior. This can entail using a
scatter plot form to show the behavior’s frequency and time of day, as well as using an
antecedent-behavioral-consequences chart (ABC).

Early Intervention (EI): Services for at-risk children from birth to their third birthdays, as
mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): The education to which every student is
entitled under IDEA.  Every student is entitled to an education that is appropriate for his or her
unique needs and that is provided free of charge.

Functional Behavior Analysis: A process which describes a student’s disruptive behaviors, looks
for the reasons behind the behaviors and offers interventions that teach new behaviors to
replace the undesired ones.

Group Intelligence Tests: Tests, often administered in the general education classroom, that
measure academic ability as well as a child’s cognitive level. It is through these types of
tests  that a teacher might first suspect that a student has a learning disability.

Indirect Assessment: A component of functional behavioral assessment (FBA)  that involves

interviewing teachers, parents and other adults who have contact with a student, asking
questions about that student’s disruptive behavior and when and where it occurs.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): A legal document that defines special education
services  between the school district and the parents.

IEP Team: The team of qualified professionals made up of the parent, special education
teacher, interpreter of test data, district representative, and general education teacher at a
minimum. This group makes all decisions related to the instructional program of a child with
special needs, including placement and services provided. In some states this team is called the
admission, review and dismissal (ARD) team.

Individual Intelligence Tests: Intelligence tests that are administered to a student one on one.
These tests are often part of the assessment process. Two common individual intelligence tests
are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Stanford Binet Intelligence
Scale.

Individualized Family Services Plan (IFSP): A written treatment plan that maps out the early
intervention services a child (age birth to his/her third birthday) will receive, as well as how and
when these services will be administered. It details a child’s current levels of functioning,
specific needs and goals for treatment (referred to as outcomes).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): A law that guarantees educational rights to
all students with disabilities and makes it illegal for school districts to refuse to educate a
student based on his or her disability.

Informed Consent: The signed consent of a parent that describes what the parent is consenting
to; informed consent must be obtained before a district assesses, makes a major revision to a
child’s program, continues, or stops service for a child’s disability.
Interventions: Sets of teaching procedures used by educators to help students who are
struggling with a skill or lesson succeed in the classroom. 

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): One of the measures used to determine eligibility for special
education services.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): The environment in which students with disabilities must
be educated, as mandated by The Individuals with disability Act (IDEA). Students with
disabilities must be educated in a classroom setting that is as close to the general education
setting as possible.

Modifications: Curricular adaptations that compensate for learners’ weaknesses by changing or

lowering expectations or standards.

Monitoring: A component of RTI process that involves assessing, keeping accurate records of
and monitoring student progress, responsiveness to instruction and intervention. The term is
also used for a state’s evaluation of each district’s compliance with mandates of IDEA and state
special education code.

Multidisciplinary Evaluation Team (MET or MDT): The name used for the group of trained
professionals that conduct eligibility and review assessments. These members are often the
same as the IEP Team, but the law does not define a MET or MDT, simply calls them a group of
qualified professionals.

Native Language: The first language of an individual. A school district is required to evaluate a

student in his or her native language, or document proficiency in English, before they can
identify that student as having a disability and provide special education services. In addition,
parents must be offered evaluation plans and individualized education plans (IEPs) in their
native language before giving informed consent.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The current reauthorization of President Lyndon Johnson’s

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), passed in 2001 and implemented in
2002, the purpose of which was to raise achievement and close achievement gaps.

Observational Records: Information about a child’s academic performance provided by anyone

who works with a child. Observational records are a common element of an assessment plan.  

Performance-Based Tests: Evaluations, such as the Woodcock Johnson, Third Edition (WJIII) or

the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT), that are used to help determine a child’s
eligibility for special education services.  

Positive Behavior Support (PBS): An approach to eliminate challenging behaviors and replace
them with pro-social skills.
Response to intervention (RTI): A process used by educators to help students who are
struggling with a skill or lesson. If a child does not respond to the initial interventions, more
focused interventions are used to help the child master the skill. RTI strategies address both
learning and behavior.

Scatter Plot: A form used in direct assessment to record disruptive behavior and show the
behavior’s frequency and the time of day at which it occurs.

Skill Evaluation: Diagnostic measures for determining a child’s gross motor skills, fine
manipulative skills and hearing, sight, speech and language abilities, administered by specialists
such as a school speech pathologist or general practitioner. A skills evaluation is a common
element of an assessment plan.

Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale: A norm-referenced individual intelligence test, administered

by the school psychologist or special education team. The questions are designed to help
educators differentiate between students performing below grade level because of cognitive
disabilities and those who do so for other reasons.

“Stay Put” Law: A law which states that a parent can request that a child remain in his or her
current educational placement while an IEP or offer of FAPE is in dispute.

Student Baseline: A student’s starting point, determined by data collected through universal
screening tools. A student’s baseline is used to measure his or her progress throughout the
year.

Student Study Team (SST): A more common term is Multidisciplinary Evaluation Team (MET or
MDT). It is a team comprised of the school psychologist, parents and the school’s special
education team that meets when a child continues to struggle after attempts have been made
to remedy problems without special education services. The SST or MET decides if the student
should be evaluated, or if he or she will continue without special education services.

Transition/Transition Plan: Transition is a general term used to describe a change in a student’s

school or program. A transition plan is specific to an IEP: a student who will turn 16 within the
life of his or her individualized education program must have a transition goal and plan that
outlines how he or she will transition to life beyond high school.

Transition Meeting: A meeting of the individualized education program (IEP) team prior to a
student moving into a new program or school.

Universal Design: An approach that makes a curriculum accessible to all students, regardless of
their backgrounds, learning styles and abilities. 

Universal Screening Tool: A test that can correctly identify students who are struggling with
grade-level concepts or skills. A universal screening tool is used as part of the RTI process.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): An individual intelligence test, usually
administered by the school psychologist, which measures a student’s intelligence in a variety of
areas, including linguistic and spatial intelligence. This is a norm-referenced test, meaning that
it has statistical validity and reliability for what it states it measures.

Widening Gap: The gap between what a child with a disability knows and what his or her peers
know, which widens as he or she advances to higher grades.

Woodcock Johnson, Third Edition (WJIII): A performance-based test commonly used to help to
determine a student’s eligibility for special education services.
UNIT 4
RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION

Response to Intervention (called Response to Instruction in CCSD) requires that high

quality instruction/intervention be matched to student need. Interventions must have proven
their effectiveness to produce high rates of student learning and be supported by scientific
research. RTI models use assessments that are directly related to instruction and proponents
believe that services for struggling students must focus on intervention, not eligibility. RTI
models propose a three-tiered process of student intervention:
Tier One: Primary intervention is high quality, research-based whole-group instruction and
some small group differentiated instruction combined with general screening processes.
Tier Two: Secondary intervention includes research-based small group or individual instruction
in specific areas of weakness.
Tier Three: Tertiary intervention is more intensive instruction and support through
individualized planning and programming.
There is a mandate implementation of the district’s Response to Instruction (Response
to Intervention; RTI) system in all schools. Over the past few years, a cross functional team
including both special education and general education personnel have worked together to
develop the district’s RTI process. This group has produced a manual on RTI called Response to
Instruction. A K-12 Multi-Tiered System of Support. A General Education Initiative. The manual
contains a thorough description of the model as well as examples, forms, lists of instructional
programs, and other useful information. In addition, the team, under the leadership of the
Psychological Services Department and the K-12 Literacy CPD, has produced online forms that
school personnel can use to complete the steps required in the RTI process.
 But because of lack of consistency in implementation of supplementary supports and
programs, it was not been as effective as it could be. In order to be effective, The district
should:
1. Mandate implementation of the RTI process at all schools.
2. Require monthly reports from schools related to their implementation of the RTI process,
including number of students considered by teams, number of students at each tier of
intervention, use of AIMSweb screening by teachers, and the progress in implementing core
and supplementary math and literacy curricula and programs at each school.
3. Examine data to evaluate academic progress at each school and determine if a relationship
exists between each school’s RTI progress and its achievement. Differentiate additional support
based on this data examination.
4. Continue to provide professional development on screening, progress monitoring, core
instruction, and supplementary supports and programs. CCSD should also provide professional
development on the RTI process for schools whose implementation is incomplete or ineffective.
 UNIT 5
CHILD STUDY TEAM

The child study team consists of school psychologists, school social workers, learning
disabilities teachers-consultants, and speech-language specialists. The team's primary function
is to evaluate and design appropriate programs for students who are experiencing learning,
health and/or behavioral difficulties. Some children may be eligible for special education.
School district child study teams are designed to be able to create and implement
structures for students to be as successful as possible. Every learner is different, and thus each
learner comes to school with a unique set of skills and needs. For some students, the
differentiated instruction that takes place in most classrooms today is enough to help them
learn and grow. For some students, however, there are underlying factors that make that same
success more difficult to achieve.
Students who are having difficulty in school may first be referred to the school-based
Intervention and Referral Services (I&RS) Team to find solutions to those difficulties. If the
school-based, general education efforts do not resolve the difficulty, the I&RS Team may make
a referral to the Child Study Team. The parent/guardian may also make a signed written request
for an evaluation. Such a request shall be considered a referral and should be sent to the
Director of Special Services or the Principal of the child’s school.
Each step of the way, parents are a part of the process. When a referral is made, a
meeting is arranged to review all available information with the parents/guardians, the Child
Study Team, the child’s teacher, and others who might have knowledge of the child and his or
her difficulty in school. A decision is then made whether or not the child potentially has an
educational disability. If there is agreement, the nature and scope of the evaluation is
discussed. Written parent consent is required for the Child Study Team to complete a
multidisciplinary evaluation in order to determine eligibility for special education and related
services.
If a student is determined to be eligible for special education and related services, an
Individualized Education Program (IEP) is developed. The IEP document is confidential and
private. The information contained in it may be shared only with other school officials with a
legitimate educational interest or may be released to other officials, subject to the exceptions
listed in the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act.
Placement options are considered with the least restrictive environment (LRE) being the
determining factor. While school districts are not required to “maximize” a student’s
opportunities, they are required to provide an “appropriate” education. The Child Study Team
has the responsibility of case managing for each student who receives special education
services. They are responsible for monitoring the student’s progress and placement throughout
the school year.
UNIT 6
MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM

According to IRIS Center multidisciplinary team is a group of individuals from multiple

disciplines who meet to pursue a common goal, such as evaluating student for placement in
special education or creating individualized education program for a student
In Clark County District School, the multidisciplinary team is responsible for evaluating
students with special needs to address the common challenges based from students behavior
and also to help achieve in their academe. When does the school give appropriate intervention
to the students? If a student is experiencing academic and/or behavioral difficulties, the school
staff should initially seek the assistance of the site based SIT. The SIT is a collaborative problem
solving approach
that addresses the needs of a student demonstrating difficulty in the general education
program. Members of SIT identify and clarify issues, select and implement appropriate
interventions and supports, and monitor student progress in the general education curriculum.
If ever there are instances where the student exhibits suicidal behavior. In this case the school
should receive immediate attention from site – based personnel. And this is when the
multidisciplinary team’s responsibility in addressing students behavior especially students with
disabilities. The multidisciplinary team also evaluate the behavior of the student if he/she
belong to the group of exceptionalities or eligible for special education and other services.
Nevada regulations provide that a student is eligible for special services and programs of
instruction based on Developmental Delay (DD) if the Multidisciplinary Team concludes that the
student demonstrates a delay of at least two standard deviations in one, or at least one
standard deviation in two or more, of the following areas:
• receptive or expressive language;
• cognitive abilities;
• gross or fine motor function;
• self-help;
• social or emotional condition.
A student may no longer be identified with a developmental delay if: (I) the student maintains
appropriate developmental functioning in all developmental areas for 6 months or more, and
the MDT, based on evaluation data, concludes that special education services are no longer
necessary; or (II) the student reaches age 6. For students who have DD classification and are
approaching the age of 6, the District should reevaluate to determine whether the student has
another disability that would require continuing special education services.

UNIT 7
ASSESSMENT OF ACAMEDIC ACHIEVEMENT

Achievement assessment is typically included in a full individual evaluation for any

student considered for special education services. Careful evaluation of academic strengths and
weaknesses can provide helpful information about academic and school success, as well as
significant insight into factors (both general and subject-specific) that are having an adverse
impact on academic achievement, including identification of learning gaps that have not
previously been noted.

Assessment tools below measure specific academic strengths and weaknesses through
an individually administered, standardized evaluation.  They measure what skills have been
learned in academic areas such as reading, math, written expression, and language.  The results
serve as a baseline to measure effectiveness of educational programs.

While there are hundreds of achievement tests, the following provide examples of the
more frequently administered instruments:

 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II)

- It is a test of reading and mathematics achievement that is suitable for individuals
age 4 and older. The WIAT-II evaluates both the correctness of the response and the
process by which the examinee arrived at the response, thus allowing for a more
accurate assessment of problem-solving skills than other achievement measures.
 The WIAT-II is also conformed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—
Fourth Edition (WISC-IV), which is the most commonly used test of intellectual and
cognitive functioning for children.

 Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Third Edition (WJ-III ACH)

- It is a widely used comprehensive system (i.e., hybrid battery) for measuring general
intellectual ability (or g), specific cognitive abilities, scholastic aptitude, oral
language, and academic achievement. These variables are measured through two
distinct batteries: The WJ III Tests of Cognitive Abilities and the WJ III Tests of
Achievement. The WJ III can be administered to any individual over the age of 2.
Because of its breadth and its assessment of achievement, the WJ III is often used to
diagnose learning disabilities, guide educational programs, assess growth, and
identify discrepancies between an individual’s levels of aptitude and achievement.

 Kauffman Test of Educational Achievement-Second Edition (KTEA-II)

- It provides a broad assessment of academic achievement. It can be administered in a
longer (five-subtest) comprehensive form or a brief (three-subtest) screening form
to students in first through twelfth grade. Both the comprehensive and brief
versions provide an assessment of key academic skills in reading, mathematics,
written language, and oral language

 The Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT4)

- It is designed to assess individuals between the ages of 5 and 75. The WRAT4
assesses the achievement of reading, spelling, and arithmetic skills
 UNIT 8
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Intellectual assessment and intelligence testing refer to the evaluation of an individual’s

general intellectual functioning and cognitive abilities. Furthermore, it is the estimation of a
student's current intellectual functioning through a performance of various tasks designed to
assess different types of reasoning.
Intelligence involves the ability to think, solve problems, analyze situations, and
understand social values, customs, and norms. It is sometimes referred to as the intelligence
quotient (IQ), cognitive functioning, intellectual ability, aptitude, thinking skills, and general
ability.
Two main forms of intelligence are involved in most intelligence assessments:
 Verbal Intelligence is the ability to comprehend and solve language-based problems.
 Nonverbal Intelligence is the ability to understand and solve visual and spatial problems.

Intellectual or cognitive abilities are typically assessed using a combination of standardized

tests and ecological measures.

Standardized and Norm-Referenced Tests

 The most common measures of intellectual ability are standardized, norm-referenced
intelligence tests, many of which yield a score where average performance is set at 100.
Standardized tests:
Intelligence tests or batteries are made up of a series of tasks or subtests that are
usually administered on an individual basis, although some group-administered tests are
available. These tasks, intended to provide samples of a person’s intelligence or cognitive
abilities, with each yielding a score, are referred to as standardized because each task is
presented to each examinee in the same or standardized way.
Norm-referenced tests:
To understand how the individual compares to others, the test scores are then
compared to the test’s norms. Norms are established when tests are first developed, using
large groups of individuals (often reflecting characteristics of the general population in terms of
age, gender, race/ethnicity, geographic region, and socioeconomic status) to determine the
range of typical performance.

Common intelligence tests

Commonly used norm referenced tests include the Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), Wechsler Intelligence for Children (WISC), Woodcock–Johnson
Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ), the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale (SB), the Differential
Abilities Scale (DAS), and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC). Assessments
should be conducted using the most recent edition of the test to ensure up-to-date test norms.
Ecological Assessment Procedures
In addition to formal intelligence tests, intellectual assessment often includes ecological
information—that is, information about the student’s environment and history, or the context
of the student’s learning and development. These procedures typically include a review of
educational records; observations of the child in different environments (such as classroom,
playground, gym); interviews with parents, teachers, and other professionals involved with the
student; developmental history; classroom work samples (reading assignments, class tests,
workbooks); and measures of adaptive behavior (the student’s degree of independence in
various situations).
Intelligence test scores can easily be misinterpreted if ecological information is
overlooked. However, there are many factors that could prevent an individual from
demonstrating optimal performance on a given test. These factors include illness, fatigue, poor
motivation, missed instruction due to frequent absences from school, frequent moves or school
changes, poor vision or hearing, inattention, or difficulties with the English language (a common
issue for immigrant students). Without evaluating the possible presence of these kinds of
influences, it is impossible to accurately interpret intelligence test score.

UNIT 10
ASSESSMENT OF PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES

Visual perception refers to the brain’s ability to make sense of what the eyes see. Good
visual perceptual skills are important for many every day skills such as reading, writing,
completing puzzles, cutting, drawing, completing math problems, dressing, finding your sock on
the bedroom floor as well as many other skills. Without the ability to complete these every day
tasks, a child’s self esteem can suffer and their academic and play performance is
compromised.
Children and young people aged 2 to 25 are suitable for a visual perception assessment.
Visual perception involves the interpretation and analysis of our environment, this is an
important skill in life as it helps to keep us safe. Individuals who may require a visual perception
assessment include those who have difficulties:
 Recognizing differences in size, color or shape
 Focusing on an individual word when reading
 Recognizing partial letters, numbers, shapes or objects
 Completing puzzles
 Remembering left and right
Children and young people who could require a visual perception assessment may appear
to be forgetful, clumsy or not listening.
 The specific assessments used will be chosen according to the individual and their needs.
These are some visual perception assessments you may use:
 Beery VMI - Beery-Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration measures
the ability to integrate motor and visual abilities, visual perception and motor co-
ordination
 WISC-V - Wechsler intelligence scale for children has a subtest related to visual spatial
abilities
 DTVP-3 - Developmental test of visual perception measures; hand-eye co-ordination,
copying, figure search, visual closure, form constancy
 DTVP-A - Developmental test of visual perception - adolescent and adult can be used
from age 11 and provides scores related to; general visual perception, motor-reduced
visual perception, visual-motor integration
 NEPSY - A developmental neuropsychological assessment can be used to measure
visuospatial processing
 WPPSI-IV - Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence has a subtest which
looks at visual spatial abilities

UNIT 11
ASSESSMENT OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE SKILLS

A speech and language assessment procedure was developed to study different aspects
of speech and language skills in children 6.5 years old who had needed intensive care in the
neonatal period. It varies according to what area of skills are being assessed. A speech
assessment would involve the speech and language therapist assessing a child’s ability to
produce a range of sounds, where as a receptive language assessment looks at a child’s ability
to understand spoken language. Assessments can be carried out formally through the use of
several structured activities, or informally through play. This would vary according to the child’s
abilities, needs and attention skills.
During the initial assessment, the speech therapist may use informal or formal tests, or
he could use a combination of both. Formal tests are simply standardized tests. An SLP
conducting an informal test will appear to simply be chatting or playing with the child. In
actuality, he’s evaluating how the child articulates words, puts sentences together, and
processes questions.
During informal tests, your child may be asked to point to certain pictures. For example,
he may be asked to point to “the monkeys eating bananas.” This tests your child’s receptive
language skills. If your child points to a picture of a sole monkey instead of a group of monkeys,
he may have trouble comprehending language. Your child’s speech therapist will also pay
attention to his voice quality. The SLP will make a note of whether the voice sounds hoarse;
he’ll also check for nasality, resonance, and the flow of speech. He will likely do a physical exam
of the palate, tongue, and lips. He’ll assess how well your child moves his tongue and lips. Your
child may be asked to make the “aahh” sound.
The speech therapist may also use formal tests. For example, the Monroe Sherman test,
which takes about 30 minutes to complete. It covers word discrimination, reading
comprehension, and speed of reading. The results of standardized tests are given in percentiles.
This indicates what range your child is in: above average, average, or below average (as
compared to your child’s peers taking the same test). 
Informal assessments are devised by the speech therapist and are much more flexible
than formal assessments as they can assess a child's speech, language and communication in
different environments and in ways to suit them. For some children, informal assessments may
benefit them as they are allowed the best opportunity to achieve what they are most able.
They are very specific to your child but do not allow an objective view on where the child is in
comparison to their peers.

UNIT 12
EARLY INTERVENTION AND EARLY CHILDHOOD ASSESSMENTS

Early childhood assessment is a tool used to gather and provide educators, parents, and
families with critical information about a child’s development and growth. Furthermore, it is
process of gathering information about a child, reviewing the information, and then using the
information to plan educational activities that are at a level the child can understand and is able
to learn from.
In the current early childhood education milieu, there are four primary reasons for
assessment (Shepard et al., 1998):

 Assessment to support learning,

 Assessment for identification of special needs,
 Assessment for program evaluation and monitoring trends, and
 Assessment for school accountability.
Early assessment and intervention is important when it comes to providing effective
provision for needs, and early years settings are the ideal place to achieve this.
Methods of child assessment can be informal (conducting natural observations, collecting
data and children’s work for portfolios, using educator and teacher ratings) and formal (using
assessment tools such as questionnaires and standardized testing). Both methods are effective
and can help inform educators and parents about a child’s progress.
 Observations can be made with minimal or no intrusion into children’s activities.
Educators can observe all facets of development, including intellectual, linguistic, social-
emotional, and physical development, on a regular basis.
 Portfolios are a record of data that is collected through the work children have produced
over a period of time. The collection clearly shows the progress of a child’s
development. Portfolios can be an important tool in helping facilitate a partnership
between teachers and parents.
 Educator Ratings are useful in assessing children’s cognitive and language abilities as
well as their social-emotional development. These ratings can be linked to other
methods of assessment, such as standardized testing or other assessment tools. (See
the next question below.)
 Parent Ratings integrate parents into the assessment process. Parents who are
encouraged to observe and listen to their child can help detect and target important
milestones and behaviors in their child’s development.
 Standardized Tests are tests created to fit a set of testing standards. These tests are
administered and scored in a standard manner and are often used to assess the
performance of children in a program

After early childhood assessment, early intervention will follow. Early intervention is the
term used to describe the services and supports that are available to babies and young
children with developmental delays and disabilities and their families. This may include
speech therapy, physical therapy, and other types of services based on the needs of the
child and family. It can have a significant impact on a child’s ability to learn new skills and
overcome challenges and can increase success in school and life. Programs are available in
every state and territory. These publicly funded programs provide services for free or at
reduced cost for any child who is eligible.
 UNIT 13
Assessment for Diverse Populations

Assessment includes the use of various techniques to make an evaluation; assessment

foe diverse population like multicultural assessment refers to the cultural context in which the
assessment is conducted, namely one in which people of differing cultures interact. One can
argue that all assessments are conducted and interpreted within some cultural context, but
only recently have the cultural assumptions underlying such assessments been acknowledged
(Sue & Sue, 1990). Measures to assess personality, cognitive abilities, interests, and other
psychological constructs have been utilized in a variety of different counseling and education
settings.
Here are some suggestions for Improving an assessment for diverse population:
1. Concentrate on empirical and operational definitions of groups, not just labels. Sedlacek (in
press, b) has suggested that if members of a group receive prejudice and present their abilities
in nontraditional ways, they can be considered “multicultural.” He suggested the use of
measures of racial attitudes and noncognitive variables in making this determination.
2. Identify measures specifically designed for multicultural groups. Sabnani and Ponterotto
(1992) provided a critique of “racial/ethnic minority-specific” instruments and made
recommendations for their use in different assessment contexts. Prediger (1993), in a
compilation of multicultural assessment standards for counselors developed for the American
Counseling Association, recommended that a determination be made that the assessment
instrument was designed for use with a particular population before it is used.
3. Encourage the consideration of cultural factors in the earliest conceptual stages of
instrument development. Helms (1992) called this a “culturalist perspective” in assessment.
Sedlacek noted a lack of developmental multicultural thinking as new instruments are
developed. Multicultural groups are usually “throw ins” after the fact to see how their test
results compare with those of the population on which the test was normed. He called this the
“Horizontal Research” problem in developing assessment measures.
4. Increase opportunities for an exchange of information between those with quantitative
training in instrument development and those with an interest and expertise in multicultural
issues. Currently there is little overlap in these two groups. Helms (1992) felt it was important
not to assume that there are enough professionals of color to do this work. Many individuals
from majority racial and cultural groups will need to develop such measures as well.
Conventions, workshops, coauthored articles, and curricular reform in graduate programs are
but a few examples of what could be done.

UNIT 14
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA AND PROCEDURES

The special education process determines whether or not your child is eligible for special
education service, and if so, what special education service(s) are appropriate for your child.
Students determined eligible for special education services must meet all three of the following
criteria:
 The student must have a disability or disabilities.
 The student's disability/disabilities adversely affect educational performance.
 The student’s unique needs cannot be addressed through education in general
education classes alone – with or without individual accommodations and requires
specially designed instruction (SDI).

Eligibility is based on a comprehensive initial evaluation. A comprehensive initial

evaluation includes all of the existing data gathered about the student through the referral
process and any additional assessments needed to determine whether a student is eligible for
special education. The initial evaluation report is used to determine what special education and
related services the student needs.
An assessment involves gathering information about your child to determine whether your
child has a disability, if he or she is eligible, and the nature and extent of special education
services that your child may need. Assessment procedures might include observation of the
child in classroom and real-life settings, standardized tests, review of school records, interviews,
conferences, and a review of steps already taken to help the child. The specific procedures used
will depend on the child's suspected disability. No single assessment procedure is to serve as
the sole means of determining eligibility for special education. Parents have the right to
participate in the development of an assessment plan and are encouraged to do so.

If you disagree with the school's assessment of your child, you may obtain an
independent educational assessment of your child. Upon your request, the school must give
you information about how to obtain this independent assessment by a qualified examiner who
is not employed by the district. You have the right to request that the district pay for the
independent educational assessment of your child. Whenever the district pays for an
independent educational assessment, the criteria under which the assessment is obtained,
including the location of the assessment and the qualifications of the examiner, must be the
same criteria used by the district when it initiates an assessment.

The district may initiate a due process hearing to show its assessment was proper. If the
final
decision of the hearing officer is that the district's assessment was proper, you still have the
right to an independent educational assessment, but you will be required to pay for that
assessment. If you obtain an independent educational assessment at your own expense, the
results of the assessment must be considered by the district in any decision made concerning
your child's education, and may be presented as evidence at a due process hearing regarding
your child.
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