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Advanced Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Engineers:

Asymptotic Methods and Perturbation Theory

Book · January 1999

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-3069-2

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Carl M. Bender Steven A. Orszag

Advanced Mathematical
Methods for Scientists and
Engineers I
Asymptotic Methods
and Perturbation Theory

With 148 Figures

Springer
 CONTENTSt

Preface xiii

PART I

FUNDAMENTALS

1 Ordinary Differential Equations 3

(E) 1.1 Ordinary Differential Equations 3
(definitions; introductory examples)

(E) 1.2 Initial Value and Boundary Value Problems

- - 5
(definitions; comparison of local and global analysis; examples of initial-
value problems)
(TE) 1.3 Theory of Homogeneous Linear Equations 7
(linear dependence and independence; Wronskians; well-posed and ill-pokd
initial-value and boundary-value problems)
(E) 1.4 Solutions of Homogeneous Linear Equations 11
(how to solve constant-coefficient, equidimensional, and exact equations;
reduction of order)
(E) 1.5 Inhomogeneous Linear Equations 14
(first-order equations; variation of parameters; Green's functions; delta
function; reduction of order; method of undetermined coefficients)

(E) 1.6 First Order Nonlinear Differential Equations

- 20
(methods for solving Bernoulli, Riccati, and exact equations; factoring;
integrating factors; substitutions)

(1) 1.7 Higher Order Nonlinear Differential Equations

- 24
(methods to reduce the order of autonomous, equidimensional,
and scale-invariant equations)

t Each section is labeled according to difficulty: (E) = easy, (I) intermediate, (D) difficult.
A section labeled (T) indicates that the material has a theoretical rather than an applied emphasis.

vil
 viii CONTENTS

(E) 1.8 Eigenvalue Problems 27

(examples of eigenvalue problems an finite and infinite domains)

(TE) 1.9 Differential Equations in the Complex Plane 29

(comparison of real and complex differential equations)

Problems for Chapter 1 30

2 Difference Equations 36
(E) 2.1 The Calculus of Differences 36
(definitions; parallels between derivatives and differentes, integrals, and sums)

(E) 2.2 Elementary Difference Equations 37

(examples of simple linear and nonlinear difference equations; gamma
function; general first-order linear homogeneous and inhomogeneous
equations)

(I) 2.3 Homogeneous Linear Difference Equations 40

(constant-coefficient equations; linear dependence and independence;
Wronskians; initial-value and boundary-value problems; reduction of order;
Euler equations; generating functions; eigenvalue problems)

(1) 2.4 Inhomogeneous Linear Difference Equations 49

(variation of parameters; reduction of order; method of undeterrnined
coefficients)

(E) 2.5 Nonlinear Difference Equations 53

(elementary examples)
Problems for Chapter 2 53

PART II

LOCAL ANALYSIS

3 Approximate Solution of Linear Differential Equations 61

(E) 3.1 Classification of Singular Points of Homogeneous Linear Equations 62
(ordinary, regular singular, and irregular singular points; survey of the
possible kinds of behaviors of solutions)

(E) 3.2 Local Behavior Near Ordinary Points of Homogeneous Linear

Equations 66
(Taylor series solution of first and second order equations; Airy equation)
- -

(1) 3.3 Local Series Expansions About Regular Singular Points of

Homogeneous Linear Equations 68
( methods of Fuchs and Frobenius; modified Bessel equation)

(E) 3.4 Local Behavior at Irregular Singular Points of Homogeneous

Linear Equations 76
(failure of Taylor and Frobenius series; asymptotic relations; controlling
factor and leading behavior; method of dominant balance; asymptotic
series expansion of solutions at irregular singular points)
 CONTENTS ix

(E) 3.5 Irregular Singular Point at Infinity 88

(theory of asymptotic power series; optimal asymptotic approximation;
behavior of modified Sessel, parabolic cylinder, and Airy functions for
large positive x)

(E) 3.6 Local Analysis of Inhomogeneous Linear Equations 103

(illustrative examples)
(TI) 3.7 Asymptotic Relations 107
(asymptotic relations for oscillatory functions; Airy functions and Bessel
functions; asymptotic relations in the complex plane; Stokes phenomenon;
subdominance)
(TD) 3.8 Asymptotic Series 118
(formal theory of asymptotic power series; Stieltjes series and integrals;
optimal asymptotic approximations; error estimates; outline of a rigorous
theory of the asymptotic behavior of solutions to differential equations)
Problems for Chapter 3 136

4 Approximate Solution of Nonlinear Differential Equations 146

(E) 4.1 Spontaneous Singularities 146
(comparison of the behaviors of solutions to linear and nonlinear equations)

(E) 4.2 Approximate Solutions of First-Order Nonlinear Differential

Equations 148
(several examples analyzed in depth)

(1 ) 4.3 Approximate Solutions to Higher-Order Nonlinear Differential

Equations 152
(Thomas Fermi equatierr; first Painleve transcendent; other examples)
-

1 4.4 Nonlinear Autonomous Systems 171

( )
(phase-space interpretation; classification of critical points; one- and
two-dimensional phase space)

(1) 4.5 Higher Order Nonlinear Autonomous Systems

- 185
(brief, nontechnical survey of properties of higher-order systems; periodic,
almost periodic, and random behavior; Toda lattice, Lorenz mode!, and
other systems)
Problems for Chapter 4 196

5 Approximate Solution of Difference Equations 205

(E) 5.1 Introductory Comments 205

(comparison of the behavior of differential and difference equations)
(1 )
5.2 Ordinary and Regular Singular Points of Linear Difference
Equations 206
(classification of n = w as an ordinary, a regular singular, or an irregular
singular point; Taylor and Frobenius series at co)

(E) 5.3 Local Behavior Near an Irregular Singular Point at Infinity:

Determination of Controlling Factors 214
(three general methods)
 x CONTENTS

(E) 5.4 Asymptotic Behavior of n! as n --+ oo : The Stirling Series 218

[asymptotic behavior of the gamma function 1 (x) as x oc obtained from
-

the difference equations r(x + 1) = xr(x)]

(I) 5.5 Local Behavior Near an Irregular Singular Point at lnfinity:

Full Asymptotic Series 227
(Bessel functions of large order; Legendre polynomials of large degree)

(E) 5.6 Local Behavior of Nonlinear Difference Equations 233

( Newton's method and other nonlinear difference equations; statistical
analysis of an unstable difference equation)

Problems for Chapter 5 240

6 Asymptotic Expansion of Integrals 247

(E) 6.1 Introduction 247
(integral representations of solutions to difference and differential equations)
(E) 6.2 Elementary Examples 249
(incomplete gamma function; exponential integral; other examples)

(E) 6.3 Integration by Parts 252

(many examples including some where the method fails)

(E) 6.4 Laplace's Method and Watson's Lemma 261

(modified Bessel, parabolic cylinder, and gamma functions; many other
illustrative examples)

(1) 6.5 Method of Stationary Phase 276

(leading behavior of Integrals with rapidly oscillating integrands)

(I) 6.6 Method of Steepest Descents 280

(steepest ascent and descent paths in the complex plane; saddle points;
Stokes phenomenon)

(1) 6.7 Asymptotic Evaluation of Sums 302

(approximation of sums by integrals; Laplace's method for sums;
Euler-Maclaurin sum formula)

Problems for Chapter 6 306

PART III

PERTURBATION METHODS
7 Perturbation Series 319
(E) 7.1 Perturbation Theory 319
(elementary introduction; application to polynomial equations and initial-
value problems for differential equations)

(E) 7.2 Regular and Singular Perturbation Theory 324

(classification of perturbation problems as regular or singular;
introductory examples of boundary-layer, WKB, and multiple-scale problems)

(1) 7.3 Perturbation Methods for Linear Eigenvalue Problems 330

(Rayleigh-Schrödinger perturbation theory)
 CONTENTS xi

(D) 7.4 Asymptotic Matching 335

( matched asymptotic expansions; applications to differential equations,
eigenvalue problems and integrals)

(TD) 7.5 Mathematical Structure of Perturbative Eigenvalue Problems 350

(singularity structure of eigenvalues as functions of complex perturbing
parameter; level crossing)

Problems for Chapter 7 361

8 Summation of Series 368

(E) 8.1 Improvement of Convergence 368
(Shanks transformation; Richardson extrapolation; Riemann zeta function)

(E) 8.2 Summation of Divergent Series 379

(Euler, Borel, and generalized Borel summation)

(I) 8.3 Pade Summation 383

(one- and two-point Pack summation; generalized Shanks transformation;
many numerical examples)

(1) 8.4 Continued Fractions and Pade Approximants 395

(efficient methods for obtaining and evaluating Pade approximants)

(TD) 8.5 Convergence of Pade Approximants 400

(asymptotic analysis of the rate of convergence of Pade approximants)
(TD) 8.6 Pade Sequences for Stieltjes Functions 405
(monotonicity; convergence theory; moment problem; Carleman's condition)
Problems for Chapter 8 410

PART IV

GLOBAL ANALYSIS

9 Boundary Layer Theory 417

(E) 9.1 lntroduction to Boundary-Layer Theory 419
(linear and nonlinear examples)

(E) 9.2 Mathematical Structure of Boundary Layers:

Inner, Outer, and Intermediate Limits 426
(formal boundary layer theory)
-

(E) 9.3 Higher-Order Boundary Layer Theory 431

(uniformly valid global approximants to a simple boundary-value problem)

(I) 9.4 Distinguished Limits and Boundary Layers of Thickness e 435

(three illustrative examples)

(I) 9.5 Miscellaneous Examples of Linear Boundary-Layer Problems 446

(third and fourth order differential equations; nested boundary layers)
- -

(D) 9.6 Internal Boundary Layers 455

(four cases including some for which boundary-layer theory falls)
 Xii CONTENTS

1 9.7 Nonlinear Boundary-Layer Problems 463

( )

(a problem of Carrier; limit cycle of the Rayleigh oscillator)

Problems for Chapter 9 479

10 WKB Theory 484

10.1 The Exponential Approximation for Dissipative and Dispersive
Phenomena 484
(formal WKB expansion; relation to boundary layer theory)-

10.2 Conditions for Validity of the WKB Approximation 493

(geometrical and physical optics)
10.3 Patched Asvmototic Approximations: WKB Solution of
Inhomogeneous Linear Equations 497
(WKB approximations to Green's functions)

10.4 Matched Asymptotic Approximations: Solution of the

One-Turning-Point Problem 504
(connection formula; Langer's solution; normalization methods)
10.5 Two Turning Point Problems: Eigenvalue Condition
- - 519
(approximate eigenvalues of Schrödinger equations)
10.6 Tunneling 524
(reflection and transmission of waves through potential barriers)
10.7 Brief Discussion of Higher Order WKB Approximations
- 534
(second-order solution of one-turning-point problems; quantization condition
to all orders)
Problems for Chapter 10 539

11 Multiple Scale Analysis

- 544
11.1 Resonance and Secular Behavior 544
(nonuniform convergence of regular perturbation expansions)
11.2 Multiple Scale Analysis
- 549
(formal theory; Duffing equation)
11.3 Examples of Multiple Scale Analysis
- 551
(damped oscillator; approach to a limit cycle; recovery of WKB and
boundary layer approximations)
11.4 The Mathieu Equation and Stability 560
(Floquet theory; stability boundaries of the Mathieu equation)
Problems for Chapter 11 566

Appendix—Useful Formulas 569

References 577

Index 581

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