Module Revision

Dr Jun Ren

Revision methodology

• Basic concepts, principles

– Definition (s).
– Philosophies, Principles, roadmaps…
• Methods and techniques
– Assumptions
– Formula (s)
– analysis
• Applications
– Examples
– Case studies

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 Outline
1. Total Quality management
2. Quality Cost
3. FMEA
4. SPC
5. Six Sigma
6. QFD
7. Quality Gurus

Part 1: Definitions of Quality

• In conformance with user requirements (Crosby)

• Fitness for use (Juran)
• The totality of features and characteristics of a product of
service that bear upon its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs. (ISO)
• The total composite product and service characteristics of
marketing, engineering, manufacture and maintenance
through which the product and service in use will meet the
expectation by the customer. (Feigenbaum)

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 Basic elements of TQM

•Systems eg. ISO 9001:2000,

People
ISO14000

•People eg. employees, suppliers,

Teamwork and Improvement and
communications commitment
Stakeholders & customers -all stakeholders
Customers

•Techniques e.g. Statistical Process

Techniques Systems
Training and Control (SPC), Failure Modes and
understanding

Effects Analysis (FMEA), Quality

Figure 3. The Dimensions of TQM
Source: Kehoe (1996) Function Deployment (QFD)

Part 2: Nature of quality cost

• Quality cost is not an exact cost, rather, it is a performance

measure.

• Quality cost is used to measure a company’s health.

• Facilitate Quality Improvements that leads to operating

cost reduction opportunities.

• These costs are often as high as 15% to 35% of sales

• Other costs like hidden cost: opportunity from lost sales

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 Two set of Quality Costs

• Control costs

– Prevention costs
– Appraisal costs

• Failure costs

– Internal failure costs

– External failure costs

Quality-Productivity Ratio (QPR)

Includes productivity & quality costs

Increases
if processing or rework costs decrease
if process yield increases

G o o d q u a lity u n its
QPR = (1 0 0 )
(in p u t)(p ro c . c o s t) + (d e f. u n its )(re w o rk c o s t)

5:28 8

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 Part 3 FMEA: What is FMEA?

• FMEA is a systematic process for identifying potential design

and process failures before they occur, with the intent to
eliminate them or minimize the risk associated with them. It is
a popular tool for analyzing the reliability and failure modes of
both products and services.

Key: The greatest concern must be on the causes

which occur often, result in serious side effects
and are undetectable.

Benefits of FMEA?

• Improve product/process reliability and quality

• Increase customer satisfaction
• Early identification and elimination of potential
product/process failure modes
• Emphasizes problem prevention
• Prioritize product/process deficiencies
• Capture engineering/organization knowledge
• Documents risk and actions taken to reduce risk
• Provide focus for improved testing and development
• Minimizes late changes and associated cost

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 Part 4: What is SPC?

Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a statistical procedure using

control charts to see if any part of a production process is

not functioning properly and could cause poor quality.

In TQC, operators use SPC to inspect and measure the

production process to see if it is varying from what it is

supposed to be doing.

What types of data can be measured?

• FITNESS (Variations); How to measure variations? SPC uses

VARIABLE and ATTRIBUTE data to inspect and measure
production process.

• Variables – Use INTERVAL measures:

– Length, breadth, height,weight, time, etc.

• Attributes – Pre-defined quality features (colour, smell, taste)

– Attributes Pass or Fail

– Attributes good or bad

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What is “in Control”?

• There are no sample points outside the control limits.

• Most points are near the process average (i.e. Centre line),

without too many close to the control limits.

• Approximately equal numbers of sample points occur above

and below the centre line

• The points appear to be randomly distributed around the

centre line(I.e., no discernible pattern)

What is “out of control”?

• Any point outside the control limits is OUT OF CONTROL

• The following non-random patterns also indicate a process is out of

statistical control

– A run of 7 intervals between points going up or down (7UD)

– A run of 7 points above or below the average (7AB Av)

– Significantly less than 2/3 of points in the middle 1/3 of the

area between control limits (2/3 1/3)

– A cyclical pattern (Cyc)

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 P-chart
P-chart uses the proportion defective items in a sample to
monitor production process.

− Total _ defectives Z= the number of

p=
Total _ sample _ observations standard deviations
from the process
average
− −
− p × (1 − p ) P-bar =the sample
UCL = p + z × proportion defective
n
N=sample size
− − UCL=upper control limit
− p × (1 − p ) LCL=lower control limit
LCL = p − z ×
n

c-Chart

UCL = c + zσc
σc = c
LCL = c - zσc

where
c = number of defects per sample

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 R- Chart

UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

∑R
R= k
where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples

x-bar Chart

x1 + x2 + ... xk
x= = k
= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where
=
x = average of sample means

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 Process Capability

• Tolerances

– design specifications reflecting product requirements

• Process capability

– range of natural variability in a process what we measure

with control charts

Process Capability

Process Capability

Design
Specifications

(a) Natural variation

exceeds design
specifications; process is
not capable of meeting
specifications all the time.

Process
Design
Specifications

(b) Design specifications and

natural variation the same;
process is capable of
meeting specifications most
of the time.

Process
Process Capability

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 Process Capability (cont.)

Design
Specifications

(c) Design specifications

greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications

(d) Specifications greater

than natural variation, but
process off center; capable
but some output will not
meet upper specification.

Process

Process Capability

Process Capability Measures

Process Capability Ratio

tolerance range
Cp =
process range
upper specification limit -
lower specification limit
= 6σ
σ

Process Capability

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 Part 5: What is “Six Sigma”?
Three level Definitions:

• A Statistical Measure of Performance

• A Rigorous Analytical Approach for:

– Process Variation Reduction
– Complex Problem Solving
– Waste Reduction

• A Philosophy That Higher Quality Results In

– Increased Efficiency
– Business Excellence
– Enhanced Customer Satisfaction

Six Sigma Essential Themes

• A genuine focus on the customer, backed by an attitude that
puts the customer’s needs first, as well as by systems and
strategies that serve to tie in the manufacturing to the
‘Voice of the Customer’.

• Data - and fact - driven management, with effective

measurement systems that track both results and outcomes
and Process, Input, and other predictive factors.

• Process focus, management and improvement, as an engine

for growth and success.
– Processes in Six Sigma are documented, communicated,
measured and refined on an ongoing basis.
– They are also designed and redesigned at intervals, to
stay current with customer and business needs

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 Six Sigma Essential Themes

• Proactive management, involving habits and practices that

anticipate problems and changes, apply facts and data, and
questions assumptions about goals and ‘how we do things’.

• Full collaboration, featuring cooperation between internal

groups and with customers and vendors.

• A drive for perfection and yet a tolerance for failure, that

gives people in Six Sigma organization the freedom to test
new approaches even while managing risks and learning from
mistakes, thereby ‘raising the bar’ of performance and
customer satisfaction.

Who is Involved in Six Sigma?

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 DMAIC – The Improvement Methodology

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control

Objective: Objective: Objective: Objective: Objective:
DEFINE the MEASURE current ANALYZE the root IMPROVE the CONTROL the
opportunity performance causes of problems process to process sustain the
(project) (process) (data) eliminate root gains.
causes

Key Define Tools: Key Measure Key Analyze Key Improve Key Control
• Cost of Poor Tools: Tools: Tools: Tools:
Quality (COPQ) • Critical to Quality • Histograms, • Solution Selection • Control Charts
• Voice of the Requirements Boxplots, Multi- Matrix • Contingency
Customer (VOC) (CTQs) Vari Charts, etc. • To-Be Process and/or Action
• Project Charter • Sample Plan • Hypothesis Tests Map(s) Plan(s)
• As-Is Process • Capability • Regression
Map(s) Analysis Analysis
• Primary Metric • Failure Modes
(Y) and Effect
Analysis (FMEA)

Part 6: QFD - Defined

A quality assurance tool for organizations aimed at locating

customer needs and transcending those needs into

product/service production stages, ensuring that customer

needs are delivered in the end.

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 Purpose of QFD

• Translate consumer’s voice into technical design

requirements

• Determine & prioritize customer needs

• Translate customer needs to product design parameters

• Coordinate efforts and skills of an organization

from a project’s inception to its completion

• Ensure customer expectations

• Avoid manufacturing catastrophe

House of Quality
Importance

Trade-off matrix

3
Design
characteristics

1 4 2

Customer Relationship Competitive

requirements matrix assessment

6 Target values

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 Completed
House of Quality

SS = Silverstone
MG = Mirorrglide
T = Titanium

A Series of Connected QFD Houses

Product
characteristics
requirements
Customer

Part characteristics
A-1
characteristics
Product

Process
House A-2 characteristics
of
characteristics

quality
Parts
Part

Operations
A-3
deployment
characteristics
Process

Process A-4
planning

Operating
requirements

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 House of Quality Summary

• Inputs:
– Customer requirements
– Technical requirements
– Customer priorities
– Market reality / competitive analysis
– Organization’s strengths & weaknesses
• Outputs
– Prioritized technical requirements
– Measurable, testable goals

Benefits of QFD

• Promotes better understanding of customer demands

• Promotes better understanding of design interactions

• Involves manufacturing in design process

• Breaks down barriers between functions and departments

• Provides documentation of design process

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Part 7: What is Quality Guru

A guru, by definition, is a good person, a wise person and a

teacher. A quality guru should be all of these, plus have

a concept and approach to quality within business that

has made a major and lasting impact.

Quality Gurus

• W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993)

• Philip Crosby (1926-2001 )

• Joseph M. Juran (1904- )

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