Rock Deformation

Chapter 11
Does not contain complete lecture notes.

Structural geology
Structural geologists study the
architecture and processes responsible
for deformation of Earth’s crust
A working knowledge of rock structures
is essential to our modern way of life

Deformation
Deformation is a general term that refers
to all changes in the original form and/or
size of a rock body
Most crustal deformation occurs along
plate margins
Deformation involves
• Force – that which tends to put stationary
objects in motion or changes the motions
of moving objects

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 Deformation
Deformation involves
• Stress - force applied to a given area
• Types of stress
– Compressional stress – shortens a rock
body
– Tensional stress – tends to elongate or pull
apart a rock unit
– Shear stress – produces a motion similar
to slippage that occurs between individual
playing cards when the top of the stack is
moved relative to the bottom

Deformation
Strain – changes in the shape or size of a
rock body caused by stress
How rocks deform
• Rocks subjected to stresses greater than
their own strength begin to deform
usually by folding, flowing, or fracturing

Deformation
How rocks deform
• General characteristics of rock
deformation
– Elastic deformation – the rock returns to
nearly its original size and shape when the
stress is removed
– Once the elastic limit (strength) of a rock is
surpassed, it either flows (ductile
deformation) or fractures (brittle
deformation)

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 Deformation
How rocks deform
• General characteristics of rock
deformation
– Factors that influence the strength of a rock
and how it will deform
– Temperature
– Confining pressure
– Rock type
– Time

Mapping geologic structures

When conducting a study of a region, a
geologist identifies and describes the
dominant rock structures
• Usually only a limited number of outcrops
(sites where bedrock is exposed at the
surface) are available
• Work is aided by advances in aerial
photography, satellite imagery and Global
Positioning Systems (GPS)

Mapping geologic structures

Describing and mapping the orientation
or attitude of a rock layer or fault surface
involves determining the features
• Strike (trend)
– The compass direction of the line produced
by the intersection of an inclined rock layer
or fault with a horizontal plane
– Generally expressed an an angle relative to
north

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 Mapping geologic structures
• Dip (inclination)
– The angle of inclination of the surface of a
rock unit or fault measured from a horizontal
plane
– Includes both an of inclination and a
direction toward which the rock is inclined

Folds
During crustal deformation rocks are
often bent into a series of wave-like
undulations called folds
Characteristics of folds
• Most folds result from compressional
stresses which shorten and thicken the
crust

Folds
Characteristics of folds
• Parts of a fold
– Limbs – refers to the two sides of a fold
– Axis – a line drawn down the points of
maximum curvature of each layer
– Axial plane – an imaginary surface that
divides a fold symmetrically

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 Folds
Common types of folds
• Anticline – upfolded or arched rock layers
• Syncline – downfolds or troughs of rock
layers
• Depending on their orientation, anticlines
and synclines can be described as
– Symmetrical, asymmetrical, recumbent (an
overturned fold), or plunging

Folds
Common types of folds
• Monoclines – large, step-like folds in
otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata
Other types of folds
• Dome
– Upwarped displacement of rocks
– Circular or slightly elongated structure
– Oldest rocks in center, younger rocks on the
flanks

Folds
Other types of folds
• Basin
– Circular or slightly elongated structure
– Downwarped displacement of rocks
– Youngest rocks are found near the center,
oldest rocks on the flanks

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 Faults
Faults are fractures in rocks along which
appreciable displacement has taken place
Sudden movements along faults are the
cause of most earthquakes
Classified by their relative movement
which can be
• Horizontal, vertical, or oblique

Faults
Types of faults
• Dip-slip faults
– Movement is mainly parallel to the dip of the
fault surface
– May produce long, low cliffs called fault
scarps
– Parts of a dip-slip fault include the hanging
wall (rock surface above the fault) and the
footwall (rock surface below the fault)

Faults
• Types of dip-slip faults
– Normal fault
– Hanging wall block moves down relative
to the footwall block
– Accommodate lengthening or extension of
the crust
– Most are small with displacements of a
meter or so
– Larger scale normal faults are associated
with structures called fault-block
mountains

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 Faults
• Types of dip-slip faults
– Reverse and thrust faults
– Hanging wall block moves up relative to
the footwall block
– Reverse faults have dips greater than 45o
and thrust faults have dips less then 45o
– Accommodate shortening of the crust
– Strong compressional forces

Faults
Strike-slip fault
• Dominant displacement is horizontal and
parallel to the strike of the fault
• Types of strike-slip faults
– Right-lateral – as you face the fault, the block
on the opposite side of the fault moves to the
right
– Left-lateral – as you face the fault, the block
on the opposite side of the fault moves to the
left

Fault
Strike-slip fault
• Transform fault
– Large strike-slip fault that cuts through the
lithosphere
– Accommodates motion between two large
crustal plates

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 Joints
Joints are among the most common rock
structure
Technically, a joint is a fracture with no
movement
Most occur in roughly parallel groups
Significance of joints
• Chemical weathering tends to be
concentrated along joints

Joints
Significance of joints
• Many important mineral deposits are
emplaced along joint systems
• Highly jointed rocks often represent a risk
to construction projects